Executive Training Programme

in Leather Garments

Course Material

Centre for Leather Apparel & Accessories Development (CLAD)

Central Leather Research Institute
Adyar, Chennai
 CONTENTS

1. Unit operations in Leather processing 3

2. Assortment of finished leather 16

3. Introduction to Leather garment industry 23

4. Material needs for Leather garments 28

5. Selection of leathers for garments 31

6. Functions of each unit in Leather 37

garment industry

7. Pattern designing 42

8. Pattern grading 55

9. Garment cutting 77

10. Machinery requirement 84

11. Production & quality control 89

12. Methods of chemical testing of leathers 94

2
CHAPTER 1

3
 UNIT OPERATIONS IN LEATHER PROCESSING

Raw Material Selection


Soaking

Liming

Deliming

Bating

Depickling  Pickling  Chrome tanning


Veg. tanning


E.I. Leathers Wet Blue


Stripping & souring  Retanning

Dyeing &
Fatliquoring

Finishing


FINISHED LEATHERS

4
 PHYSICAL TESTING REQUIREMENTS

Clothing Glove
Max ash (%) 2 2

Min, chrome (% Cr2O3) 2.5 2.5

Fatty substances (%) 4 – 10 4 – 10

Max. loss by washing - -

Min, tensile strength (kgf/cm2) 100 100

Elongation at break (%) Max: 60 Min: 50

Min. stitch tear strength (kgf / cm) 25 60

Min, split tear strength (kgf / cm) 15 25

Water vapour permeability 250 -

(mg / cm2) min

REQUIREMENTS OF GARMENT LEATIERS

Chrome tanned Aluntan Oil tanned

Clothing Glove Glove Chamois
Tensile strength (min) 100 100 100 350

% Elongation at break (max) 60 50 50 90

Stitch tear (min) 25 60 40 -

Split tear (min) 15 25 25 10

% water absorption (min) - - - -

5
% Cr2O3 (min) 2.5 2.5- - -

% Al2O3 (min) - - 2.0 2.0

% Fat 4-10 4-10 Max 10.0 Max 35.0

Mechanical Operations:

- Glazing
- Plating
- Printing
- Roller coating
- Finiflex
- Ironing
- Spraying

In the case of vegetable tanned leathers, they are

stuffed with solid fats, oils and waxes.
Dyeing:

 Dyes are used to give colour to the substance

 The types of dyes used vary with the kind of leathers produced and
nature of leathers.

Drying: Setting Sammying

- moisture - even grain - reduces water content

Splitting Shaving Buffing (flesh) shuffling (grain)

-thickness (coarse) -thickness (fine)

6
FINISHING
Resin Glaze
(Aniline)
(Protein)

Chrome Tanning:

 Produces soft, light leathers

 Resistant to wet heat
 Imparts good physical strength
 >90% of leathers are chrome tanned

Tanning:

 treatment with Basic Chromium sulphate

 fixing the tanning salt
 period of tanning is 4 – 6 hrs.
 chrome and other mineral tannages (Aluminium, Zirconium etc.)
are carried out at low pH initially.

Combination tannages:

 two or more tanning agent to gain advantages of the

individual tannages.
 Chrome retan – retanning chrome leathers with vegetable tannins
 Semi chrome – vegetable tanned leathers are tanned with Basic
chromium sulphate
 Semi alum is also practised nowadays

7
Bleaching of chrome leathers
1. Removal of some surface chromium

2. Application of white surface tannins

3. Bleaching and bluing of the colour of leather

1. Use of oxalic acid, sod. oxalate or EDTA and its salts for removal of
chromium (2% agent is used)

2. Use of white syntans of good light fastness and tanning properties. (10 –
20% of a liquid product for 1 hr)

3. Use of sod. Sulphite / bisulphite / this for neutralisation produces bleached

leathers. Further neutralisation is necessary since H2SO3 is formed.

100% Water
2% Oxalic acid
10% Light fast white liquid syntan – 1hr washing twice;
neutralisation to pH 6.0
100% Water 650C
3% Synthetic fatliquor
1% Tio2
0.25% Optical bleach
5.0% White Talcum powder (5 m) 1 hr

8
POST TANNING PROCESS

*Operations carried out after tanning

Vegetable tanned (EI Leather)

Wet Blue

- Rechroming - Stripping
- Neutralisation - Souring
- Retanning - Chrome tanning
- Dyeing - Neutralisation
- Fatliquoring - Fatliquoring
- Finishing - Finishing

Neutralisation:

 removal of excess acid from mineral tanned leathers

 removal of neutral salts by washing

Retanning:

 synthetic tanning agents to impart special properties

Fatliquoring:

 natural & synthetic oils in the form of emulsion are applied

 Imparts softness, flexibility by lubricating the fibres.

9
 Subsequent Operations on Shaved Weight

Neutralisation

The functions of neutralisation are

* Removal of neutral salts and uncombined chromium salts

Washing
* Neutralisation of free acids (formed by the hydrolysis of
chrome complexes)
Treatment with
alkaline salts,
* To control the affinity of leather for anionic materials
syntans etc.
(dyes, fatliquors etc).

1. Washing
400 – 600 % Water 30’, Drain
400% Water 15’, Drain
400% Water 15, Drain

2. Neutralisation

* Presence of free acid makes the surface cationic & poor in

strength

* Anionic auxiliaries (dyes & syntans) tend to fix vigorously on to

the surface

* Treatment with alkali alone may cause change in the chrome

complex and also hardening of the surface

* Use of colourless anionic syntans, organic buffering and

masking agents reduce the amount of alkali

The extent of neutralisation varies with the type of leather produced.

10
 pH pH
Classical uppers Softie uppers
Grain 6.0 – 6.5 5.5
Middle 3.6 – 3.8 5.0 – 4.5
Flesh 6.0 – 6.5 5.5

100% Water

1-2% Agent added in portions drum for 30 –60’

400% Water 15’ Drain

400% Water at higher temp 15’ Drain

Neutralising Agents

Borax - Suitable for surface neutralisation

Sod. Bicarb - Widely used on all type of leathers

Amm. Bicarb - Expensive, mild; used when very level dyeing

is desired sod.sulphite, bisulphite and thio
sulphate – produces white, bleached leathers;
also combines with cr.

Masking salts - HCOONA, (H COO)2 Ca, Sod.acetate

Neutral syntans - Naphthalene SO3H + buffer salts to reduce

affinity of leather

11
Retanning

* To fill looser and softer parts of leather – uniform physical

properties and better cutting value

* To produce unlined footwear

* To assist in paste drying – retanned leathers are more

hydrophilic, better area yield

* To assist in the production of corrected grain leathers – fills the

grain, in improved penetration of dyes, fatliquors

* For the production of crust leathers, which are subsequently

processed to different types of finished leathers.

Retanning agents
Basic chromium salts – soft leathers – high quality grain and
suede leathers Basic aluminium salts – pole coloured soft leathers –
bright colour shades – suedes Basic zirconium salts – white leathers
– good scuff resistance – tanning at low pH with masking salts (citric-
lactic) – fixing at pH 6.0 vegetable tannins – dry crust leathers –
condensed tannins such as wattle, mimosa synthetic tannins –
auxiliary, combination and neutral syntans are used at the
commencement of retannage – retannage after dyeing for better
depth in colour.

Resin tanning agents – based on area, HCHO melamine and other

amino resins & acrylic resins expensive, well – filled leather without
loss of chrome character.

12
Light Retannage Dt Calf, Kid, sides
Neutralise to pH 4.5 to 5.5

Retan: 70% Water at 60oC

1% Sulphited sperm oil subst.
3% Syntan
3% Mimosa / wattle extract
3% Resin retanning agent
Drum 1hr, rinse

Retannage of suede leather

Retan: 50% Water at 50oC

5% Chrome extract, 50% basicity
5% Basic aluminium chloride
1% Cationic fatliquor
Drum 1 – 2 hrs; file O/N

DYE HOUSE OPERATIONS

Sorting
* Accurate sorting for substance, grain quality etc.

