N952StbPi99S Engineering Seismology

Earthquake Field and

Training Unit (EFTU)
Earthquake Engineering

Selected Engineering Seismology

and Structural Engineering Studies
of the Hyogo-ken Nanbu
II (Great Hanshin) Earthquake
I of 17 January 1995

I AS. Elnashai
J.J. Bommer
C.I. Baron
DLee
A.!. Salama

Civil Engineering Department

Imperial College, London SW7 2BU, UK
 Acknowledgements

Many organisations and individuals contributed to the success of the EFTU mission to
Japan. It would have not been possible to undertake the mission, with four
researchers, without the fimding provided by The Royal Society and the Royal
Academy of Engineering as well as the British Council (Japan). Partial funding was
also provided by the Human Capital and Mobility networks “Prenormative Research in
Support of EC8” and “European Network on Earthquake Structural Engineering”.
Special thanks are also due to Dr. RE. Sowden, Science Officer at the British Council,
for his continuing support and advice, and also to Mr. T. Tsuji of the British Council.

The team is deeply indebted to Professor K Takanashi (Institute of Industrial Science,

University of Tokyo) who co-ordinated the site visits and meetings with Japanese
colleagues. Moreover, Professor M. Nakashima (Kyoto University), Professor T,
Katayama, Professor K Ohi, Professor F. Yamazaki and Professor K Meguro (all of
115), Professor Y. Fukumoto (Osaka University) and Dr. H. Taniguchi (Obayashi
Corporation) all helped in organisational and technical matters. Our thanks are also
due to Messrs. Seki and Nagashima of the Hanshin Expressway Public Corporation
and to Mr. Naganuma ofthe same organisation, Gratitude is also due to Professor N.
Tokouka, Honorary Secretary of the IC Alumni Club in Japan (South Kensington
Kai).

Invaluable support was offered by Professor K Ishihara of the Science University of

Tokyo and his team. In particular, Dr. Y. Tsukamoto, who accompanied us on field
investigations on Awaji Island and in the Rokko Mountains. These visits were made
possible by Dr. K. Miyajima of Chuo Kaihatsu Corporation and Dr. M. Yamagata of
the Nonshu-Shikoku Bridge Authority who provided transportation and guidance in
the field. The visit to the Nigawa landslide and damaged areas around Maya Island
and Ashiya were made possible by Mr. N. Sugiyama of the Kiso-Jiban Corporation
and also Mr. N. Murata of the same organisation. We also wish to extend our thanks
to Prof K Sassa and his team at Kyoto University. Dr. C. VillacIs of OYO
Corporation also provided useful support.

Many individuals and organisations helped the EFTI.J team in various ways and we beg
their forgiveness if we have missed any names.

The team wishes to record with deep gratitude the hospitality shown to us by all of the
above mentioned individuals and several others, who impressed upon us the
friendliness and warmth of the Japanese people.

In the UK, support was given by several people. Professor N.N. Ambraseys, Senior
Research Fellow, was an invaluable source of guidance for the field work, and Dr. Ri.
Jardine, Reader in Soil Mechanics, generously presented the team to many of his
colleagues in Japan. Mr. A. Papazoglou, post-graduate student in earthquake
engmeenng at Imperial College, expertly executed the analysis of strong-motion, a
proportion of which as part of his MSc dissertation. Mr. A. Martinez, Phi) student in
engineering seismology, selflessly assisted with the compilation and editing of the final
version of the report. As ever, our secretary Diane Ryan, provided full and reliable
support from base while we were in the field.

1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements i
Table of Contents ii
List of Tables v
List of Plates V
List of Figures vi

L PREAMBLE 1

2. OVERVIEW OF THE EARTHQUAKE 4

3. GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING 6

3.1 Profile and demography of the Kansai region 7

3.2 Geology and geomorphology of the Kobe area 9
3.3 Geology and geomorphology of Awaji Island 11

4. TECTONIC SETTING AND SEISMIC HISTORY 14

4.1 Tectonics of Japan and the Kausai region 14

4.2 Seismicity of Japan and the Kansai region 17
4.3 Seismic history of the Hyogo-ken Nanbu area 22

5. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EARTHQUAKE

AND GEOTECHNICAL EFFECTS 30

5.1 Location and magnitude ofthe earthquake 30

5.2 Fault rupture associated with the earthquake 33
5.3 Iiitensity distribution 38
5.4 Earthquake-triggered landslides 41
5.5 Liquefaction failures 44

6. INTERPRETATION OF STRONG-MOTION DATA 47

6.1 Strong-motion recordings of the earthquake 47

6,2 Characteristics and attenuation ofhorizontal PGA 49
6.3 Characteristics and attenuation of vertical PGA 52
6.4 Ratio ofvertical to horizontal ground motions 53
6.5 Attenuation of response spectral ordinates 56
6.6 Ground motion amplification and special arrays 68

II
7. STRUCTURAL EFFECTS 74

7.1 Overall assessment of damage 74

7.1.1 Reinforced concrete bridges 74

7,1.2 Steel bridges 74
7.1.3 Reinforced concrete buildings 75
7.1.4 Steel buildings 76
7.1.5 Base isolated structures 76

7.2 Ductility demand spectra and comparison with Northridge 77

7.3 Strcutural effects of the vertical earthquake ground motion 80

8. OVERVIEW OF DAMAGE TO HiGHWAY STRUCTURES 107

8.1 Damage in previous earthquakes 107

8.1.1 The Great Kanto (ML=7.9) earthquake of 1923 107

8.1.2 The Nanki (ML8.1) earthquake of 1946 107
8.1.3 Fukui (ML=7.3) earthquake of 1948 107
8.1.4 The earthquakes of 1949, 1952 and 1962 108
8.1.5 The Niigata (ML=7.5) earthquake of 1964 108
8.1.6 The Ebino (ML=
.1) and Tokachi-Oki(ML7.9)
6
earthquakes of 1968 108
8.1.7 The Miyagi-ken Oki (ML=7.4) earthquake of 1978 108
) earthquake of 1983
8.1.8 The Nikou-kai Chubu (ML=
.
7 109
8.1.9 The Kushiro-oki (ML =7.8) earthquake 1993 109
8.1.10 The Hokkaido Nansai old (ML=7.8) earthquake of 1993 109

8.2 Effects of the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake 110

9. THE HANSHIN EXPRESSWAY 115

9.1 Case study I - Piers 124-142; Fukae-Honcho structure 115

9. 1.1 General description and structural characteristics 115

9.1.2 Description of the damage 121
9.1.3 Modelling of the structure 124
9. 1.4 Static and dynamic analysis of the structure 130
9.1.5 Commentsontheresults 131

lii
 9.2 Case study 2 Piers 663, 664 and 665 of the Hanshin Expressway
- 132

9.2.1 General description and structural characteristics 132

9.2.2 Description of damage 135
9.2.3 Modelling assumptions 135
9.2.4 Static and dynamic analysis results 136
9.2.5 Comments on failure modes 142

