DELHI PUBLIC SCHOOL, ROHINI

CHAPTER: PLANT KINGDOM

CLASS: XI

ALGAE

Algae are generally aquatic plants that maybe unicellular, colonial, filamentous or
multicellular forms. Algae do not have highly differentiated bodies. They lack true roots,
stems, leaves and a vascular system to circulate water and nutrients throughout their
bodies. Algae may often be visible as pond scum or blooms or maybe popular as the giant
sea kelps. For example, Chlamydomonas and Chlorella are unicellular forms of algae, Volvox
is colonial, Spirogyra and Ulothrix are filamentous and Fucus and Laminaria are
multicellular.

Algae reproduce by vegetative, asexual or sexual methods. Algae like Spirogyra undergo
fragmentation to reproduce vegetatively. Asexual reproduction is by means of spore
formations, which are mostly zoospores. The zoospores are motile being flagellated. They
germinate under favourable conditions to give rise to new plants. Sexual reproduction
occurs by fusion of gametes. The gametes maybe equal sized and flagellated as in
Chlamydomonas or equal sized and non-flagellated as in Spirogyra. This is referred to as
Isogamy. If the gametes involved in fusion are of unequal size as in certain species of
Chlamydomonas, the fusion is said to be anisogamous. In oogamy, one of the gametes is
relatively quite large and non-motile and the other is small and motile. Oogamy is found in
species like Volvox and Fucus.

On the basis of the type of photosynthetic pigments, flagellation and storage products,
algae are primarily classified into the following broad groups or classes:

CHLOROPHYCEAE
The major photosynthetic pigments are chlorophyll a and b. The chloroplast is variedly
shaped. It maybe reticulate, discoid, cup-shaped, spiral or ribbon-shaped in various species.
Many species have pyrenoids associated with the chloroplast. These contain starch and
protein. Food is stored as starch and oil droplets in some cases. The cell wall has an inner
layer of cellulose and an outer layer of pectose.
The green algae may reproduce by vegetative means or asexual and sexual methods. The
flagellated cells—gametes or the asexual spores—the zoospores possess equal-sized
flagella, i.e., 2 to 8 in number and they are placed apically.

PHAEOPHYCEAE

The plant body is generally differentiated into hold fast, a short or elongated stipe and an
expanded blade. The blade performs photosynthesis and it bears reproductive structures.
Many species have air bladders that help to keep the thallus afloat.
The photosynthetic pigments include chlorophyll a, chlorophyll c, β-carotene and
xanthophylls like fucoxanthin. The cell wall is differentiated into outer layer made of algin
and it is mucilaginous. The inner layer is mainly cellulosic. The alginic acid is used to
manufacture artificial silk and adhesive, obtained commercially from Sargassum, Laminaria,
etc. Pyrenoids are usually absent. Motile structures (zoospores and gametes) have two
laterally inserted unequal flagella. The species are hence heterokont. The reserve food
The thallus of most species is elongated and resembles a liver. The rhizoids are aseptate and
unbranched.

Liverworts reproduce vegetatively by fragmentation of thalli. In certain species like

Marchantia, multicellular, vegetative propagation is by specialized asexual multicellular bodies,
known as gemmae. These are produced within small cup-shaped structures borne along the
midrib on the dorsal surface of gametophyte. These are gemma cups.

Most liverworts are dioecious. Marchantia has separate male and female thalli or is
heterothallic. The sex organs are borne on stalked upright gametophores. The male
gametophore is present on the male thallus and it is called antheridiophore. It has a stalk
and an eight lobed receptacle with antheridia.

The female gametophore is called the archegoniophore. It has a receptacle with archegonia.
The archegonium is a stalked structure with a narrow neck and a swollen venter. The venter
contains the egg cell. The antherozoids swim and make their way to the archegonia.
Fertilisation produces a diploid sporophyte with a foot, seta and capsule. The capsule
produces haploid spores by meiosis.

(a) (b)
Figure 1.9 (a) Antheridium (b) Archegonium

MOSSES

Mosses have a leafy gametophyte with multicellular rhizoids. The leafy gametophyte is
produced from a green and branched filamentous structure called the moss protonema.
Certain Pteridophytes like Selaginella and Salvinia (and higher plants) produce two types of
spores namely, microspores, which are- the smaller spores and the macrospores, which are
the larger spores. This is called heterospory.
Heterospory lays the foundation of seed habit. Heterospory produced the first
endosporic(inside spore wall) gametophyte that is protected from harsh external
environmental conditions. They also get nutrition from the diploid sporophyte, on which
they are dependent. This lays the foundation for the survival of the young embryo.
Heterospory also facilitated sex differentiation as the gametophytes produced are of two
types namely, male and female. Due to the separation of the gametophytes,it has been
made necessary to develop a method by which the two types of gametes can come together
and fuse to produce a zygote. This is the precursor to pollination.
In certain species of Selaginella, both male and female sporangia develop within the same
strobilus. In each male sporangium, multiple microspores are produced by meiosis. Each
microspore produces a small antheridium within a spore case. As it develops, it is released
from the strobilus, and a number of flagellated sperm are produced from the spore case. In
the female sporangium, a single megaspore mother cell undergoes meiosis to produce four
megaspores. Gametophytes develop within each megaspore, consisting of a mass of tissue
that will later nourish the embryo and a few archegonia. This retention of the female
gametophyte within the megasporangium is a pre-condition for seed habit.