Samming

* Leathers passed thro’ a roller squeezing m/c

* Pressure rollers are covered with woven felt sleeves to absorb

water

* Final water content in leather is 60%

13
Splitting & Shaving

* Levelling of thickness between butt and neck; shoulder and flanks

* Band knife splitting m/c are used
* Leathers are split 0.2mm above the required thickness
* Final adjustment in thickness is achieved by shaving.
* Heavy & thick (hides) leathers are split while skins are shaved

Dyeing

* To meet the fashion requirements

* Large – scale production of white backed leathers shifted the
colouring process to finishing department
* Choice of dye stuff depends on the type of leathers and dyeing
specification

Direct dye stuffs

* Primarily cotton dyes – surface dyeing

* Precipitated by acid
* Some are sensitive to hard water

Acid dye stuffs

* Originally designed for wool dyeing

* Require addition of acid to exhaust the dye bath (HCOOH)
* Level dyeing than direct dyes
* Resistant to hard water

Pre metallised dye stuffs

14
 * Metal complex dyes – medium & pastel shades
* Extensively used in aniline leathers
Basic dye stuffs

* No affinity for full chrome but for retanned (vegetable ) leathers

* Poor fastness to light

FAT LIQUROING
Aim of fatliquoring

* To coat the fibres with oil which reduces the friction coefficient
between the fibres

* To impart more water – resistance to leather

Mode of attachment
By ionic or polar bonds

Mode of Introduction

1. Direct (oil tannage, stuffing)

2. Water – in – oil emulsion
3. Oil – in – water emulsion
4. Solution (impregnation)

Distribution of Fat in Leather

During bending external layers have to shrink and extend

extensively while the middle layer is not affected.

Unequal thickness in different parts of leather over fatting

causes fat spans

15
CHAPTER 2

16
 Assortment of Finished Leathers
Leather industry produces a variety of leathers such as upper, sole, lining,
suede garment, grain garment, glove, industrial and sports goods leathers,
The assessment of the leather quality is based on various types of testing and
analysis which differ for different types of leathers.
These tests are
a. visual
b. physical
c. chemical
d. microscopical and
e. bacteriological examination.

These test requirements are governed by biparty, national or

international specifications.

Though often cumbersome and at times even controversial, the human

assessment of leather has served the industry for a very long time. Even
properties of leather such as drape, softness, smoothness, tightness etc, are
assessed only visually and by the touch and feel by human sorters at present.
In case computer controlled processes get popular with the industry, more
critical and instrument aided evaluation techniques will have to be adopted.
Electronic scanning devices, photoacoustic spectro – meters, ultrasonic
based instruments for non-destructive testing etc. may find applications in
evolving new, more vigorous evaluation techniques.

Before discussing the assortment procedures for hides and skins and
finished leathers based on selection it is relevant to understand and identify
the defects in hides and skins as they would be the most important criteria
for the purpose.

17
 As by-products of meat industry, no special attention is normally
bestowed to improve the quality of hides and skins and hence a tannery has
to make the best use of the available raw material by sorting them out into
various categories depending upon the post & ante mortal defects, structural
and surface characteristics, size, thickness, general appearance of the
hide/skin etc. The hides and skins show variations over the area as well as in
different species and origins.

Some of the ante-mortem defects are:

1. Defects due to parasitic diseases such as warble hole, tick marks,
mange mites, lice.
2. Defects due to viral disease like pock marks caused by pox viruses,
dermatitis.
3. Defects due to bacterial diseases such as abscess.
4. Defects due to fungal diseases such as ringworm,
5. Mechanical damages such as brand mark, goat mark scratches, horn
rakes, rub marks, yoke marks, etc.

Some of the post-mortem defects are:

1. Flaying defects
2. Curing and storage defects like hair slip, red heat, salt stippen, salt
stain, metallic stains, grain damage, insect damage, vulture marks, etc.

Selection of raw hides and skins in the trade is cumbersome process and
is done mostly by visual inspection even today because it reveals various
surface defects preset in them. Though this type of selection reveals various
defects to a certain extent, it is not altogether possible to detect all the

18
defects present in hides and skins and the quality of the grain at the raw
stage. Hence a tanner always faces a major problem in the selection of
proper quality raw material for a particular type of leather. This compels the
tanner to resort to selection at various stages of processing such as after
liming, pickling, tanning and at the crust stage.

The hides and skins are classified into different categories according to
their weights and are graded on the basis of their quality. The quality
gradation takes place according to prescribed norms. Variations, how-ever,
exist in these norms in different countries. Unfortunately, no uniform
grading system exists in India today. Gradation according to weight, size and
quality are made by the individual raw hide/skin dealer and the buyer has to
accept the same. Often hides/skins are sold as assorted lots. Some tanners
resort to their own grading of hides and skins, procured from small traders,
as per their requirements. All these practices result in considerable hardship
to many of the tanners and particularly in small scale sector.

Bureau of Indian Standards is doing its best to frame guidelines relating

to the gradation of hides/skins. As per IS guidelines bovine hides, calf skins,
goat and sheep skins are classified into four grades, viz. Grade 1. Grade 2,
grade 3 and grade 4.

The factors of grading of hides and skins are hair, substance and defects
such as deep flay cuts or holes various grain damages caused by parasitic,
viral and helminthic diseases, brand mark, putrefaction etc. Skins/hides free
from all defects and blemishes are classified as primes or I quality, those
having one or two minor defects are classified as Grade 2 and the rest as

19
Grade 3 and Grade 4 which are normally called rejections and double
rejections respectively in the trade.

Goat and sheep skins are generally classified according to their length
(inches) from the tail root to the back of the nack into the following
categories;
Lambs Below 28”
Light 28 to 31”
Medium 32 to 35”
Heavy 36 to 39”
Extra heavy 40” and above

The E.I. skins and kip tannage are classified as “premium”, “semi-
premium”, and “market quality”. The first two classes originate from
individual tanning houses and the market quality goods are selected by the
merchants in leather markets/trade houses from the production of number of
small tanning units. Market quality leather materials vary in colour
according to the local tanning methods adopted. The E.I. skins and kips are
selected and marketed as:
i. Run: seconds and thirds and fourths quality

ii. Fifths (V)

iii. Inferior fifths (IF)

iv. Rejections

The selections in E.I. goat skins will be as found in Table

20
 Run selection Extra Heavy Heavy Medium Light
Fifths 40 50 40 60

IF (Inferior Fifths) 20 15 15 20

Rejections 25 15 25 10

The wet blue leathers are sorted into usually 3 categories, the first
containing the probable ABC grade, second containing the DEF grade, third
containing GH grade.

The quality of finished leathers depends on that of hides and skins,

chemicals and auxiliaries employed, the process control adopted and the
equipment and machinery used. Thus the quality control starts from
selection and utilization of good quality raw material for a particular type of
leather.
The assessment of finished leathers, selection and grading for
commercial purposes is still done mostly by visual inspections and of course
subject to verifications of measurable factors like thickness. Visual
assessment is made regarding the actual realisable cutting value obtainable
from each piece and the possible losses in wastage. The gradation also takes
into account the type of raw material involved, finishing employed (resin or
protein finish) and the end uses of the leathers. For example in the case of
cow based leathers, for resin uppers we have the following grades based on
selection: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th; and for dyed lining leathers, though we have
the gradation 1-7, the selection of starting material, namely wet blue or EI
leathers would have been from 5th to 7th grades.

In the case of sheep grain garment leathers, we have aniline nappa,

resin nappa selection. The best quality i.e, 1&2 grades would go for aniline
or waxy nappa though after finishing in the both the cases, we may have 1st
– 3rd as first grade and 4th – 6th as C,D grade and rest of the leathers are
graded as superior rejections. In the case of suede garment leathers, flesh
side selection alone is considered and usually there are two gradations
namely A, B. C (primes) and C, D (secondary suedes).

21
 It is hoped that newer techniques like ultrasonic imaging will help in
better detection of defects although practical application of such techniques
on commercial scale has to be looked into.

Sorting of Area measured leathers

In area measured leathers the usable area related to whole area
determines the assortment and thus the market price. Pinned roller
measuring machines or electronic measuring machines does measuring of
size. The official unit of measure is square meters (m 2) or square decimeters
(dm2). In some countries square feet (sqf) are still in use, with figures given
to within1/4 sqf. Sole leathers are marketed by weight.