10. CONCLUSIONS 143

REFERENCES 145

APPENDIX I THE GREAT 1891 EARTHQUAKE

APPENDIX 2 REVIEW OF SEISMIC HAZARD STUDIES FOR JAPAN

APPENDIX 3 DEVELOPMENT OF JAPANESE SEISMIC CODES

APPENDIX 4 STRONG-MOTION RECORDS

APPENDIX 5 CASE STUDIES OF REPAIRED STRUCTURES

LIST OF ESEE RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS

v
 List of Tables
I
11 Field missions by Earthquake Field Trammg Umt 1962-1995

3 1 Demography of Kobe and neighbourmg cities

4 1 Major destructive earthquakes m Japan since 1891

42 Observations of different mtenslty levels m Kobe, Osaka and Tokyo 1944-93
4.3 Earthquakeswithin 1.5°ofKobe 1900-1965
4.4 Earthquakes within 1.5° of Kobe 1964-1987
45 Characteristics and seismic potential of faults in the vicmity of Kobe

6.1 Characteristics of digital records presented in this report

6.2 Results from processing strong ground-motion records
6.3 Regression coefficients for the equation of Kawashima eta!. (1984>
6.4 Peak acceleration, velocity and displacement at different depths recorded by the
Port Island array

7.1 Characteristics of selected Northridge and Kobe records

7.2 Ductility demand characteristics for selected Northridge and Kobe records
7.3 Characteristics of JMA and Sylmar records
7.4 Peak ground acceleration ratio (vertical:horizontal)

8.1 Principal highway structural damage

8.2 Damaged transportation structures by year of issue of design code

9.1 Ductility supply and demand for piers 127-142

9.2 Material strength and ductility comparisons
9,3 Maximum and minimum static and dynamic axial forces on piers of Hanshin
Expresvay
9.4 Strength characteristics of piers of Hanshin Expressway

Al. 1 Numbers of earthquakes in Gifu-Nagaya and Tokyo during six years prior to
the 1891 Mino-Owori earthquake

List of Plates

9.1 Hanshin Expressway, Kobe Route 3: section collapse from Kobe side
9.2 Hanshin Expressway, Kobe Route 3: Pilz deck pier base failure
9.3 Hanshin Expressway, Kobe Route 3: hinge at base reinforcement cut-off
9.4 Hanshin Expressway, Kobe Route 3: column separation due to tension generated
in longitudinal reinforcement on overturning
9.5 Failure mode of pier P-664 of Hanshin Expressway

v
List of Figures

3 1 Map of Japan showing location of Kobe

3.2 Map of Kobe and neighbouring cities
3 3 Cross-section showing topography m Kobe
3 4 Soil conditions m the Kobe area
3 5 Strcutural geology of the Awaji/Kobe area
3 6 Geology of Awaji Island
3 7 Cross-section of the Nojima fault

4 1 Tectomc plate boundanes and major mterplate earthquakes in Japan

4 2 Median Tectonic Line in Japan
4 3 Intraplate faults in Japan
4 4 Major mtraplate faults m the Kansai
4 5 Major faults in the Awaji IslandfKobe area
4 6 Earthquakes m Japan fiom 1961 to 1994
4 7 Earthquakes in Japan from 679 to 1872
4 8 Earthquakes in Japan from 1881 to 1993
4 9 Major mtiaplate earthquakes in Japan
4 10 Laige earthquakes in the Kansai region
4 11 Seismic hazard cun es foi Kobe
4 12 Hazai d curves for Kobe usmg earthquake data and actm e fault data
4 13 Hazard curves for Kobe in terms of earthquake magnitude
4 14 Hazard curves for Kobe in terms of epicentral distance of earthquakes
4 15 Seismic hazaid curves for Kobe and Tokyo

5 1 Saturation of magmtude scales

5.2 Epicentres of the seismic activity associated with the earthquake
5.3 Centroid moment tensor solution for the earthquake
5.4 Faults in the Awaji Island and Kobe areas
5.5 Faults associated with the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake
5.6 The Akashi-Kaikyo bridge
5.7 Displacement ofAkashi-Kaikyo bridge piers due to the earthquake
5.8 Permanent displacements associated with the earthquake measured by JGSI
5.9 Relation among JMA and other intensity scales
5.10 Area of highest intensity in the Awaji-Kobe area
5.11 Distribution of earthquake intensity
5.12 Cross-section of landslide at Nigawa City
5.13 Results of slope stability analysis for Nigawa slide
5.14 Areas of liquefaction around Kobe Port and Rokko and Port Islands
5.15 Grain size distribution of liquefied material
5.16 Cross-sections of container berths on Port and Rokko Islands

vi
 6 1 Observed values of PGA compared to mean prediction from the Fukushima &
: Tanaka (1990) model, and the curves for rock and soft soil sites
6.2 PGA from the earthquake and the mean and mean ± one standard deviation
accelerations from the equation of Ambraseys & Bommer (199 1)
6.3 Observed values ofvertical PGA compared to predictive equation of Ambraseys &
Bommer (1991) for mean and mean ± one standard deviation values
6.4 Peak horizontal and vertical accelerations
65 Peak vertical to horizontal ratio versus distance from epicentre
66 Peak vertical to horizontal ratio for structural response records
67 Compansson of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Abeno station
6.8 Comparisson of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Amagasaki station
6.9 Comparisson of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Pl{RI Amagasaki
station
6.10 Comparisson of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Chihaya station
6,11 Conarisson of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Fukui station
6.12 Comparisson of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Fukushima station
6.13 Comparisson of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Hikone station
6.14 Comparisson of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Kobe JMA station
6.15 Comparisson of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Kobe #8 station
6.16 Comparisson of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for PHRI Kobe station
6.17 Comparisson of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Kobe University
station
6.18 Comparisson of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Kobe (Motoyama)
station
6.19 Comparisson of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Maizuru station
6.20 Comparisson of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Morigawachi station
6.21 Comparisson of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Okayama station
6 22 Compansson of actual and predicted spectral ordmates for Osaka station
6.23 Comparisson of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Port Island station
6.24 Comparisson of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Sakai station
6.25 Comparisson of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Tadaoka station
6.26 Comparisson of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Tottori station
6.27 Comparisson of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Yae station
6.28 Soil profile for Port Island array
6.29 East-Weast components-acceleration, velocity and displacement at depth
6.30 North-South components-acceleration, velocity and displacement at depth
6.31 Vertical components-acceleration, velocity and displacement at depth

7.1 The elastic and inelastic spectra of Northridge earthquake: Arleta Fire Station
7.2 The elastic and inelastic spectra of Northridge earthquake: Newhall Fire Station
7.3 The elastic and inelastic spectra of Northridge earthquake: Pacoima Dam Down
Stream
7.4 The elastic and inelastic spectra of Northridge earthquake: Syhnar Hospital
7.5 The elastic and inelastic spectra of Northridge earthquake: Santa Monica City Hall
7.6 The elastic and inelastic spectra of Kobe earthquake: Kobe JMA

vii
77 The elastic and inelastic spectra of Kobe earthquake Kobe Port Island GL
7 8 The elastic and melastic spectra of Kobe earthquake Abeno
7 9 The elastic and melastic spectra of Kobe earthquake Fukushmia
7. 10 The elastic and inelastic spectra of Kobe earthquake: Hikone
7 11 The elastic and melastic spectra of Kobe earthquake Kobe Umversit
7 12 The elastic and melastic spectra of Kobe earthquake Morigaachi
7.13 The elastic and inelastic spectra of Kobe earthquake: Sakai
7 14 The elastic and inelastic spectra of Kobe earthquake Tadaoka
7 15 The elastic and inelastic spectia of Kobe earthquake Yae
7 16 Inelastic spectra for 2% and 5% dampmg for the Sylmar record
7 17 Inelastic spectra for 2% and 5% dampmg for the Kobe JMA record
7 18 Bi-linear bi-diiectional vertical spectra (BBVS) of Northndge earthquake Aileta
Fire Station
7 19 Bi-Imear bi-directional vertical spectra (BBVS) of Nortlmdge earthquake
Newhall Fire Station
7 20 Bi-lmeai l,i-directional vertical spectra (BBVS) of Northridge earthquake Sylmai
Hospital
7 21 13i-hnear bi-directional vertical spectia (BBVS) of Kobe earthquake Kobe JMA
7 22 Bi-linear bi-duectional vertical spectia (BBVS) of Kobe earthquake Kobe Port
Island GL
7 23 Bi-linear bi-directional ertical spectra (BBVS) of Kobe earthquake Kobe
Umversity

