Immunology

Lecture 1
Introduction to Immunology
What is Immunology
• Immunology is very important branch of the medical and biological
sciences that deals with the study of physical, chemical and
physiological features, and components of the immune system.
• The word immunity was derived from the Latin word “immunis” that
means “exempt”. The main aim of immunology is to preserve the
health of humans and animals by preventing various diseases.
History
• Our knowledge of immunology has grown noticeably since Edward
Jenner pioneered the concept of vaccines including creating the
smallpox vaccines in the 18th Century due to which he is often called
the “father of immunology”.
• The field of Immunology has developed by leaps and bounds over the
last 50 years through the incorporation of modern technologies and
concepts in cell and molecular biology, genetics, genomics, and
proteomics. Persistent work by numerous scientists all over the world
has resulted into vast body of knowledge on various mechanisms of
immunity.
Host-pathogens-Interaction
• Symbiosis: An individual’s or animal’s skin and mucous membranes
generate an environment for microorganisms to interact with the body. This
interaction between the host and the organism is referred to as symbiosis.
There are three forms of symbiotic relationships that can occur at an
anatomical level.
•Mutualism: In mutualism, both the microorganism and the body work
together. An example of this relationship would be cows and the bacteria in
their rumen. Bacterial cellulose facilitates digestion in the animal, while the
bacteria benefit from nutrients in the rumen.
•Commensalism: In commensalism, either the body or the microorganism
benefits, while the other is not affected by the interaction. Examples of this
include microorganisms that make up the normal flora. These organisms
thrive on secretions and dead cells, but do not affect the host.
•Parasitism: In parasitism, one organism benefits at the expense of the other.
For example, parasites use the gastrointestinal tract of a human or animal as
an environment in which to reproduce.
What is Pathogens
• Pathogens are microscopic organisms
that cause disease (Each attacks in a specific way)
• Viruses, Bacteria, Fungi, Parasites, and Protozoans

• Other environmental substances

challenge
the lymphatic system
• Environmental pathogens (poison ivy, etc)
• Toxins (not metals – joint transplants)
• Abnormal body cells such as cancers
 What is infection
• Infection is the invasion of body tissues by disease-causing agents, their
multiplication, and the reaction of host-tissues to the infectious agents
and the toxins they produce.
• Infectious disease, also known as transmissible disease or
communicable disease, is illness resulting from an infection. Hosts can
fight infections using their immune system.
• Mammalian hosts react to infections with an innate response, often
involving inflammation, followed by an adaptive response.
Steps of infection
Entry of the parasite into the host
• Portals of entry include:
a- The most frequent is the
respiratory tract (mouth and nose).
b- Penetration of intact skin or
mucous membranes, through skin
cuts or introduced by injections or
arthropods bite.
c- GIT (Gastrointestinal tract).
d- Genitourinary tract
1. Adhesion to cells
Many bacteria for infection of certain cells of the body, for example, intestinal epithelium
should attach to them. It was found that a large number of host cell
molecules, in particular, and the receptors of bacteria (proteins of the outer bacterial
membrane) are involved in this process.

2. Invasiveness
Some virulent bacteria produce proteins that destroy cell membranes or stimulate
phagocytosis of host cells. These virulence factors allow bacteria to enter the host's body
through the layers of cells that come in contact with the pathogen, whether they are cells of
the outer covers of plants or animals or layers of epithelium of internal organs.
3. Colonization is the process of
multiplication of microbes at the site of adhesion. Colonization provides the
accumulation of microorganisms to such a critical concentration that can cause a
pathological effect.

4. Suppression of the immune response

Many bacteria release virulence factors that inhibit the body's immune system.
For example, bacteria secrete proteins that attach to host antibodies. Another
type of substance that inhibits the immune response is the polysaccharide
capsule surrounding the cell. These polysaccharides complicate phagocytosis of
bacteria by specialized cells of the immune system (macrophages) and
lymphocytes.

5. Toxins
Many virulence factors are proteins that the pathogen produces and then
secretes into the environment and which causes damage to the host tissues. For
example, with food poisoning it is the toxins that cause the symptoms of the
disease.
• Whether a given infection will result in a disease or not & whether
the resultant disease will be severe (fatal), moderately severe or mild
is determined by the interaction between:
1) Microbial factors: Pathogenicity & Virulence.
2) Host resistance factors (Immunity).
Factors affecting Invasiveness
1- Capsule & surface components that protect the bacteria from
phagocytosis, such as polysaccharide capsule, polypeptide capsule or
M protein
2- Resistance to digestion: some m.o. are invasive, although they are
ingested by leukocytes, as they resist the digestion or the enzymatic
attack and so are able to survive within the phagocytic cells e.g.
tubercle bacilli.
3- Pili: Facilitate adhesion and colonization.
4- Extracellular enzymes (Spreading Factors): “Spreading Factors" is a
family of bacterial enzymes that affect the physical properties of tissue
matrices and intercellular spaces, promoting the spread of the pathogen.
e.g.
• Hyaluronidase: breaks down hyaluronic acid; the extracellular material
of connective tissues.
• Collagenase: produced by Clostridium perfringens. It breaks down
collagen, the framework of muscles, which facilitates gas gangrene due
to these organisms.
• Deoxyribonuclease: breaks down DNA of the host.
• Haemolysin: Causes lysis of host RBCs.
Toxigenicity Examples of microorganisms producing exotoxins are: -
Clostridium botulinum, Cl. tetani, Cl. perfringens - Vibrio cholerae