Leather defects and defects of fabrication are assessed:

Leather defects Defects of

Loose substance in the shanks, strong
appearance of veins, grain defects,
natural creases, fat creases, growth
marks or ingrown creases in the
shoulder region holes caused by insects
or beetles, cracked, blind or open grain.
fabrication
Thin section due to cuts or gouges,
uneven dyeing, cloudy or inadequate
coating of the finish, very loose
grain, drawn or wrinkled grain,
crankiness of grain, defects caused
by buffing shaving or splitting.

General classification of area measured leathers:

Size I = Min. useful area 80%

Size II = Min. useful area 65%
Size III = Min. useful area 50%
Size IV = Min. useful 25%
Size V = Rejects

22
CHAPTER 3

23
 INTRODUCTION to Leather garment industry

Garment industry is the second most important of the leather products sector. A
relatively new entrant into the global trade, leather garment is highly material intensive. It
is also one of the sectors of the leather industry whose export performance in the last 5
years has been very striking.

The low capital investment in terms of machinery for setting up a leather garment

unit, the convenience of locating it as a light industry and the fact that it does not require

a license due to its status as a small-scale unit are all responsible for the growth of this

sector. The Government has exempted the garment sector from excise duty as there is no

domestic demand for this product.

India’s strength in various types of raw materials is of importance. High labour

intensive nature makes it ideally suited to the Indian situation. Some of the accessories

and components required for this industry are not available in India and hence these are

being imported and due to the recent liberalisation policy, this too has become easier.

Manufacture of leather garments in India is confined to select centres. Major

centres are Bangalore, Madras, Delhi, Hyderabad, Dewas, Calcutta etc.

The country has a total production capacity of nearly 300,000. The break up of

production capacities in different locations of the country at present is as follows:

S.No. Centre Pcs. per month

1. Delhi 60,000
2. Madras 1,00,000
3. Bangalore 35,000
4. Hyderabad 15,000
5. Bombay 10,000

24
 6. Pune 5,000
7. Calcutta 25,000
8. Jallandhar 10,000
9. Kanpur 5,000
10. Dewas 10,000
11. Others 10,000
Total 2,85,000

The leather garments produced in the country are predominantly exported, except
for some negligible quantity that may be sold in the domestic market.

The speciality of global trade in leather garment is that producers are not
consumers and consumers are not producers. Leather garments production is
concentrated in the Asian region. South Korea is the largest exporter of leather garments
in the world. The other important exporters are Turkey, China, India and Pakistan. Trends
indicate that global trade is expected to grow substantially. It is becoming increasingly a
fashion item as well as utility item in the West. The major importing countries and value
of their imports are presented in the following table.

MAJOR IMPORTERS

Country Value of Imports % Share

(in million US $)

USA 1804 28

Germany 1146 18

Japan 944 15

25
 France 376 6

UK 296 5

World 6392 100

Currently China is the largest producer and exporter of leather garments in the
world. The other major players in the world market of leather garments are Turkey, Italy,
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Yugoslavia, etc. Hong Kong is also important but most of
this is re-exported.

Leather garments are retailed through independent retailers, leather speciality

stores, departmental stores, mail order houses and supermarkets. Except for some
departmental stores and mail order houses that may import garments directly, wholesalers
play a major role in import of leather garments in most countries. Such importers provide
the manufacturers with a good deal of inputs in the shape of designs, patterns, colour
predictions etc.

Fashion styling and design and development are in its infancy in India. The Indian
leather garment units merely function as “jobbers” for the western market. Following the
footsteps of development of the footwear sector, the garment industry must make efforts
towards indigenous development of designs and styles.

It should be also realised that at present the leather garment production has export
prospects mainly for low priced wastern markets. A proper attention in the areas of
styling, design & development and quality production techniques would definitely
enhance further value addition to this exotic commodity.

26
27
 A typical process flow chart for manufacture of leather garments is given below

FLOW CHART FOR LEATHER GARMENT PRODUCTION

INSPECTION & Pattern Designing

SELECTION OF RAW MATERIAL

ASSORTMENT
Sample Making
MATCHING

MARKING

Pattern Grading
Lining cutting CUTTING

FUSING

ASSEMBLY &
Wadding STITCHING

BUTTONING

THREAD
CUTTING

TRIMMING

FINISHING

INSPECTION

PACKING

SHIPPING
27
CHAPTER 4

28
 Material needs for Leather garments

A brief list of materials needed for leather garment manufacture

is given below

1. Accessories
* Waddings
* Fusible
lining
* Sponge
* Zips
* Threads
* Elastic
* Buttons
* Glue

2. Leathers
* Goat
Nappa
* Sheep
Nappa
* Cow Nappa

3. Linings
* Cotton
* Silk
* Synthetic
Materials

Pictorial representation of material needs for leather garments

is given below

29
30
CHAPTER 5

31
 Selection of leather for garments

The characteristics and properties of garment leather are 1. Drape, 2. Softness, 3.

Nap (in the case of suede garment leather), 4. Surface smoothness, 5. Lightness in
weight, 6. Light fastness, 7. Wet & dry rub fastness, 8. Fastness to washing, 9. Fastness to
dry cleaning, 10. Perspiration resistance, 11. Uniformity in shade, 12. Dye penetration,
13. Shower proof ness, 14. Stitch tear resistance and 15. Tongue tear resistance.

Classification

Garment leathers can be broadly classified into three categories. Viz., Fur
Garment Leather, Grain Garment Leather (Nappa) and Suede Garment Leather.

Fur Garment Leather is generally made from sheep skins with fine wool.
Among Fur Garment Leather, there are two types viz., Hair-on Leather and Double-face
Fur skin leather. In the case of Hair-on, emphasis is given only on Hair/Fur side, special
technique is followed to treat the fur-for softness, lustre, shade, etc. In this case only one
side can be used i.e. Fur side, whereas in the case of Double-face, both sides can be used
i.e. Fur side and Flesh side. On the flesh side, a fine “nap” is raised and dyed in the
desired shade and fur is also dressed. In this cases, dyeing can be done either fur side
alone or flesh side alone or on both sides by using special types of dyes. This category of
garment leathers are not made as much in India as the fine fur bearing sheep are not
available in India. To some extent, somewhat fine hair/wool sheep skins are available in
cold regions like Punjab and Kashmir.

Grain Garment Leather is finished on the grain side either in Glaze Finish or in
Resin Finish. They are usually made from Red hair sheep skins or wool sheep skins.
Sometimes they are also made from goat skins, cow calf, skins, buff calf skins and cow
hides. But the quality will differ from species to species.

32
 Suede Garment Leathers are finished on the flesh side by raising “nap” and
dyed in desired shades. These leathers are usually made from hair sheep & wool sheep
skins. Also they are made from goat skins by shaving off the grain.

Raw material for manufacture

Normally red hair sheep skins and goat skins are preferred for suede leather
and wool sheep skins for grain clothing leather. Wool sheep skins have a smoother
grain and drape as well. They are also used for suedes of the cheaper variety. However,
they yield a loose nap as evidenced by the wrinkles produced when the leather is folded
flesh side in.

The percentage of tick damaged skins appears to be greater among sheep skins
than in the case of goats. The latter are also economically priced but this is to some
extent, compensated for by the greater area yield of sheep. The dyeing in the case of goat
skins is more uniform and the undertone cleaner.

One method of differentiating wool sheep from red hair sheep is by checking on
the structure of the lower most hips of the butt areas on both sides of the skin. In the case
of the former, those portions are found to be loose and the grain is found moving almost
independently of the corium when the leather is rolled between the fingers.

Yet another feature of the wool sheep is its somewhat coarse necm distinctly
displaying a tendency towards fattiness. In general, the wool skin is softer and looser as
compared to the red hair variety which resembles almost a goat skin except for its softer
and smoother grain. The wool sheep skin has in addition looser flanks.