8 1 Locations ofprmcipal expressway structure failures

9 1 General layout of Hanshin expressway Kobe Route 3

92 Haushin expressway Kobe Route 3 deck connection detail
93 Hanshm expressway Kobe Route 3 column remforcement detail
9.4 Hanshin expressway, Kobe Route 3: pilecap and pile reinforcement detail
O i1 hnrp Jn iui PT bc
9.6 Complete ADAPTIC model of expressway
9.7 Single unit model and model elements
9.8 Sections used for various parts of the structure.
9.9 Soil-structure interaction model
9.10 Soil action-deformation curve
9.11 Layout and dimensions of piers P-663, P-664 and P-665 of Hanshin expressway
9.12 Dimensions of RC piers and deck girders of Hanshin expressway
9. 13 Shear capacity and demand versus time with and without vertical earthquake
motion for sections at the bottom of the piers
9.14 Shear capacity and demand versus time with and without vertical earthquake
motion for sections at the reinforcement cut-off
9. 15 Axial force and bending moment versus time with and without vertical
earthquake motion for sections at the bottom of the piers
9.16 Axial force and bending moment versus time with and without vertical
earthquake motion for sections at the reinforcement cut-off

viii
1. Preamble

In recognition of the essential role of field observation of the effects of damaging

earthquakes in advancing safe and economic seismic design, the Earthquake Field
Training Unit (EFTU) of the Engineering Seismology and Earthquake Engineering
(ESEE) Section at Imperial College continues to allocate considerable resources to
field work. Over the past 25 years or so, almost 40 field missions have been launched
(Table 1.1). Most of these missions resulted in timely reports which include studies of
various engineering seismology and earthquake structural engineering aspects of the
events under consideration. It is a deliberate policy that EFTU does not publish
observational and statistical accounts of events; this is best left to local groups who
have better access to sites and information. Consequently, EFTU reports typically
include processing and interpretation of strong-motion, estimation of structural
demands and back-analyses of important structures. A list of ESEE reports is given at
the end of this document.

Certain earthquakes are remembered in history as being of special significance. This

could be due to the totally unexpected occurrence of an earthquake, such as the
Dahshour (Egypt) earthquake of 12 October 1992, the devastation of the area affected
with a very high death toll, such as the Maharashtra (India) earthquake of 1994, or the
unexpected level of damage in an area known to be prepared for earthquakes, such as
the Northridge (USA) earthquake of 17 January 1994. The Hyogo-ken Nanbu
earthquake, the subject of this report, combines, to a large degree, all the above. The
area affected was categorised as being of lower short-term seismic hazard than Tokyo,
Japan is one of the most earthquake-prepared countries in the world, and the loss of
nearly 6,000 lives is very high by any standards. It is therefore expected that this
earthquake will occupy workers in this important field for many years to come. The
lessons learnt fiom the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake will iduence future decisions
not only in Japan, but also worldwide.

A decision was taken in the immediate aftermath of the earthquake not to send an
investigation team to Japan. This was to respect the request issued by Japanese
authorities, whose priority was to focus all attention and resources on rescue and
recovery. It was also clear that collecting data would not be possible and that many
local earthquake engineering groups were better placed than EFTU in issuing quick
overview reports. Plans were therefore drawn to launch an investigation mission in
Spring, allowing time for hd-raising for the mission. Applications made by EFTU to
The Royal Society and The Royal Academy of Engineering were successful whilst the
British Council provided support within the on-going Collaborative Research
Programme between the Institute of Industrial Science (University of Tokyo) and
Imperial College. Top-up h d i n g was provided by the European networks
'Renormative Research in Support of EC8" and "European Network on Earthquake
Structural Engineering".

A four-man field team was assembled, comprising Professor A.S. Elnashai, Drs. J.J.
Bommer and A.I. Salama and Mr. C.I. Baron. The group spent approximately one
week in the Hyogo Prefecture and another week in Tokyo. Site visits, field survey and
meetings with Japanese colleagues were undertaken. Subsequent analysis of the
collected data started as soon as the group returned to the U K In assessing
seismological and structural effects of this earthquake, reference is often made to
relevant data fiom Northridge. This is because both events have shaken not only man-
made structures, but also some flmdamental beliefs in earthquake engineering. Further
work according to the rnteiests of the ESEE Section actrities and ongorng reseaich
programmes, is expected to continue for several years.

After an overview of the earthquake and its characteristics, this report sets the
geographical and tectonic scene for the area affected by the earthquake. The seismic
history of the Hyogo Prefecture is also discussed. This is followed by a study of the
engmeenng seismology charactenstics and geotechmcal effects of the earthquake
alongside a fill treatment of the available strong-motion data, in terms of spectra.
attenuation characteristics, amplification and code comparisons. The structural effects
of strong-motion records are rn’estigated by studying first the ductility demands
imposed by a selection of the available records and secondly by the upwards and
downwards forces imposed by the vertical component of earthquake motion. in view
of the very high peak ground acceleration measured in the vicinity of the source
(approximately 0. 84g) and the clearly noticed high vertical component of many
records (up to I 63 times the larger of the two horizontal peaks), these studies are
deemed of particular significance.

An analytical assessment of two of the Hanshin Expressway RC bridges is undertaken,

using advanced inelastic dynamic analysis. The observed damage is correlated with
analytical results and gives insight into the stress and strain state near collapse.

Special interest appendices are included, covering one of the earliest reported
earthquakes in Hyogo Prefecture (the Great Earthquake of 1891), previous seismic
hazard studies, the recent history of seismic codes in Japan, and a large set of
uniformly processed strong-motion records. Since one of the objectives of the mission
was to study the applied repair schemes, comments are offered on the methods used in
the affected area and the possible future response of the repaired structures.

It is hoped that this report will contribute to the wealth of studies on this earthquake,
and that the rnformation included hereafter reflects the expertise of the EFTU group
both in field observations and in analysis of earthquake data, seismological and
structural.

