CHAPTER 3

THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER

CENTURIES OF DISCOVERY  Pudding: a shapeless mass of positive

electrification
Greek Atom
 Atomos means indivisible J.J. Thomson (1890)
 Four Substances: earth, water, air, & fire  He investigated the physical properties of
 Four Essences: wet, dry, hot, & cold cathode rays (electrons)
 He concluded that electrons were integral
Substances/Elements parts of all atoms
 112 identified
 92 naturally occurring Ernest Rutherford (1911)
 20 artificially produced  Nuclear model
 He disproved Thomson’s model
An atom is the smallest particle that has all the  He described the atom as containing a small,
properties of an element! dense, positively charged center surrounded
by a negative cloud of electrons
Subatomic Particles  He called the center of the atom the nucleus
 Particles smaller than atom
Bohr Atom (1913)
Dalton Atom  Miniature solar system
 Hook-and-eye affair  He improved Rutherford’s description of the
atom
John Dalton (1808)  The electrons revolved about the nucleus in
 He showed that elements could be classified prescribed orbits or energy levels
according to integral values of atomic mass
Quantum-chromodynamics (QCD)
Dmitri Mendeleev  More accurately described the details of
 First periodic table of elements atomic structure

Alkali Metals FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES

 Group 1 elements
 All soft metals that combine readily with Particle Accelerator
oxygen & react violently with water  Atom smasher
 It is used in mapping the structure of atomic
Halogens nucleus
 Group VII elements
 Easily vaporized & combine with metals to Nucleons
form water-soluble salts  Protons (+) & neutrons (O)
 It is composed of quarks & gluons
Noble Gas (subatomic particles)
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 Group VIII elements

 Highly resistant to reaction with other
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The fundamental particles of an atom are the

elements electron, proton & the neutron!
Thomson Atom
 Plum pudding
 Plum: negative electric charges (electrons)
STEWART C. BUSHONG SUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO
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 CHAPTER 3
THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER

Electron Number of Protons

 Location: orbital shells  Determine the chemical behavior of an atom
 Relative: 1  Determine the chemical element
 Mass in kg: 9.1 x 10-31
 Mass in amu: 0.000549 Isotopes
 Number: 0  Same number of protons, but different
 Charge: -1 number of neutrons
 Symbol: -
In their normal state, atoms are electrically
Proton neutral; the electric charge on the atom is
 Location: nucleus zero!
 Relative: 1836
Electron Arrangement
 Mass in kg: 1.673 x 10-27
 The number of electrons in the outermost
 Mass in amu: 1.00728
shell of an atom = group in the periodic
 Number: 1
table & determines the valence of an atom
 Charge: 1
 The number of outermost electron shell of
 Symbol: + an atom = period in the periodic table
Neutron Maximum Electrons Per Shell
 Location: nucleus 
Formula: 2n2
 Relative: 1838
 Mass in kg: 1.675 x 10-27 Principal Quantum Number
 Mass in amu: 1.00867  The shell number (n)
 Number: 1
 Charge: 0 No outer shell can contain more than eight
 Symbol: O electrons!

Atomic Mass Unit Orderly Scheme of Atomic Progression

 The mass of a neutral atom of an element  Interrupted in fourth period
 Symbol: amu
 1 amu: ½ the mass of a carbon-12 atom Transitional elements
 Atoms associated with the phenomenon
Atomic Mass Number mentioned above
 Number of protons plus number of neutrons
in the nucleus Centripetal Force
 Symbol: A  Center-seeking force
 Formula: protons + neutrons  The force that keeps an electron in orbit
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ATOMIC STRUCTURE Centrifugal Force
 Flying-out-from-the-center force
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The atom is essentially empty space!  The force that causes an electron to travel
straight and leave the atom
Neutral Atom
 Same number of electrons & protons

STEWART C. BUSHONG SUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO

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 CHAPTER 3
THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER

Electron Binding Energy Protocol for Representing Elements in a Molecule

 The strength of attachment of an electron to  Upper Left: atomic mass (A)
the nucleus  Lower Left: atomic number (Z)
 Symbol: Eb  Upper Right: valence state (+/-)
 Lower Right: number of atoms/molecules
Tungsten (W-74) & Molybdenum (Mo-42)
 The primary constituents of x-ray tube target CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME ELEMENTS
IMPORTANT TO RADIOLOGIC SCIENCE
Barium (Ba-56) & Iodine (I-53) Naturally
 Radiographic & fluoroscopic contrast agents Chemical
Element Z A Occurring
Symbol
Isotopes
Carbon (C-6) Beryllium Be 4 9 1
 The important component of human tissue Carbon C 6 12 3
Oxygen O 8 16 3
Ionization Potential Aluminum Al 13 27 1
 The amount of energy (34 keV) necessary to Calcium Ca 20 40 6
ionize tissue atoms Iron Fe 26 56 4
Copper Cu 29 63 2
ATOMIC NOMENCLATURE Molybdenum Mo 42 98 7
Ruthenium Ru 44 102 7
Chemical Symbols Rhodium Rh 45 103 5
 The alphabetic abbreviations of an element Silver Ag 47 107 2
Tin Sn 50 120 10
Number & Arrangement of Electrons Iodine I 53 127 1
 It determines the chemical properties of an Barium Ba 56 138 7
element Tungsten W 74 184 5
Rhenium Re 75 186 2
Atomic number Gold Au 79 197 1
 Number of Protons Lead Pb 80 208 4
 Symbol: Z Uranium U 92 238 3