33
The most important quality requirements for garment leather:

Requirements
Tests
Finished grain leather Aniline, nubuk and suede
leather
Rub fastness Rub cycles Rub cycles
 Test felt dry 50 20
 Test felt wet 20 10
 With perspiration 20 10
solution staining of
the felt – grey scale not below rating not below rating 3
3
Light fastness Min. rating 4 Min rating 3
Flexing endurance Min. 50000 -
Adhesion of finish Min 2.0 N cm -
Split tear strength Min. 200 N cm Min. 150 n cm
Tensile strength 1200 N cm 2 1200 N cm2
Stitch tear strength Min 25 da N cm Min 25 da N cm
Elongation at break Max 60% Max 60%
Wettability 15 minutes 10 minutes
Resistance to dry cleaning No stripping of the finish No change of handle
and no change of handle after cleaning and
after cleaning fatliquoring. Change of
and fatliquoring colour < rating 3-4:
change of colour <rating change of area <=3%
3-4: area
<=3%
Washability No change of leather handle after washing drying and light

staking;

Change of colour <rating 3 of the grey scale (rating 4 is

recommended); change of area <=3%
pH value Min. pH 3.5 of the extract
Ash content Max.2% (after deduction of tanning oxides)
Chrome oxide content Min 2.5% Cr2O3
Fat content 4-10% fatty substances

34
Garment Nappa Leather

Term: The term “nappa” is a collective name for all types of soft. Elastic
grain leather. The original nappa leather was manufactured from alum tanned
glove leather by retanning with gambler extract and chrome alum, but later by
modern, efficient tanning methods. The thickness of leather are 0.6 – 1.0mm
depending on use.

Raw stock: Small skins of all provenance’s, cattle and horse hides, pig
skins, calf skin and red deer skins, which are processed from rawstock, wet blue
or crust. Grain skivers of sheep and lamb skins are also used for garment
leathers. However due to their low strength properties they have to be glued with
stretch materials. Manufacture of the formerly widely used East Indian skins, i.e.
vegetable tanned goat, hair sheep and lamb skins, has decreased to a minimum.

Requirements of production: Today’s garment grain leathers are mainly

chrome-tanned and retanned with lightfast retanning agents, where possible.
Chamois tannage is preferred for wild skins (deer, roe, chamois, elk). It is
important that good softness and a low area weight of the leathers be achieved
to get as close as possible to the soft quality of textiles. Only thin finishes. Which
are fast to rubbing. Should be applied if an elegant appearance is desired. The
leather is often dry shaved to increase softness and homogeneous strength. As
garment leathers are thin they must have an adequate firmness of texture.

Garment suede leather

Term: A short-fibre or long-fibre plush character is achieved on the flesh

side by repeated buffing. Depending on the fatliquoring method it is possible to
obtain a dry velvety velour or also a semimatt velour with all intermediate stages.

35
 Raw stock: Same as that used for the production of grain leathers.
Besides lamb skins, goat and calf skins are preferred on account of their denser
fibre texture and good strength properties.

Requirements of production: Besides softness it is important that the

dyeing of these leathers be fast to dry and wet rubbing. Garment leather smuts
never be buffed after dyeing, but after intermediate drying to remove residues of
dye powder. Moreover the dyeing should be very lightfast and fast to cleaning,
To avoid increased wettability the leathers should receive a final water-repellent
finish.

Suede leather for trousers

Term: Leather trousers are also manufactured in less expensive variants
from cow-hide grain splits and lower splits of dense texture by means of chrome
tannge and moderate retannage.

Requirements of production: The leathers are buffed after intermediate

drying dyeing is performed as penetration dyeing or as spray dyeing, less
frequently as brush dyeing, the reverse side mostly having a yellowish shade
similar to that of chamois leather.

36
CHAPTER 6

37
 Functions of each unit in Leather garment industry

Leather garment production unit consists of

1. Pattern making division

2. Cutting Division
3. Inner Lining Division
4. Tailoring Division
5. Finishing Division

Other Important Work sections are

* Pasting / Preparation
* Inspection / Quality control
* Packaging & Storing
* Raw material selection and procurement

Pattern making division

* Observing the model

* Basic block construction
* Draft/construction pattern
* Adding seam allowance
* Adding notches
* Final pattern
* Production pattern
* Grading
* Follow up & problem solving

38
Cutting Division
* Material inputs
Nappa / suede leathers from
Sheep
Goat
Cow
* Proper selection of raw
material
* Assorting
- COLOUR
- Grain Pattern
- Gloss – Finish
- Size
- Defect
* Visual
* Functional
Lighting source to simulate day-night is pre-requisite for assorting

* Cutting
- Using
patterns  Route card is attached
- Size – Wise
- Storing

39
 Pasting / Preparation
* Fusible linings are fixed by Hand / machine ironing
* Size – wise storing in bundles for movement to Tailoring Division
* All stitched ends are flat folded, pasted and hammered
* Other intermediate pasting and some other small works are also
attended.

Inner Lining Division

* Raw material inputs
are
- Cotton
- Silk
Synthetic materials

* Cutting
- Making multi layers by folding
- Chalk marking by placing patterns
- Cutting size – wise
Cloth cutting machines are use
(disc knife / vertical knife)
* Storing (Intermediate)
* Stitching
- Pockets in lining cover
- Size cable attaching
- Complete inner lining
* Storing
Size – wise in cartons

40
Tailoring Division
* Initial joining
* Stitching of panels and flanks
* Decorative stitching
* Elastic stitching
* Collar stitching
* Zip stitching
* Pocket stitching (with lining)
* Final assembly of outer coat with
inner lining
* Intermediate inspection for quality
control

Finishing Division
* Buttons fixing
* Rivets fixing
* Other fashionable accessories fitting
* Cleaning
* Final Finishing
* Final inspection before packing
* Proper storing
* Packing for shipment

41
CHAPTER 7

42
 Pattern Designing

Preamble
The most satisfactory garment is one that has been specifically fitted
to the individual who wears it. Fitting a garment is a time consuming art.
Traditionally there have been two major methods of producing a specifically
fitted garment patterns namely draping and drafting

Draping is the process of forming a cloth pattern directly on the body

or body substitute. The fabric is smoothed over the body, shaping near
bulges by the insertion of fitting devices for example darts, gathers, and
seams. Designing, fitting and pattern making are accomplished
simultaneously.

Drafting is the process of producing a pattern from a set of body

dimensions. Body dimensions are generally obtained by measuring lengths
and girths directly on the surface of the body with a tape measure and/or a
hand held anthropometer

Draping is the most accurate method of producing a specifically fitted

pattern. The primary disadvantage of draping is cost. It is expensive in both
human and material resources. Drafting is the more mechanistic approach to
pattern making. The use of formulae in drafting patterns reduces both level
of training required by the pattern maker, and the amount of time needed to
produce a pattern. The major disadvantage of drafting is that no drafting

43
system consistently produces patterns that fit as well as those that have been
produced by draping.

Combining these two methods to arrive at an optimum method of

pattern cutting is the prime requirement. The pattern making procedure
followed in this course manual gives distinct advantages of the above two
methods by a systematic approach

Prior to leather garment pattern designing

 Observe the style (sketch/sample) carefully

 Note down all the details; this should help you to know where to start
 Practice ‘Style reading’ from magazine clippings of various types of
garments
 If possible draw a working sketch indicating details. Also note down
the important points for construction

Instructions to follow when outlining a model

Observing the model

 This is a very important step before beginning the construction
 Observe the model carefully and make a detailed description of
volume, type of collar, pleats, sleeves, details, topstitching, etc

Construction

 Outline necessary basic block

 Make necessary enlargements according to desired volume.

44
  Mark button placements, determine cross-over value.
 Outline lines corresponding to model: seams, yokes, pockets,
pleats, etc.
 Assemble front and back with darts closed. Place pattern on the
dummy. This will help to indicate if volumes are correct. Make
changes if necessary.
 Place pattern on cutting table; construct collar, sleeve, pleats,
lining, etc.

Notches

Notches are necessary when the model is being

assembled. Their position varies according to the model.

Some important places where notches are present

 Set-in sleeve (see basic sleeve construction). Notches

are indispensable to divide ease equally between the
front and back of the sleeve.
 Collar: centre back , shoulder line & centre front
 Waistband: centre back, side & centre front
 Pleats: on the edge of pleat lines & on the interior pleat
lines
 Beginning of darts
 Cross-over edges
 Hem width
 The middle of a seam if it is very long

45
  Pocket position
 Along assembly lines of two identical curves (one or
several notches)
 Folding lines.

Seam Allowance

 Outline all pattern pieces separately on paper.

 Add seam allowance values, parallel to pattern edge,
following the scale 1cm all over, Except:
Necklines, collars and cuffs: 0.7 cm.
Hems: 3 to 5 cm.
Zipper assembly lines: 2 to 3 cm.
Facing width:
Shirts and dresses:
Width at bottom : 5 to 8 cm
Width at shoulder : 3 to 4 cm
Jackets and coats:
Width at bottom : 8 to 12 cm
Width at shoulder : 4 to 5 cm.
According to the quality of manufacturing, the type and
thickness of the leather, the values indicated above may vary.