I
* More than one visit

UN W e d Natiaos WB WorldBank
RS The Royal Society PPC Public Power Corporaticn,Greece
ICSr Imperial College BC B&Council,Japan
W Rendel, Palmer and Tritton Consulting Engineers RAE The Royal Academy of Engineering
NERC Natural Envirmmmt Research Council EC European Community
BP B k e & Partners C d g Engineas NTUA Tedmical Ulivasity of Athms

Table 1.1: Field missions by the Earthquake Field Training Unit (EFTU) 1962- 1995.
 2. Overview of the Earthquake

At 5:46 am local time on 17 January 1995, a magnitude 7.2 earthquake hit south
central Japan, causing very considerable casualties and damage. The total death toll
was 5,420, with 24,580 injuries and more than 150,000 houses severely damaged or
destroyed. The direct economic loss, excluding that from death, business disruption
and loss ofproductnity as estimated at 13 trillion yen (approximately £100 billion)
the highest damage bill ever inflicted by an earthquake. Comparison with ratios of
economic loss to number of fatalities in previous earthquakes around the world marks
out the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake as spectacularly costly. The ratio of economic
loss to number of deaths caused by earthquakes in Japan this century (Coburn &
Spence, 1992) has increased by an order of magnitude as a result of the Hyogo-ken
Nanbu earthquake.

The main shock was preceded by two foreshocks (DPRJ, 1995) on 16 January of
magnitude 3.3 (18:29) and 2.6 (18:49 hours), and was followed by a very large
number of aftershocks. It is believed to be a multiple shock consisting of a sequence
of three ruptures initiating in the Akashi straits region. The fault parameters of the
earthquake are as follows (Mi, I 995a):

Focal mechanism strike 233°, dip 85°, slip 165°

Seismic moment 2.5x 10’ N.m
Fault area 40x 10 km
Relative displacement 2.1 m
Stress drop 100-200 bar
Main rupture duration 11 seconds

Peak ground accelerations recorded in the epicentral region indicate exceptionally high
horizontal shaking (in the region of 0.8g) often coupled with very high vertical
excitation (greater than 0.3g). Source models indicated that the fracture propagated
towards Kobe City from the northern tip of Awaji island. This may explain the very
high level of damage in the area affected. which could have been influenced by
focusing and over-riding wave propagation effects. With a very large number of
instruments triggered in this event, it will take considerable time and effort to study
the strong-motion characteristics and effects of this earthquake. It is noteworthy that
vertical arrays have also been triggered. This will give a chance for the study of
vertical propagation of seismic waves and the effects of site characteristics on
horizontal and vertical strong-motion records (Zeghal et al., 1995).

There is a weahb of geotechnical effects associated with this earthquake, from

slumping by several metres of the man-made Port Island to large sand boils on Awaji
Island. Permanent settlement in excess of 80 cm was also measured on the towers of
the Akashi-Kaikyo bridge, the longest suspension bridge in the world with 1990
metres span (which increased to 1,991 metres after the earthquake!). One landslide, at
Nishinomiya City, killed 34 people and destroyed eight houses. Only one other major
landslide was observed and this is attributed to the fact that the earthquake occurred
during the dry season (Kamon et a!, 1995).

Worst hit were residential timber houses with heavy roof tiles and transportation
structures. For example, 18 spans (635 m) of the elevated road owned by the Hanshin
Expressway Public Corporation at Fukae Honcho collapsed, amongst many others
4
(Ishizuka eta!, 1995). The City and Port of Kobe were very heavily hit, with 90% of
the Port 187 berths destroyed (EQE 1995) whilst more than 150 fires iaged through
the area. Approximately 2,000 ruptures of the water supply system occurred thus
hampering the fire-fighting effort,

All types of engineered structures suffered exceptionally and unexpectedly high levels
of damage with an average of 20-25% total collapse oi very heavy damage 12-20%
moderate damage and a veiy small percentage of mtact structuies This applies to
steel, composite and reinforced concrete and mixed structures. Damage to steel
structures caused particular alarm, since it coafirms the vulnerability of steel in seismic
regions first questioned in the wake of the Northridge earthquake of 17 January 1994.
Connection cracking and severe local and panel buckling was observed hi buildings
and bridge piers.

Amongst the peculiarities of the effects of this earthquake was the collapse of
intermediate floors in medium and high rise structures. It is evident that the ground
floor is subjected to the highest ductility demand in most structures, and is also
subjected to the highest vertical load, hence P-ô effects, The collapse of an
intermediate floor is therefore worthy of detailed studies. Moreover, it was observed
that failure modes of several bridge piers occurred in a near-perfect symmetry about
the vertical axis, which may indicate that the vertical component has played a
significant role in the heavy damage inflicted by the earthquake.

This earthquake has re-emphasised many lessons that should have been learnt from
previous damaging events and has re-issued warnings that should have been heeded.
The observed effects also carry new lessons that may take many months to be filly
defined and many years to be taken into account. It is hoped that this report not only
contributes to the former re-issuing of warnings, but also, and more importantly, to
the latter activity of distilling and formulating new lessons.

5
3. Geographical Setting

The City of Kobe lies approximately 400 km to the south west of Tokyo, 40 km west
fiom Osaka, in Hyogo prefecture, Japan. Hyogo prefecture is one of a total of 47
prefectures into which Japan is subdivided and forms part of the subgroup along with
six other prefectures (Shiga, Mie, Nara, Kyoto, Wakayama and Osaka) that are
collectively referred to as the Kausai, or more formally the Kinki district. The Kansai
encompasses the southwestern portion of the main island of Honshu and forms part of
the Japanese industrial heartland which extends fiom Nagoya down to Hiroshima.
Figure 3.1 shows the location of Kobe on a map of Japan.

Figure 3.1 : Map showing location of Kobe in Japan;

shading indicates area covered by Figure 3.2
 Kobe is located at the southernmost end of Hyogo prefecture, on the alluvial flats
running between the Rokko Mountain Chain and Osaka Bay. The location of Kobe
with respect to the neighbouring cities of Ashiya, Nishinomiya. Takarazuka.
Amagasaki and Osaka are shown in Figure 3.2.

rigure ..2 Map snowing Kobe and nelgnbounng cities

Awaji Island is located between the main island of Honshu and the island of Shikoku,
approximately 15 kilometres from Kobe across Osaka Bay and the Akashi Kaikyo
Straits. Figure 32 also indicates major transport lines including the location of the
new Kansai International Airport (wholly constructed on reclaimed land) which
commenced operation in late 1994.

31 Profile and demography of the Kansai region

The Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake is of particular importance for earthquake

engineering because it is a major earthquake that has been a direct hit on a very heavily
populated area within which housing, engineered structures and industrial facilities had
been designed to resist earthquakes. Table 2.1 shows population statistics for some
areas worst hit by the earthquake.

7
 Location Area (km
)
2 Population Pop. Density Households
(per km)
Kobe 544 1,438,000 2,643 538,000

Nishinomiya 99 413,000 4,171 154,000

Ashiya 17 86,000 5,059 32,000

Hokudancho 51 12,000 235 4,000

(Awaji Island)

Table 3.1: Demography of Kobe and neighbouring cities

The earthquake has been widely referred to as the Kobe earthquake in the west, but is
generally known as the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake in Japan, referring to the area in
which it occurred. In Japan, the actual destructive event and its tragic consequences,
are referred to as the Great Hanshin Disaster. The Hanshin region encompassing the
area between and including Kobe and Osaka south of the Rokko Mountain chain is a
sprawling economic zone of approximately 12 million people. The Hanshin region
represents over 12% of Japan’s industrial output and ranks as one of the largest
economies in Asia.