Atomic Mass Number CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS

 Number protons plus number of neutrons NUCLEAR ARRANGEMENTS
 Symbol: A Atomic
Atomic Neutron
Arrangement Mass
Number Number
The atomic number & the precise mass of an Number
atom are not equal! Isotope same different different
Isobar different same different
Carbon-12 Atom Isotone different different same
 Its A & Z are equal
12
Isomer same same same
 Rationale: it is the arbitrary standard for
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atomic measure Technetium-99m (Tc-43)

 It decays to technetium-99
Elemental Mass  Energy Emitted:140 keV gamma rays
 It is determined by the relative abundance of
isotopes & their respective atomic masses

STEWART C. BUSHONG SUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO

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 CHAPTER 3
THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER

COMBINATIONS OF ATOMS transforms itself into another atom to reach

stability
Molecules  It occurs when the nucleus contains too few
 The group of atoms of various elements or too many neutrons
 The smallest unit of a compound Radioisotopes
 Radioactive atoms that have the same
Sodium chloride (NaCl) number of protons
 Common table salt
Uranium (U-92) & Carbon-14
Chemical Compound  Two primary source of naturally occurring
 Any quantity of one type of molecule radioisotopes

CHON (C-6, H-1, O-8, N-7) Beta Emission

 Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen  It occurs in all radioisotopes
 90% of the human body  It occurs more frequently than alpha
emission
Water  Results:
 80% of the human body o Loss of small quantity of mass & one
unit of negative electric charge
Covalent Bond o To increase the Z by one while A
 The chemical union between atoms formed remains the same
by sharing one or more pairs of electrons o Changing of an atom from one type
 Example: H2O of element to another
 Neutron undergoes conversion to a proton
Ionic Bond
 The bonding that occurs because of an Alpha Emission
electrostatic force between ions  It occurs only in heavy radioisotopes
 Example: NaCl  It is much more violent process
 It is consists of 2 protons & 2 neutrons
Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)  Atomic Mass Number: 4
 Baking soda  Results:
o Nucleus loses 2 units of positive
The smallest particle of an element is an atom; charge & 4 units of mass
the smallest particle of a compound is a o Chemically different atom & an
molecule! atom lighter than 4 amu

RADIOACTIVITY Radioactive Half-life

 The time required for a quantity of
Radioactivity radioactivity to be reduced to one-half its
 The emission of particles & energy in order
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original value
to become stable  Symbol: T1/2
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 I-131: T1/2 = 8 days

Radioactive Decay/Radioactive Disintegration  C-14: T1/2 = 5730 days
 The process by which the nucleus
spontaneously emits particles & energy &

STEWART C. BUSHONG SUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO

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 CHAPTER 3
THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER

Radioactive Decay Law  Antimatter

 It described the rate of radioactive decay &
the quantity of material present at any given Electromagnetic Radiation
time  Examples: x-rays & gamma rays
 Formula: Activity Remaining = Original  They only differ in origin
Activity (0.5)n  It is often called photons
 n: number of half lives  It has unlimited range in matter

TYPES OF IONIZING RADIATION Photons

 No mass & no charge
Five Physical Characteristics  Travel at the speed of light (c)
 Mass, Energy, Velocity, Charge & Origin  c: 3 x 108 m/s or 1.86 x 105 mi/s

Particulate Radiation X-rays and gamma rays are the only forms of
 It has finite range in matter ionizing electromagnetic radiation of
 Examples: alpha & beta Particles radiologic interest!

Alpha Particle X-rays

 Equivalent to a helium nucleus  Symbol: X
 It contains 2 protons & 2 neutrons  Mass: 0
 Symbol: α  Charge: 0
 Mass: 4 amu  Origin: electron cloud
 Charge: +2  Energy: 0-25 MeV
 Origin: nucleus of heavy radioactive nuclei  Range: 0-100 m (air); 0-30 cm (soft tissue)
 Energy: 4-7 MeV  Ionization Rate: 100 ip/cm (equal to beta
 Range: 1-10 cm (air); <0.1 mm (soft tissue) particles)
 Ionization Rate: 40,000 atoms/cm
Gamma Rays
Beta Particle  Symbol: γ
 Light particles  Mass: 0
 Symbol: β- or β+  Charge: 0
 Mass: 0 amu  Origin: nucleus/radioactive nuclei
 Charge: -1 or +1  Energy: 0-5 MeV
 Origin: nucleus of radioactive nuclei  Range: 0-100 m (air); 0-30 cm (soft tissue)
 Energy: 0-7 MeV  Ionization Rate: 100 ip/cm (equal to beta
 Range: 10-100 cm (air); 1-2 cm (soft tissue) particles)
 Ionization Rate: several hundred of
atoms/cm Nonionizing Radiation
 A type of radiation used in UTZ & MRI
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Negative Beta Particles

 The same with electrons, they only differ in
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origin

Positive Beta Particles

 The same mass with electrons
 Positrons
STEWART C. BUSHONG SUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO
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