Indications to be made on a finished pattern:

 Name of model
 Reference number

46
  Waist
 Name of the numbered piece (Nomenclature: Back, Back yoke,
Front Sleeve, Cuff… etc)
 The number of times each pattern piece is cut. Example: X2
 The straight grain on each pattern piece; the centre of garment;
the position of buttons and buttonholes; pockets; certain
construction lines necessary for grading (example: the hipline).
 List the nomenclature on to the back of garment, along with a
list of supplies necessary for assembly (example: belt buckle,
zipper, etc).

Pattern Designing Methodology

The pattern designing procedure has the following five major

steps. They are:
a) Basic block
b) Draft / construction
c) Final pattern
d) Production pattern
e) Grading

a. Basic Blocks:

The first step in pattern designing/development is the

preparation of basic block, which is used for all pattern
adaptations. The basic block is the representation of three-
dimensional solid measurements of a mannequin (dummy) in a
two dimensional (flat) form.

47
 Thus the basic block is the foundation pattern constructed
to fit a specific figure. In the garment industry the blocks are
constructed to a set of standard measurements for a particular
size. It is used as a basis for interpreting a design and
producing a finished pattern. The design shape may change
dramatically but the basic fit of the pattern will conform to the
size of the basic blocks.

The basic block will vary from company to company

depending on various factors.

b. Draft / Construction (Working Pattern)

This is developed from the basic block. The various styling

details such as
 dart manipulation
 types of seams
 yokes
 gathers
 pleats
 pockets etc.
are planned in the draft.

The construction is kept intact until the sample garment is

finished.

48
 c. Final (Sample) Pattern:

This is the pattern developed from the working sketch.

Here each section (panel) is traced and adapted to achieve the
desired effect on shape and fit.

Seam allowances are added, marked and labelled with all

the necessary information (Refer instructions). During sample
preparation if any alteration is required, it is done for this
pattern also. These patterns are usually cut in soft white paper
or brown sheet.

d. Production Pattern

This is the copy of the final pattern. This must be 100%

accurate with all necessary information indicated on it. This
production pattern is then sent for grading together with the
sample to be graded in the required sizes.

e. Grading

The graded pattern consists of copies of the production pattern

in the required sizes (i.e. 50, 52, 54 etc). Some firms prefer to have
different colour codes for different sizes.

Role of Garment Pattern designer

 Liaison with buyers

49
  Planning the objectives for the forthcoming seasons
 Resource collection
➢ Sample
➢ Lining fabric
➢ Buttons
➢ Accessories & fittings
 Creating new collections
➢ Working sketches
➢ Specification sheets
 Supervising the sample garment production
 Liaison with Production control
 Maintenance of records
➢ Sampling
➢ Costing
 Training new recruits
 Overall responsibility of sample room and staffs

Instructions to be marked on patterns

a) The name of the style/product number

b) Pattern size
c) The name of each piece
d) Centre back/centre front
e) Fold lines
f) Balance marks ( Matching points marked by notch)
g) Grain lines (usually marked by arrow lines)

50
 h) Construction marks (these include darts, button holes, pocket
placing pleats or punch holes
i) Seam allowances
j) Number of pieces to be cut (Mention if it is a single piece, a
mirrored piece or a paired piece)

A working sketch should show the following

 Garment drawn to the scale
Example - a flat diagram
- on a figure of correct proportions
 front & back views
 Specific details; style lines, pocket details
 Skin (material) type, sample swatch
 Assembly details; seam allowances
 Type of accessories
➢ fastening zips
➢ Velcro
➢ Buttons
➢ Shoulder pads
▪ Type
▪ Size
 Decoration details
 Linings, contrast fabric, ribbings
 Any other special instructions

51
 Typical working sketch, size chart and material chart are given in
the following pages

: Typical Working Sketch (Front)

Typical Working Sketch (Back)

52
 Typical Size Chart

Size 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 Measurement
Margin +/-
Measurements

Back Length 82 82 83 83 84 84 85

1/2 Chest Round 62 64 66 68 70 72 74

1/2 Waist Round

1/2 Bottom Round 59 61 63 65 67 69 71

Shoulder Width 17.5 18 18.5 19 19.5 20 20.5

Sleeve Length 61.5 62 62.5 63 63.5 64 64.5

Sleeve Length including 79 80 81 82 83 84 85

shoulder

Biceps

Cross Front

Cross Back

Neck Line Round

Neck Width

Collar Height at Centre

back

Cuff Round 15 15 16 16 17 17 18

Cuff Height

Waistband width

53
 Typical Material Chart

CUSTOMER:

ORDER NO. REF NO.

 LEATHER:
DATE:
1. Cow 2. Cow
Nubuck Nubuck
3. 4.
 LINING:

1. Black Satin 2. Kaki

 RIBBING: MAIN LABEL:
Lining Satin

 PADDING: COMPOSITION LABEL:

Light :
Mediu
m :
Heavy

 ACCESSORIES

Buttons Type Material Color Mm Ref Qty * Other Accessories

Front Stitch Plastic Black 20 4+1 2 Plastic Stopper
Pocket 2 Plastic End
Cuff Ropes
Other 2 Eyelets
Hood
Zipper
Front YKK Brass Antic 5 STD 1
Pocket

54
CHAPTER 8

55
 Pattern Grading

Pattern grading is a technique used to reproduce a pattern in other sizes.

It must be done accurately, small errors unnoticed when one size is graded
create problems when many sizes are required. An accurate method is to
draft the smallest size and the largest size, then stop off the sizes between
lines drawn through the basic points (see figure 10e). Although grading
machines and computers are increasingly being used, it is still necessary to
understand the principle of grading patterns in order to programme
machines.

The Object of Grading

The idea is to obtain from a basic pattern in different sizes in order to

fit different sizes respective the following parameters.
 Morphology big, small, obese
 Garment use (work sportswear, city wear)
 Techniques, darts, the cutting lines, collar.
The difficulty lies in the fact that one must keep all sizes well adjusted
and pay special attention to the attractiveness and the particular style of
the garment as well as its fashion aspect

The grader’s Profile

The grader should know preferably the technical principles of the garment and the

methods of pattern cutting. He must be aware of the aesthetic notions associated with

style and fashion.

56
 In fact, if one only has to change a pattern mathematically, one could quite

happily enlarge or reduce the shape at precise points and the work would be finished;

but it is absolutely essential to take into account adjustments and details so as not to

deform the pattern that has been graded.

The grading demands a high amount of precision and constant self-questioning

due to continuous changes in the fashion world.

General Rules for Grading

The garment is accepted in the collection.

 The sample pattern must be perfectly adjusted and studied to avoid

amplifying mistakes made during the grading.
 State the size on all pieces of the graded pattern.
 Mark straight grain, vertical and horizontal line on all pattern
blocks. (Bust, cross-back, waist, hips etc.)
 Know the measurements of the sizes needed in order to establish
the growth chart.
 The grading axes will be usually parallel and perpendicular to the
straight grain.
 Be very precise with the measurements and the drawing through to
avoid off-standard sizes.
 Always keep front and back parallel to keep the values balanced.

57
Different methods of grading

1. Shifting method

It is used for simple and large forms, with few style details. The
pattern is moved vertically or horizontally according to the amount of
enlargement or reduction.

2. Construction method

Much more precise, it adapts to sophisticated shapes and very

stylised lines where every detail has its importance. From a given
point on a basic form, one marks the values of growth in size, usually
along the axes that are parallel or perpendicular to the straight grain.

3. Computer Aided Design Method

Follows the same logic as the construction method but quicker as

the handling is reduced. It permits more forms to be constructed.

The grading growth information’s are fed into the computer and a

reference code is given to each one. It is then sufficient for inputting a

pattern, to call upon every chosen point. The piece is automatically

graded by the computer and the patterns are cut with the help of a

computer assisted cutter.