Kobe is the sixth largest city in Japan and has been a major international trading port
since 1868. The city received a boost following the 1923 Great Kanto Earthquake.
following which large number of shipping and trading companies relocated to the area
from Yokohama and Tokyo.

Kobe sustained heavy damage in the closing days of World War II, from Allied
incendiary bombing which resulted in most of Kobe and the surrounding region being
burnt to the ground. Following the war, construction materials were scarce forcing
inhabitants to use poor construction techniques and materials. It was many of these
older post-war houses that sustained heavy damage during the earthquake. Cheaper
housing appears on the reclaimed land close to the wharves, while the better
constructed houses occupy the lower slopes of Rokko Mountain.

Kobe is a vital link in Japan’s national transportation network. With mountains running
parallel to the coast, most of the highways and railroads have been constructed along
the coastal flats and most of these, including the bullet train, run through Kobe.

The Port of Kobe is the second largest container port in Japan. Construction of the
man-made Port Island commenced in stages from 1966 and was completed in 1981.
and this was followed by the construction of Rokko Island which was completed in
1990. Kobe port handles on average 30% of Japan’s total containerised cargo, some
2,700,000 containers per annum.

8
 3.2 Geology and geomorphology of the Kobe Area

The geology and geomorphology of the area of the Kansai including Kobe and the
Rokko Mountains in described in detail by Huzita et a!. (1971); only a very general
overview of the area is described here.

Kobe and the neighbouring cities of Ashiya and Nishinomiya lie on the western side of
Osaka Bay, occupying the southern lowlands extending doi from the base of the
Rokko Mountain Chain. The lowland formation runs along the mountain chain in a
north easterly direction. The Rokko Mountain Chain consists of several fault blocks
with steep escarpments on the ocean side, as can be seen in Figure 3.3. The slopes on
the inland side however tend to be less steep and such non-symmetrical topography is a
characteristic ofthe region.

Mountain areas of an elevation in excess of 300 metres are essentially composed of

base rock such as granite and granodiorite with surrounding lower regions consisting
of sedimentary blanket layers. The lowland formation extending from the mountain to
the coast is the result of water run-off creating a narrow flood belt and zones
consisting of numerous inter-connecting alluvial fans. The river courses in the area are
dictated by the fault fracture system.

S
Elevation (m)
Elevation (m)
+120
+120
Rokkosan Range
100

T /

Alluvia] fan terra Al” Gr + 4-

+ 50
-
JRLine T
Jomon Coast Line (EL
T£ j -
.

• Alluvial lowland • +

o
—

± .

.4-
Og (Osaka Group) F,
—20 +
I
- -
Mat - -
-20

Figure 33: Cross-section of Kobe area. Al alluvium and T terraces,

- -

(Chuo Kaihatsu Corporation, 1995)

9
tii
I

0
0
 The name Kobe Group is given to Tertiary sediments occuning to the north of the
Akashi Strait (between Awaji Island and Kobe). The group is considered to be middle
to late Miocene and is essentially made up of sandstone, mudstone and tuff
conglomerates.

The Osaka Group also dominates the region, distributed beneath the alluvial plain of
Osaka and Osaka Bay. The group is classified as Plo-Pleistocene consisting of sand,
gravel and clay.

Figure 3.4 shows the soil conditions within Kobe and it can be seen that there is a
significant amount of reclaimed land along the bayside in addition to the predominantly
soft belt of sandy-clay between the coast and the mountain range.

—
— \SENR

— IAU

A
‘
\ t45HINOUI’rA

4 -,

14

ETh

Figure 3.5: Structural geology of Kobe area: 1-Osaka group, 2-Kobe group, 3-
rhyolitic and palaeozoic rocks, 4-Rokko granite, 5-Nunobiki granodiorite. Fine broken
lines show general trends of strike lines (Huzita eta!., 1971)

3.3 Geology and geoniorphology of Awaji Island.

Awaji Island occupies a secondary fault zone associated with the Median Tectonic
Line and the presence of numerous interwoven minor faults has created a somewhat
complex structure. Figure 3.5 shows the main structural patterns in the region, and it
can be seen that most of Awaji Island is of granitic formation, effectively an extension
of the Rokko Mountains, although of lower elevation. The granitic rocks in the
Rokko Mountains and in Awaji Island are of Mesozoic age; the Rokko granite is light-
coloured biotite granite, mainly composed of quartz and potash-feldspar, whereas the
Nunobiki granodiorite on Awaji Island is a medium-grained hornblende-biotite

11
granodiorite which sometimes includes dark basic oboidal xenolith. This latter
formation is older than the Rokko granite, and it is also exposed around the Nunobiki
reservoir in Kobe.

LEGEND
Nojima Fault

O.a

--C

Figure 3.6: Geology of Awaji Island

LEGEND
Suifac. D.poIt

KobOroip

Granke

CacamNe

Open Crack

Faulting Clay
T’ Caclaslt. &
ICru*had Rock

LU—
[11

Figure 3.7: Typical cross-section along the Nojima Fault

12
Figure 3.6 shows the geology of Awaji Island in more detail and Figure 3.7 shows a
cross-section through the Nojima fault that runs along the north western coast of
Awaji. The Nojima fault was the source of the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake,
together with the Suma and Suwayaina faults under Kobe The gramtic formations are
to the southeast of the Nojima fault where the elevation nses, whereas the gramte of
the Rokko Mountams lies to the northwest of the Suma and Suwayama faults m Kobe

13
 4. Tectonic Setting and Seismic History

Japan is well known as one of the most seismically active regions in the world, forming
part of the circum-Pacific ‘ring of fire’. The belt along the eastern coast of Japan,
extending northwards from Tokyo, through the Kurile Islands, to Kamchatka, is the
most active source of shallow earthquakes in the world. In this Chapter, the major
tectonic features of Japan are outlined and the association of earthquake activity with
these tectonic structures is discussed. The principal objective is to present the tectonic
and seismic framework within which the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake occurred.

4.1 Tectonics of Japan and the Kansai region

I
I

Figure 4,1: Tectonic plate boundaries in Japan and major interplate earthquakes;
numbers refer to year of occurrence (Somerville, 1995)

14
 Seismic activity in Japan is primarily related to the convergence of four tectonic plates:
the Philippine Sea plate to the south, the Pacific plate to the east, the North American
plate to the north and the Eurasian plate to the west. The locations of these plate
boundaries are shown in Figure 4.1. The boundaries between the Pacific and North
American plates and between the Philippine Sea and Eurasian plates are well defined
subduction zones, known respectively as the North Honshu or Japan Trench and the
Nankai Trough. The plate boundary between the North American and Eurasian plates
to the west of Japan has only been recognized recently as a subduction zone. Somerville
(1995) reports that Kobayashi (1983) and Nakamura (1983) had suggested the existence
of a nascent subduction zone off the Japan Sea coast of Northern Honshu, and this was
confrmed by the 1983 Nthonkai-Chubu earthquake. The destructive Hokkaido-Nansei
Oki earthquake of 12 July 1993 was also located on this boundary, where the Japan Sea
is being subducted eastwards below the North American plate. The result is that there
are subduction zones to the east and west of Northern Honshu with the subducted plates
presumably converging below the islands of Japan. Further south, the boundary
between the Eurasian and North American plates changes orientation, crossing through
Honshu and forming a collision rather than subduction zone.