GYMNOSPERMS (H1)

Gymnosperms are ‘naked-seeded’ plants. (gymna-naked, sperma-seed). They bear seeds

without the fruit as the ovules are not enclosed in an ovary but are present on specialized
leaves called megasporophylls. They are generally woody shrubs and trees inhabiting mostly
regions with colder climate. Some are also found in tropical regions. They include the tallest,
massive and the oldest species found on Earth. Common gymnosperms are pine, spruce, fir,
yew, etc.

Gymnosperms are tracheophytes and have well-developed vascular tissues namely, xylem
and phloem. The plants have well-developed root system that can draw water and minerals
from deep within the soil and anchor the plants firmly to the ground. At times, plants like
Pinus, form associations with fungal hyphae in the roots. This association is mycorrhiza and
enables the plant to uptake more water and minerals from a larger area in the soil. The
leaves are leathery or needle-like and waxy to withstand desiccation. The waxy cuticle over
the leaves also protects them against the UV rays of the Sun.

The gymnosperms are classified into four different groups namely, Cycadales, Ginkgoales,
Coniferales and Gnetales.

Pinus (Conifer)

Conifers like the pine are woody, evergreen trees with conical shape and needle- –like
leaves that are covered by a waxy cuticle. Stomata are sunken. The leaves are thus adapted
to minimize water loss. The leaves or needles are bundled in a cluster of 1–7 forming a
fascicle. They are called foliage leaves. There are also present small, brown, membranous
scale leaves. The stem is erect and cylindrical and is covered with bark. There are two types
of branches—the long shoot of unlimited growth and dwarf shoot of limited growth. The
Like gymnosperms, angiosperms are also seed-bearing plants. However, unlike
gymnosperms, their seeds are not naked, rather enclosed in fruits. Also, the ovule is
enclosed within the ovary. The unit for sexual reproduction is a flower that maybe unisexual
with only pistil or only stamen as the reproductive whorl. The flower is bisexual, if it has
both male and female sex organs in it. The main plant body is a sporophyte bearing roots,
stem and leaves. The vascular system is very well-developed with vessels in the xylem and
companion cells and sieve tubes being present in the phloem tissue, unlike most
gymnosperms. The male and female gametophytes in angiosperms are highly reduced. The
flowers in angiosperms have evolved excellent strategies for pollination. The phenomenon
of double fertilisation is characteristic to angiosperms. The endosperm develops following
fertilisation.

Monocots and Dicots

The angiosperms are divided into two classes namely, monocotyledons and dicotyledons.
The monocotyledons or the monocots have a single cotyledon in their seeds. They usually
have a fibrous root system with parallel venation in the veins of leaves and the flowers are
trimerous. Monocots include orchids, lilies, palms, grasses, and grains like wheat, corn and
oats. Fruits like dates and bananas also belong to this group. The dicotyledons or the dicots
have two cotyledons in the seeds and a taproot system.

The male reproductive organ is the stamen composed of a filament bearing an anther. The
anther usually has four microsporangia or pollen sacs with pollen mother cells or
microspore mother cells. The latter undergo meiosis to produce several haploid microspores
or pollen grains. Each pollen grain has two male gametes. The female sex organ in
angiosperms is the pistil with a stigma, style and the ovary. The ovary has one or more
megasporangia also called ovules. Each ovule has a multicellular nucellus. One of the cells of
the nucellus, towards the micropyle differentiates into the megaspore mother cell. This cell
undergoes meiosis to produce four megaspores. In many plants, only one megaspore
remains functional and undergoes mitotic cell division thrice. The nuclear divisions lead to
the formation of eight nuclei followed by cell wall formation. The entire structure so formed
is the embryo sac and it is the female gametophyte of the angiosperms. The embryo sac is a
seven celled and eight nucleate structure. Towards the micropylar end, the egg cell is
present, with synergids on both sides. There are three antipodal cells at the opposite end or
the chalazal end. The central cell has two polar nuclei. The entire structure is haploid.

Fertilisation

Following pollination, the pollen land on the stigma and germinate to produce the pollen
tube that grows towards the ovule at the micropyle. The two male gametes carried by the
pollen tube enter the embryo sac. One of the male gametes fuses with the egg cell to form
the diploid zygote. This is called syngamy. The other male gamete fuses with the diploid
secondary nucleus, which is produced by the fusion of the two haploid polar nuclei. The
secondary nucleus fuses with the male gamete to form the primary endosperm nucleus. This
is a triploid structure and divides repeatedly to form the nutritive endosperm. The fusion of
the male gamete with the polar nuclei is referred to as triple fusion, as three structures are
involved in this fusion. Syngamy and triple fusion are collectively known as double
fertilisation and it is characteristic to angiosperms.