58
Basics of Lines & Points in grading

1. Example of Line drawn form a point

 Perpendicular (to grain line)

 Parallel (to grain line)
 Oblique (to grain line)

Grading Line drawn form a point

2. Examples of grading points with given measurements

 horizontal Line
Base size(BS) = 50

Waist growth = 10 mm
Horizontal grading
No. of increments = 3 points

(Say 52-54-56(LS))

 Vertical Line
Base size = 50
Vertical grading points
Hip length growth = 5 mm

No. of increments = 3

59
 (Say 52-54-56(LS))

 Oblique line
Base size(BS) = 50

Hem line growth = 10,10 mm

No of increments

=3 (52-54-56(LS)) Oblique
Grading points
Note: LS: Large size

SS: Small size

3. Examples of grading points on a diagram

60
Measuring for Grading

The method used to find a point by measuring horizontally and then vertically is shown here.

From base point 1 measure horizontally required measurement. Mark point 2, square across.

Measure vertically required measurement to point 3. Draw a line through the points 1 and 3 for a

grading line. Points for further grading can be made along this line

Fig 10g: Measuring for Grading

Grading of Basic Blocks

Before developing the draft/construction pattern from the basic block it should be assured that the

size of the basic block & the garment sample size is same. If it differs the basic block should be

graded to the required size. Grading of some of the basic blocks is explained below.

61
Skirt Block Grading

Skirt block grading

62
Bodice Block (Women) Grading

Bodice block grading

63
Sleeve block Grading

Sleeve block grading

64
Trouser block grading

Trouser block grading

65
Grading of special types of sleeves

Tailored sleeve

Grading tailored sleeve

66
Raglan sleeve

Grading raglan sleeve

67
Computer Aided Pattern Grading

Introduction

Computerised pattern grading systems are faster, more

consistent, accurate and manageable than manual grading.
However these systems are only as good as the technicians
operating them and it is essential that early planning is thought
out clearly and related to the company’s production. When a
pattern is to be graded by computer it must be accurate, with
notches, grading points and other significant points marked
clearly

The principles of computer grading are simple. A

computer constructs diagrams by using mathematical co-
ordinates which can be recorded by placing the patterns on a
digitizer which works as an electronic grid and records special
points around the shape by means of a cursor. The centre of
the cross hairs is placed on the points to be recorded. When a
cursor button is pressed signals are sent to the computer which
is translated into a numerical record of the shape and
information for the piece. Once a basic shape, its significant
features and grading information is stored in the computer
memory, a range of sizes can be graded and plotted out into
patterns.

68
Information required for grading

The mathematical information required to construct the

grades is taken from
1. Size charts of body measurements
2. Finished garment specification
3. Patterns of the base size

Grading method

The grading of patterns by computer is based on identifying

where specific points on the patterns have to be extended or
reduced to create a new size. These points are extended or
reduced by means of X and Y co-ordinates. The X and Y co-
ordinates tell the computer the direction in which a point has to
move. Measurements have also to be given to identify the
position of the new point

-x X

-Y

Co-Ordinates

69
 Back patterns size 38 and 40

Co-ordinate directions of grades

A grade rule

A grade rule is the instruction of how much a pattern

increases, across a range of sizes, in X and Y co-ordinates at
any control point. The grade rule can be applied at any other
point that requires an identical increase. Grade rules can be
written in centimeters /millimeters or in inches or fractions of the

70
 units. This variation is related to the type of computer system,
some of which offer a choice

Shoulder point grade (magnified)

Example : A grade rule for the shoulder points

In this example the points are graded in 1/10 of a millimeter.
The instruction (grade rule) for the shoulder point would be
X= -40, Y=40 between size 38 and size 40

Grade rule libraries

A grade rule library is complied of numbered grade rules

which will be attached to the points on the pattern which are to
be graded. The rules are first recorded manually on a grade
sheet and then typed into the computer. Simple diagrams are
drawn which record the numbers and positions of the rules.

If a rule is consistent across a size range the computer

will repeat it automatically. Inconsistent grade across sizes
have to be entered where the changes occur. Grade rule 1 is

71
 always written as 0 in both X and Y directions and is used wher
no grade rule is required.

Grade rule libraries can be calculated directly from size

charts or garment specifications. The difference between the
sizes can be converted into X and Y co-ordinates. Two
examples of sections of grade rule libraries show the different
ways they may be written.

Grade rule library written in centimeters (horizontal size listing)

GR Library : GRTShirt1 Base size 38 Sizes 34-46
Rule 34-36 36-38 38-40 40-42 42-44 44-46
no. X Y X Y X Y X Y X Y X Y
1 0 0
2 -0.5 0
3 -0.5 0.2 -0.5 0.2
4 -0.4 0.4 -0.4 0.5
5 -0.2 0.5 -0.2 0.6
6 0 0.8 0 1.0
7
8

Grade rule library written in centimeters (vertical size listing)

RULE TABLE EDITOR
NAME : GRT SHIRT1 NOTATION: METRIC
RULE NUMBER : 1 2 3
COMMENT:
POINT ATTRIBUTE:
BREAKS X Y X Y X Y
34 36 0.00 0.00 -0.50 0.00 -0.50 0.20
36 38 0.00 0.00 -0.50 0.00 -0.50 0.20
38 40 0.00 0.00 -0.50 0.00 -0.50 0.20
40 42 0.00 0.00 -0.50 0.00 -0.50 0.20
42 44 0.00 0.00 -0.50 0.00 -0.50 0.20
44 46 0.00 0.00 -0.50 0.00 -0.50 0.20

72
Nested grades

A pattern or block which has been manually graded as a

nest can be digitized and stored in the system. Each grading
point on every size has to be digitized. The computer will then
reproduce the nest and automatically record grade rules for the
pattern piece. These grade rules van be stored and applied to
other pattern pieces.

However this method is not very flexible, it often means

that more grade rules are generated tan are required by an
efficient standardized grading system. The facility can be useful
for particular designs with complicated grades that are unlikely
to be used again and are not required in a main grade rule
library

Digitising patterns

Digitiser with back and backside patterns

73
 Digitiser cursor

Most of the companies using CAD/CAM systems at the

present time are not using the PDS (pattern design system) for
pattern cutting. They cut their patterns for a design manually
and therefore to grade the patterns on the system the perimeter
of the pattern has to be fed into the computer by digitizing the
contour. However the grade points and the grade rule numbers
can be input at the same time.

Any pattern, drafted from a graded block, can be graded

using the same grade rules. However, as very few patterns are
as simple as the block shape, extra rules will be required to be
added to the grade rule library (example rule 41)

The pattern is placed on the digitizer and the pattern profile

is entered into the computer by use of a cursor. The centre of
the cross hairs of the cursor is placed on points to be recorded.
These points are grade points and other points which define the
curves or corners. When a cursor button is pressed, signals are
sent to the computer which is translated into a numerical record
of the shape and information for the piece. The cursor has a
number of buttons which allow the appropriate grade rule

74
numbers to be typed in to the system on the relevant points as
the pattern profile is digitized.

Grading the patterns

Once the patterns has had grade points identified whether

directly onto a computer generated pattern or a digitized
manual pattern an instruction can be given to grade the pattern
piece. This order will generate automatically a nest of grades
over a range of sizes using the grade rules recorded in the
grade rule library. The patterns can be drawn out on a plotter
either as group or separately

Back pattern graded over seven sizes

Back side pattern graded over seven sizes

75
Grading techniques

More sophisticated grading techniques are now included in

many programmes for example

i) the system will proportionally grade a split pattern at the

split points
ii) the system will apply grade rules that are written for
horizontal or straight lines and apply them to angled lines
and will compensate for the angle
iii) the system will allow extra attributes to be added to grade
points that will control the point movement in certain
circumstances.(example matching checks)

76
CHAPTER 9

77
 Garment Cutting
One of the important operations in leather garment production is
cutting. The major objectives in garment cutting are

* quality cutting

* material optimisation

While the quality in cutting is determined by factors such as

* skill of the cutter

* size and selection of leathers,

Material optimisation could be determined by

* Average size of individual panels

* Efficiency of the cutter to place and cut various

panels optimally

In principle three major methods of cutting are employed in leather

products manufacture.

* Hand cutting
* Clicking
* Automated Computer Aided Cutting

Methods of Cutting
Footwear / leather goods manufacture due to large scale in
production, lend most of their components clicked with the help of
standard dye blocks and a clicking machine. But since the leather
garment patterns are large in size and total numbers of garments to
be cut are less, manual cutting is employed.