0 00 200

km

.JUNMETAM0RPHOSED ROCKS IN RYOKE BELT

I ACTINOLITE
RYOKE BELT i’::] BIOTITE AND MUSCOVITE
CORDIERITE AND GARNET
IflHWWIHH SILLIMANITE

SANBAGAWA BELT(
1- BLUESCHlST
ALBITE-AMPHIBOLITE
MEDIAN TECTONIC LINE

Figure 4.2: Median Tectonic Line in Japan (Scholz, 1990)

15
Another important tectonic feature is the Median Tectonic Line (MLT), which is shown
in Figure 4.2. The westernmost 300 km of the MLT is an active transcurrent fault, with
right-lateral movement, but to the east the contact between the Ryoke and Sanbagawa
metamorphic terrains has been interpreted as a fossil subduction zone (Scholz, 1990).
The Ryoke zone, which includes Awaji Island and Kobe, consists of granites and reaches
sillirnanite (aluminium rich) metamorphism adjacent to the MLT. The Sanbagawa zone
consists of the blueschist series and like the Ryoke zone, its grade (the level which the
metamorphic process has reached) increases towards the MLT. The rocks of the
Sanbagawa and Ryoke zones have been shown to constitute a shear zone, with both
temperature and strain increasing dramatically towards the MLT. The rocks along the
MLT have been thoroughly mylonitized, which is the name given to rocks formed when
a shearing and dislocation process is prolonged and intense. The shearing causes the
mechanical fracture of the rocks, a process referred to as cataclasis; if the process is
sustained the individual crystals in the rock become fractured and the whole rock can
become fine-grained, whence it is iown as mylonite. The subduction that once
occurred along the MLT was in a northerly direction, similar to the subduction that is
currently active to the south in the Nankai Trough. Similar tectonic structures to the
Japanese MLT are the Hidaka-Kamuikotan belt in Hokkaido and the Median Tectonic
Line in the South Island of New Zealand (Scholz, 1990).

The most important plate boundary close to the Kobe region is the Nankai Trough,
situated about 150 km off the southern coast of Honshu; at its closest point, the Nankai
Trough is located a little more than 200 km away from Kobe. The characteristics of the
Nankai Trough have been summarized by Crouse et at. (1988) in their study of strong-
motion attenuation in subduction regions. The subduction trench is a wide (--- 115 km)
contact zone where early Miocene oceanic crust is subducted below continental crust
with a shallow dip of about 15°, reaching a maximum depth of 100 km. The
convergence between the two plates is highly oblique and the convergence velocity is
less than 4 cm/year with 70% of the convergence released as slip during major
earthquakes The subduction is not associated with arc volcamsm nor back-arc
Spfedctthg

Apart from the active process at the various plate margins, the intraplate regions of
Japan are also subject to appreciable tectonic deformations. Scholz (1990) reports the
work of Wesnousky et al. (1982) who used 400 years of seismic data to calculate
deformation rates from moment release; even though the period of observation is
actually shorter than the return period of individual faults, it was shown to be sufficient
to obtain stable estimates of regional moment release. The results showed that northeast
and central Honshu are shortening n an east-west direction by about 0.5 cm/year, and
this shortening decreases in southwestern Honshu.

It is important to point out that Scholz (1990) and others refer to parts of mainland
Japan as intraplate in the sense that there are areas which are remote from the contact
zones between tectonic plates. However, these zones are undergoing active
deformations and they are not intraplate in the same sense of the stable intraplate regions
of the world such as eastern and central North America, Australia, peninsular India..
northwest Europe and east Brazil, (Johnston et at.. 1994).

16
 Figure 4.3 shows the major intraplate faults in Japan. The location of major intraplate
faults in and around the Kansai, and the MU, are shoi in Figure 4.4, together with
the epicentral locations and focal mechanisms of three major intraplate earthquakes of
this century. Figure 4.5 shows the location of major faults in the area of Awaji Island
and Kobe.

Figure 4.3: Intraplate faults in Japan (Wesnousky et a!., 1984)

4.2 Seismicity of Japan and the Kansai region

Seismic activity in Japan arises from two principal sources and in very general terms
these can be classified as interplate and intraplate, consistent with the description of the
tectonics given above. Large interplate earthquakes occur on the three subduction
zones that have been identified in the previous section, These earthquakes often have
magnitudes greater than 8.0 and return periods of the order of 60 to 200 years, (Figure
4.1). In addition to these events, there are frequent intraplate earthquakes, occurring
both on land and just off-shore in the Japan Sea. lutraplate earthquakes in Japan are
typically of magnitude less than 7.5 and have recurrence intervals of thousands or even
tens ofthousands of years, (Scholz, 1990). Although smaller, the intraplate earthquakes
can often represent a greater hazard because of their proximity to population centres.
Figure 4.6 shows earthquake epicentres in Japan from 1961 to 1994.

17
 1943 Tottori 1927 Tango 1948 Fukui
(M=7.2) (M7.3) (M=7.1)

Figure 4.4: Major tectonic features of the Kansai and the focal mechanisms
of three major intraplate earthquakes (Kanamori, 1995).

Figure 4.5: Faults in the region ofKobe and Awaji Island (Kanamori, 1995)

18
 SchoLz (1990) reports that the earthquake catalogue for Japan is complete for 400 years.
Katayama (1993) reports that there are three important seismic catalogues for Japan, the
largest of which has been compiled by the Japanese Meteorological Agency and includes
more than 11,000 earthquakes of M 4.5 since 1926. A catalogue of 431 damaging
Japanese earthquakes was compiled by Usami (1987), in which the earliest event was in
416 A.D., but Katayama reports that the historical data in this catalogue are incomplete.
The most reliable catalogue is reported to be that of Utsu (1982), which includes about
1,800 earthquakes from 1885 to 1980 having magnitude M6.0. Figures 4.7 and 4.8
show the locations of major earthquakes throughout Japan in the periods 679-1872 and
1881-1993 respectively. The most destructive earthquakes in Japan since 1891 are
listed in Table 4.1.

Figure 4.6: Map of earthquake epicentres in Japan

19
 (2)679 (k&7) M65—7 5 1.30 61605 )69) M7.9 6)1704 1) 517.0 34>8-11+7, >165
(2)684 (*13) MS(4 .±+(W 89I. *1K 0’ 8)6*, 80t435JR15758. otrss
A 6580 *t,1i1 3i. 61707 ) 4) MS.4 5Lifl.
715 ()() M65—7.5 j[ )t t19* 9ii h’[i1iik51)D,
@ 745 )A117) 51=7.9 61611 (16) M6.9 Lt5 <5tW’r127i. ;67i. 12*827i
(2 762 (q: 6) 517.0)’) -()88 - 3700 6)1717 )!‘.)2 ) 51—7.5 6)))’,-
6) ‘IM8 1 i 61718 ()9 3) 517.0 Ej 1)95
(2818 (Lf9) M7.5 994(i8[i. Ji0Z !60Eli1783.c 5. •t)%)65 61729 )-‘M(4) 516.6—7.0 61’51, i*
61633 )k10) M7.0 8)1653 *i ‘1 80 518tZELii>U8)791, 05175,
(2)827 (*J-k4) M65—7.0 Z80
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6 850 (Efl3) N17.0 )1’4, 65(980 6 II M 0 i - m-7-’7T*807oo 61762 )112) M7.0 W51
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6 869 (it;1) 516.3 E1n)i. @1662 ) 2) M7!4—7.6 tL*41()’3l’> 6) ‘I )i513) M*7(
80, 8018) 1511
- -
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6)887 (L:603) M80-8.5 AtiL )P80 61677 5) M72-I—714 61771 (80808) 517.4 ijL))i
U M=8.0±*5-TI0
6938 (7111 517.0 .r15.:. 246 6t’9313
.

976 4,it1) M6.7 W•i7L. W50 @1678 ) 6) M7.5 flP 5134 61772 )* 1) M7.5 5*
ilL @1683 517.0 B* @1789 1) 517.0 (51
61096 (k 1> 518.0—6.5 61686 )602) M7.0—7.4-W 61792 >1474) M6.4 >di8. 8)5:1 105
JTh 400) 6) 1/ )3> 516.5—7.0 11- t I 5000. *>8)15
61099 )80 1) M8.0—8.3 61694 >5108)7) 517.0 651fi5, 65394. 5 61793 (1474) 516.9—7.1 80)47*7,
61185 )0 1> M7.4 iSJ *80, 6K1273. 51859 6512
K 6580 6)1700 )51!13( 51*7.0 4 6) ‘I >1475) 518.0—6.4 6S8060-0I5
@1257 )jE1) 510—7.5 r80 61703 >5168)16) 517.9—8.2 a-ri8i7. f(1Z’l8i06047, 751712
1293 )*IEI) M7.0 ltL 5i19R. 7t6700. -25(’. 6)1804 (ft 1) 517.0 3487
23024,
61317
61331
61360
()67 1
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(15)
516.5— 7.0 K80
M7.0 *f
517.5—8.0
/
61361 )IE416) N16)’—6.5 80(i:iFE9i,

61408 )TZ14) 517.O—5.0

61433 (5) 517 6fl)
6)1498 9Tt7) 517.0—75 Br08i
6) II 518.2—6.4 ::)f,5
k-655ooo. 5*10oo. &,00’z
62J560O. 6t1 ‘ii
61502 I 5165—7 0
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61586 (0i3) 51—7 8’K
4tL
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8)5395. 7t313
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7t1443
(73(1474) 5134)’
1, E)’i51-r-)8)8)(475, 651742. ;473(7:
0 68t16 S70345. 9E17’J100
(72(51.4) 51*7.5 5580’ (l51
>81(54) 517.4 c2071l’63>8i
7517
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)5z 1) 5173.4 W9 (S,1 ‘k8t]3(l
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5)8.4 E8) - - 8)i8)IOifi, 65453
r 515j5::6517, 6Q)7
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6)” 516 4 80 )ti - 4(65 8)1.8
-

iLlS Wl8)L 8z
9)32147r)8::6t, 6517807
517,3—7.5 W-8080
(65472) 51734 p780
517.0—7.5 44i17
5)6.9 11 71’15i5. 3I1 l
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.

40008)1
>94424) 51734 f8)(--655
)94475) 517.0—7.1 iR-17.74’
8)j, 8)319. 6517203 S
517.0—7.5 P 2,72
(8018)5) 517.1 1195-)
‘5i4527 651555

Figure 4.7: Major earthquakes in Japan between 679 AD. and 1872

20
 1881 ((914) M7.0 43476 26130 (13586( .lL30593o
11891 518.0 $L @1923 M7.3 Th1Z , 01945 516.6 :.0 0km 90Z196:
E7273. 142I77. @1924 517.3 UjI, (1150:’. 5S39i3046)
00324 0#v:1tt1g. 56i 0 ‘/ 517.1 020m i,4tW
11893 M @1925 516 8 tt428 01946 510.0 020km 1fl0’070
1894 M7.9 @1926 517.5 130km 9E1330.
‘I M7.0 Ei4t8t 8t24 @1927 (1080 2) M73 (9 0 km 11591. (6(901451. 902598
‘1 M7.0 1L W0)T8E726 E’ 802925. :4999 01947 517.4 095km 5
I3058. 4214S @1930 517.3 0km 01948 517.1 (9 0m 85’3769.
11895 M7.2 7E6 ::$(. 86t272. t2165 I3618$, kq4ç3551, 7, VI
11896 M6 ( @1931 M7 6 85 0km 0
1 26360. H 516.9 0km 16 01949 5162. 6.4 0 0km E’:0
(0(9879 0 “ M7.1 40m Hrk;1! @1952 516.2 90 (‘km
I “ M2.2O2 88R E209 511932 517.0 20kr SJ,:’0 933. $i5 6(9097
@1897 M7.4 fth0P @1933 M5.1 010km 0 ii 516.5 0 9km 85907
‘51 M7
“ fljq. ‘J5:)) 0 O “ 516 8 060m 85909
@1898 M7.2 i;L;,0 8t(28. rn 01953 517,4 (0600m
0 “ 517.0 i1j6 Ii 517,1 ( 0km 01958 517.2 (977Lm iWg8
01899 517.0 t80 8 7 @1935 516 4 ( 10km 9 0 o M8.1 )080km 085(8’
0 I’ 5171 6.9 66, l125B :2 185 01936 516.4 ( 0km 8E9 01960 517.2 )0 0km E(4’
@1900 M7.0 185t85, t)13 0 ii 517.5 40km LL0 @1961 517.0 (040km 18165*8, 75902
ii M7.i 1604’ 01937 517.1 30km Jii ii 517.2 (080km 850;16
@1901 M7,5 *6ti @1938 M’.O ; 0km 0 ii 517.6 (0 0km 85905
“ M7.2 I407t ‘I 517.5 1830km @1962 517.0 (060m
1i8 4’L 01939 516 8 0 0 km 27 @1963 510.1 00km i5
@1902 M7.0 P1 8 1 @1940 517.5 010km 8t10 01964 517.5 (040m 7EZ26.
01905 516.7 1L 80i1 @1941 517.2 ,0 0km r1Ii9 1960, &‘)c15297. 8+.:
@1906 517 6 Et0o9 @1943 517.2 0 0 80’10S3 .0 750’
01909 M7.5 7485. 2S1 @1965 517,1 0160km q’
II M6.8 R(18’5)(l)iR 929 @1944 517.9 30km0L! 01966 517.8 (042m 5(590(q
41. 978 6—8m. 8099S(i72(. a: 01968 516.1 00km .tR, 85903
0 M7.6 Br6i,6
“
@1911 M8,O 00J85. 87
@11 M7 I
@1914 (i0 3 M7.I *R::c5 0
07, 7Ei35 6l20
ii M 8E94
@1915 517.4 i0Z’
51 I’ M7.0 W’Z 2
0 I; M7.5 t(P. ‘)‘8i’)
511916 517 1 i:
511918 MS.0 7’ ,T85,’ I
0’7i --12m.
01 9(--24
0’ ii M6.I. 6.5 *TJt
@1921 M7,0
@1922 MS 9. 6.5 ¶m
1195
01923 M7 I +600
51 I; M7.9 SR (5:i18C0
14-2im. M S 030km 1968B1
‘‘k
12S266. 18t944712S. 8tt99331. (Oil 517.9 (0 0m 8590
52. 673. 75S29
.0 517.0 031km
517.0 060km ,+;VJ,4’
517.0 (070m i6(
517.2 (050km 19721249R