78
Hand Cutting
This is the most practiced method in leather garment
manufacture. Here the cardboard patterns are placed over the leather
and with the help of a hand held knife by cutting along the contour of
the cardboard panel. The following figure shows hand cutting.

As mentioned earlier, care must be taken to cut the panels

matching colour, texture and feel. Another method being practiced in
some parts of the country is marking the contour of the cardboard
pattern on the leather with the help of a marking pen/pencil, and latter
cutting with the help of scissors.

Clicking
This method is mainly employed when the panels to be cut are
of standard size and they are in large numbers. We may consider the
production of gent’s wallet, say 10,000 pieces. The wallet has
components which do not charge in their sizes, and they are required

79
in large numbers. In such cases a metal dye block is made for each
component and this placed over the leather on a clicking board and
cut using the clicking machine as shown in Figure.

Computer Aided Cutting

In this method details about the patterns are already stored in

the computer. Details regarding the type and nature of the materials
to be cut is also informed to the computer. With advanced software
the computer places the patterns optimally over the image of material
to be cut which can be reviewed and adjusted by the user. After
verification instruction is sent to the intelligent plotter / cutter which
cuts the required panels from the material. A typical example for
automated cutting is fabric cutting in a textile garment manufacturing
unit, as shown in Figure.

80
 This type of cutting is economically viable when multi layers of
fabric which has uniform finish and properties is cut for the bulk
production of readymade garments.

In some leather upholstery units in the west, where the raw

material is cow / buffalo hide, finished as full hide (without cutting into

two sides) computer aided automated cutting is practiced.

The cutters used for this purpose vary as

* knife cutters Roller blade

Vertical blade
Pointed knife
* laser cutters
* water jet cutter

81
 Basic Patterns
The basic patterns required for the specific garment are
generated and graded for varying sizes. These patterns are traced
over a thick cardboard, labeled appropriately (style name, size and
cutting instructions) and stored size wise.

Cutting Skins

Skins are non-uniform in structure and, to some extent, non-

uniform in colour. The size of the skins imposes limitations as to style
by the maximum size of panel which can be cut from the skins
provided. The garment manufacturer has to provide the customer
with a garment which, to the general observer, appears so uniform
that it gives the impression of having been produced like a textile
garment from a uniform roll of leather. Where there are differences
they have to be incorporated into the garment, as it by design rather
than accident and there is an immediate complaint if one lapel is
loose and creased and ‘matched’ by a nice tight firm grained lapel on
the other side.

The cutter is of crucial importance to the production of

satisfactory garment. Not only have the panels to be cut
‘economically’, i.e. with the minimum of waste but the cutter has to
bear in mind the location of each particular panel in the made-up
garment and hence to ensure that panels which adjoin in the
garment, r those which attract attention as juxtaposed panels, give a
‘matching’ impact when viewed by the wearer in a mirror or by others

82
from a normal view point. Leather is sold by area and grade. Whilst
grade is associated with quality, it is not necessarily associated with
performance.

Leather produced by a given tanner will have essentially the

same performance but will be sold either as Grade 1, Grade 2, Grade
1&2, Grade 3, Reject, or other name. Where the appellation refers to
the cuttability or usability of the particular skin, Grade 1 skins will be
more uniform in appearance and give a good cutting coefficient, i.e.
the least area wasted; Grade 2 skins may have holes near the
periphery of the skin; Grade 3 skins may have holes nearer to the
centre of the skin or there may be areas of looseness, i.e. of less
attractive appearance but generally of good strength and of other
properties. Table run grades will be skins as they are produced, i.e. a
mixture of 1sts, 2nds, and 3rds with some reject skins.

The garment manufacturer has to decide what standard to aim

for and then to determine which mixture of grades can be
economically used for making the particular style. Small panels can
be cut more economically or lower grade skins can be utilised. Large
panels are less economic, demand better grade skins and give rise to
lower cutting coefficients.

The designer, therefore, determines the economics of the

design, both by the area required and the size of the individual
panels, whereas the cutter largely determines the quality appearance
of the made-up garment and the matching of colour and texture.

83
CHAPTER 10

84
 Machinery requirement for Leather garment production

Leather garment manufacture requires primarily sewing machines.

Ranges of sewing machines are available in the market and let us
discuss about the most commonly used machines

1. Flat bed single needle drop feed medium duty sewing machine

This type of sewing machine is widely used in leather garment

fabrication irrespective of type of leather

2. Flat bed twin needle drop feed sewing machine

This machines gives a parallel stitch pattern and is used for

specific style of the garment

85
 3. Flat bed single needle unison feed heavy duty sewing machine

In this machine feeding of material is effected by feed dog, foot

and needle and hence it gives better transportation. This type of
machine is best suited while stitching thick materials which requires
additional feeding.

4. Flat bed drop feed light duty sewing machine

This machine is generally for stitching of lining material

86
 5. Electronically controlled sewing machine

Electronically controlled sewing machines are programmable and

finds extensively used in modern production plants

The popular makes of sewing machines are

PFAFF, ADLER, SINGER & JUKI

Apart from sewing machines the following equipments are used for
different unit operations

 Lining cutting machine

 Buttoning machine
 Button covering machine
 Logo stamping machine
 Fusing machine
 Ironing machine

87
Requirements of tools

 Cuddapah slab
 Teflon head hammer
 Scissor
 Stitch remover
 Bone folder
 Stainless scale

88
CHAPTER 11

89
 Leather Garments – Production and Quality

Production and quality stages:

Production Stages : Quality Stages :

1. Leather receivables to the stores Inward inspection
2. Leather issue for matching and Color and grain setting3.
cutting
3. Cut bundles issued for fusing Fused bundle inspection
4. Stitching and Finishing Shell, pre – final inspection
5. Cleaning and packaging Final inspection

Thus the production and quality should not be segregated operations

but should be an integral part of each other.

1. Leather receivables to the stores:

The leather received from the tannery should be thoroughly

checked for the right quantity (exact no of pcs, correct count of the
measurement in DCM) and the right quality (softness, feel, touch
color, thickness, grain pattern, business, chemical usage, dye usage
etc). This should be done carefully since the total production of the
garment, its quality and the expected quantity depend on these
parameters. Quality should be checked with the D.C (challan) for the
exact no of pieces and again the same should be checked for the
exact measurement of the individual skins. As far as quality goes, the
receipts should be approved by a leather expert for the aspects like
touch, feel, color coloring, tanning strength etc. The strict compliance
to the above would not only reduce the production problems but
would also reduce the risk of rejection. This stage completes the
inward inspection as well.

90
2. Leather issue for matching and cutting:

The received leathers are folded vertically but softly so as to avoid

folding impressions on the leather. While issuing from the stores, the
measurement of each leather piece is noted so as to tally it with the
stocks left for issue. The issued pcs are folded vertically and
arranged on the matching horse for the purpose of matching.
Matching should be done in such a way that a set a atleast 10 skins
are of the same grain pattern. Color – shade, touch, feel and
selection.

The skin count is mentioned as 10 because for a normal jacket

around 350 DCM is required. It could be altered as per the
requirement. Once 10 skins are selected for a garment, it is issued to
the cutting section for cutting. While issuing to the cutters it is very
important that the DCM count of each skin is noted before issue, for
that particular bundle. The cutters initially study the skins given to
them with the patterns given for the purpose of cutting. The patterns
are normally in the leather board (a paper board mixed with leather
dust for strength) and it should be cut properly by a master (pattern
master). While cutting, the cutters should be very careful not to
expand the skins so as to accommodate the patterns and at the same
time also to be doubly careful that the color and the grain of each skin
that is cut for the adjacent patterns be the same. While looking into
the quality of the cutters and the cut bundles, a regular check should
also be done on the patterns used for cutting as the edges of the
patterns may get damaged in the course of time. In case the 10 skins
given to the cutters for 1 bundle is not sufficient to complete the
bundle, a fresh skin should be issued again only after verifing the
genunity of the requirement (i.e) the leftout skin is not with the proper
grain set for the particular pattern of the coloring is slightly different so
as to affect the overall quality of the garment after it is stitched. Here
to the leather consumption should be strictly monitored so that it does
not cross the target consumption. This is very important because
even a slight variation in the leather consumption can affect the
costing of the garment in particular and the profit line of the company
in general as the leather cost itself constitutes about 70% of the total
cost of the garment. A daily report of the leather used should be
accounted to the production – in – charge. A daily average of each
cutter should also be recorded for future reference. Each bundle

91
should be attached with a ROUTE CARD which when filled in at
various stages clearly identifies the person who handled the particular
part of the job. The card contains columns for each individual work
performed.

3. Cut bundles issued for fusing:

The cut bundles are issued to the fusing section for fusing and for
final bundle inspection before issuing it to the stitching section. While
fusing care should be taken to see that the correct quality of fuse
material is used for fusing and should be done at the correct
temperature so that the skins do not get damaged. The fuse material
should be of the correct thickness, correct material content (fusing
wax, cloth or paper) and the correct width. After fusing, the bundles
should be checked completely for all points of quality, i.e. cutting,
fusing, total no of pcs to be in each bundle, grain setting & color
matching of all the parts. Only after complete inspection is the bundle
sent for the stitching section.

4. Stitching and finishing:

The cut and inspected bundle is issue to the stitching section.

In this section, the tailors start the work of attaching the leather pcs in
an orderly fashion. Meanwhile the pastors start the work of assisting
the tailoring work by way of fulfilling the pasting needs of the tailored
pcs. Once the outer shell of the garment is stitched it is inspected by
the line supervisor for the stitch, measurement and finish. Normally
the stitching length should be 8 stitches per inch for a clean finish. It
can also vary as per the leather stitched. The shell of the garment is
usually the body portion of the garment with the sleeves in it but
without the inner lining, sleeve cuffs and the collar portion. The shell
is inspected mainly for the stitching finish of the garment. It is also the
correct time for inspection in the sense any alterations to be done in
the garment can done easily in the shell stage itself while it is very
difficult to do the same in the finished stage of the garment. While the
shell is getting ready, the lining section prepares the inner lining that
is to be attached to the garment – Normally the lining cloth is
attached with the polyfill (as per the requirement of the order given).
The polyfill (wadding) should also be quality checked for its correct
weight (it could be 20, 40, 60, 80 gsm i.e. 80 grams weight per

92
square meter). After inspecting the shell, the line supervisor releases
the lining that is to be attached to the garment. Meanwhile the pastors
along with their work are also incharge of helping the tailors by way of
collecting the necessary accessories that is to be attached to the
garment like the shoulder pads, pocket zips, main zips, washcare
labels, main labels, size labels and content labile. Once the lining is
also attached and all the stitches are over except the final top stitch
the garment is once again subject to inspection. The accessories like
the buttons if any that has to be fixed before the final closing of the
garment should be done at this stage.

Once all these works are clear and the inspections with respect
to the stitch, finish, measurement extra are over the final stitch is
done. This finished garment is now sent to the cleaning and final
inspection section.

5. Cleaning and final inspection section:

Once the garment reaches this section, it is thoroughly cleaned.

The extra garment thread left during stitching, the glue that was left
visible be mistake during the pasting operation, the buttoning
operation and the small pencil marks left by thee tailors during
stitching is cleaned. After this cleaning operation, the garment is
checked once again for all the specifications required by the buyer,
and then it is sent for the packaging section. In case there is any
correction to be made in the garment a separate tailor is put in the
inspection section to do alterations since it would disturb the
production tailors to the alterations.

The packing is normally done in carton boxes of 10 or 15 pcs

per box. For each individual pc, the size tag, model tag, color tag,
price tag is first put in a separate polythene transparent bag with a
insect repellent for safer transport. Normally SILICA GEL is used for
this purpose. Then these individual packs are sealed with warning
stickers for added safety.

These pcs are then put in a box of 10 each and then is again
covered with plastic sheets for safety. Then these boxes are strapped
and are again packed in gunny bags for added safety. The packed
boxes are labeled outside for its destination.

93
CHAPTER 12

94
 Methods of Chemical Testing of Leathers

1. Volatile matter

2. Total ash

3. Solvent extractable substances

4. Sulphated ash of water solubles

5. Water soluble org. substances

6. Water insoluble ash

7. Epsom salt

8. Glucose

9. pH & difference figure

10. Hide substance

11. Bound organic substance

12. Degree of tannage

95
1. Volatile Matter:

Weigh app. 3g. of ground leather dry is an over at 102  2oC for 5hr,
weigh the difference

% Volatile matter = w1 – w2
w1 X 100

W1 = wt. of the material before drying

W2 = wt. of the material after drying

2. Total ash:

Weigh about 5g of leather carbonize in low flame in a crucible ignite in

the muffle furnace at 800  25oC wet with sulphuric acid; dry cod &
weigh.

% Total Ash = w1 X 100

w2

W1 = wt. of sulphated ash

W2 = wt. of material taken for test.

3. Solvent extractable substances:

Weigh about 10g. ground leather place it soxhlet extractor with tared

flask extract with solvent (dichlorimethane or petroleum ether)

Dry the solvent & weigh the residue.

% Extractable substance = w1
X 100
w2
W1 = wt. of residue; w1 = wt. of the material

96
4. Water solubles:

Take leathers after soxhlet extraction Add 500ml water shake in

a mechanical shaker for 2hr. filter using whatman No. 11 filter paper,

Discard first 50 ml.

Evaporate 50 ml of the filtrate in a basin at 102  2oC; weigh the residue

% water solubles * = 100 x w

W = wt. of the residue

(* for 10 g. of leather)

5. Sulphated ash of water solubles:

Take the residue obtained at 4 add few drops of con. H2SO4 fume over a
low flame Heat in a muffle furnace at 800  25oC for 15 mts. Cool &
weigh

% Sulphated ash of water solubles = W1

W2 X 100

W1 = wt. of Sulphated Ash

W2 = wt. of material taken before 3

6. Water Insoluble ash:

Take the leathers after water solubles in 4 Ash it at 800  25oC

Cool & weigh

% Water insoluble Ash = W1

X 100
W2

97
 W1 = wt. of ash
W2 = wt. of material taken before 3

7. Water soluble org. substances:

% Water soluble =x- y

Organic substances
X = Total water solubles 4
Y = Sulphated ash of water solubles 5

8. Epsom salt:

Take the sulphated ash of water solubles remove phosphate ions by

adding 5 ml dil. Hcl
50 ml water
3 ml add. Chloride
Few drops of conc. HNO3 and ferric chloride, make the solution
alkaline by adding NH3 & boil filter the solution

Remove calcium ions by

Adding to the filtrate
3 ml amm. Chloride
7.5 ml ammonia
1.5 ml amm. Oxalate
Heat to boil and make it to 100 ml in std, flask

Take 50 ml add small Qty of HCl. Neutralize against Methyl

orange with ammonia and boil, dilute to 150 ml Add 20 ml buffer and

titrate with .01 m DETA (DETA) until colour changes to blue.

98
 % Epsom salt = 0.002465 x v
X 100
w

V = vol. Of DETA consumed

W = wt. of material taken for test.

9. Glucose

Take 200ml water solubles 4 add 25ml lead acetate (saturated) to ppt.
Veg. Tannins; filter add excess of potassium oxalate salt stir for 15mts to
ppet. Excess lead; filter Take 150 ml of fhlrqdu`!dd`%=l□(corn. HCl boil
under reflex for 2 hr to convert cane sugar into reducing sugar Neutralise
with Na2CO3 make it to 200ml pipette 25 ml each of fehling’s solutions 1
& 2 add 50 ml of test solution bring to boil in 4 mts; boil for 2 mts. Filter
in weighed Gooch crucible thro’ asbestos; dry & weigh as cuprous oxide.
From the Munsen & walker’s table calculate the Glucose content.

10. pH & difference figure

Take 5 g. of water
Add 100 ml water
Shake in a shaker for 16 – 24 hrs.
Measure pH.
It pH is between 4 – 10 dilute 10 ml of solubles to 100 ml measure pH

11. Hide Substance:

weigh 38, of leather in a Kjeldahl flask add 30ml conc. H2SO4. Add
5gm of catalyst (K2SO4 6 gms, CuSO4 100 mg) digest in a flame. Add
99
40% NaoH; 1ml phenolphthalein Distill NH3 into 4% Boric acid with
mixed indicator, Titrate with std, acid to pale pink colour.

% N = 1.4 V N

W
V = vol. of standard acid
N = Strength of acid
W = wt. of the material taken
% Hide substance = 5.62 x % N

10