.94.4)5m 19•7.••••••• 5199 17.B*

@1974 516.9 9(010km

15909’fl ‘35
@1978 517.0 00km
25
517.4 9(040km
I, 15 T25
01981 517 1 9(0 13”Hm II
@1982 517 1 9(940km .85179’
01983 517 7 9(914km 1590
104 (1000;)1,5 I. ‘924. :
9052
01984 517,9 9(9452km90,80i5(18, 7590 I
eq 517.1 9(933km r5(i8
@11 516.8 9(9 2km 1590
29. fL6(’iI4. 6(7010, ‘,‘7) 1:1
.0
“I987 516.7 ,9(O5skm
2. Rf’90’13S. çV70
I993 SI 516.8 0107km
85901. flf90925
/1 517,6 9(034km
202. 9”M29. )1T90’30S. 94::0,6(.::

Figure 4.8: Major earthquakes in Japan between 1881 and 1993

21
 Year Month Name M Dead VDB*
1891 October 28 Nobi 80 7,273 142,177
1894 October 22 Shonai 7.0 726 3,858
1896 June 15 Shanriku 6.8 22,072 1,844
1896 August 31 Riku-u 7.2 209 5,792
1923 September 1 Kanto 7.9 142,807 128,266
1925 May 23 Tanba 8 428 1,295
1927 March 7 Tango T3 2.925 12,584
1930 November 26 Kita-Izu 7.3 272 2.165
1933 March 3 Sanriku 8.1 3,064 2,346
1943 September 10 Tottori 7.2 1,083 7,485
1944 December 7 Higash-Nankai 9 1,223 17,599
1945 Januaty 13 Mika 6 2,306 7,221
1946 December 21 Nankai &0 1,464 11,506
1948 March 28 Fuki 7.1 3,769 36.184
1949 December 26 Imaichi 6A 10 290
1952 March 4 Tokachioki 8.2 33 815
1964 June 16 Niigata 7.5 26 1,960
1968 May 16 Tokachioki 7.9 52 676
1974 May 9 lzu-okshima Kinkai 6 38 134
1978 Januaiy 14 Izu-okshima Kinkai 7.0 25 96
1978 June 12 Miyagi 7.4 28 1,183
1983 May 26 Nihonkai Chibu 7.7 104 934
1984 September 14 Nagano 6.8 29 14
1993 July 12 Hokkaido-Nansei old 7 230 1.144
1995 January 17 Hyogo-ken Nanbu 7.2 5,400 177,000

*
PTDB: Partially or Totally Damaged Buildings

Table 4. 1: Major destructive earthquakes in Japan since 1891

The most obvious source of seismic activity in the Kansai is the Nankai Trough and in
Figures 4.7 and 4.8 it can be clearly seen that several large earthquakes have occurred
along this subduction zone. Gutenberg & Richter (1954) report that a very large
earthquake on this boundary in 1707 caused extensive damage on the island of Shikoku
and on the Ku peninsula, as well as generating a large tsunami which entered the channel
between the two and could have reached Awaji Island and Osaka Bay. This century,
large earthquakes have occurred in 1944 and 1946, with magnitudes 7.9 and 8.0
respectively. Figure 4.9 shows the location of major intraplate earthquakes in Japan.

4.3 Seismicity of the Ilyogo-ken Nanbu area

Seismic hazard assessments for Japan are reviewed in Appendix 2 of this report and it is
shown that the Kobe area has generally been evaluated as being an area of moderate to
high seismicity. In the Japanese building codes, which are reviewed in Appendix 3,
Kobe lies within the same zone as Tokyo and the highest seismic design coefficients are
applicable. Nonetheless, it is clear that earthquake activity around Kobe is lower than in
Tokyo, and even lower than the activity in and to the east of the neighbouring city of
Osaka. In Figures 4.7 and 4.8 only a single event is shown to have occurred close to
 Kobe, with an epicentre coinciding almost exactly with the location of the 1995
earthquake. This was an earthquake that occurred on 26 November 1916, which had a
magnitude of less than 6.0. Larger earthquakes have occurred near Osaka and to the
east: on 5 September 1596 and magnitude 71/2 earthquake occurred on the east side of
Osaka Bay. There was also an important earthquake to the north of Kobe in 868 A.D.
on 3 August, with a magnitude of 7. Major historical earthquakes in the Kansai are
shown in Figure 4.10.

Figure 4.9: Major intraplate earthquakes in Japan (Wesnousky et a!., 1984)

One study has estimated relative hazard levels in Japan by compiling intensity data from
V 1- T t-1’- .i
.hLy ya uWtVU IY-t dflU
---
iYY3. 1J1 laulloci 01
observations of each intensity in each of the locations is shown in Table 4.2; the numbers
refer to the JMA intensity scale which is presented in Section 5.3. It becomes clear
why following the revision of the Japanese seismic design code, greater priority for
retrofitting existing structures was given to Tokyo than to Kobe.

City I II ifi IV V VI VII Total

Kobe 176 67 21 5 0 0 0 269
Osaka 243 69 26 6 0 0 0 344
Tokyo 1204 529 193 36 2 0 0 1964

Table 4.2 : Observations of intensity between 1944 and 1993 in Kobe, Osaka and Tokyo

23
Figure 4.10: Large and intermediate magnitude historical earthquakes
in the Kansai region

24
 In order to examine the seismicity around the Kobe region. a search has been made on
three earthquake catalogues covering different periods, within a radius of about 1.5°
around Kobe (34.7°N, 135.2°E). The catalogues for the period up to 1965 are
Gutenberg & Richter (1954) and Rothé (1972), and the data is given in Table 4.3, and
for the period up to 1987 the catalogue of the International Seismological Centre (ISC),
for which the data is presented in Table 4.4; for the latter, only earthquakes with
magnitude greater than 4.5 have been selected, In both cases the epicentral distance
from Kobe has been calculated and is included in the table.

Year Month Day Time N° E° Depth (km) Epicental M

distance
1909 August 14 06:31: 35½ 136 shallow 109 7
1926 July 26 18:54:50 35½ 135½ 360 91 6¾
1932 May 5 04:11:01 34½ 135½ 380 29 6½
1932 July 28 08:24:39 351/2 1351/2 360 111 6/4
1934 January 8 23:07:03 34 134 shallow 142 <6
1936 February 21 01:07:58 34½ l35/4 shallow 55 6
1937 November 22 04:53:03 35½ 1351/2 360 91 5¾
1938 January 11 15:11:58 331/2 1351/2 50 134 61/2
1940 April 20 20:18:04 35 136 400 72 6
1940 May 28 14:23:24 34½ 134½ shallow 76 <6
1943 March 4 10:13:46 35½ 1341/4 shallow 115 5¾
1943 March 4 19:50:08 35½ 1341/4 shallow 115 5¾
1943 September 10 08:36:53 35¼ 134 shallow 133 7,4
1944 December 7 04:35:42 33/4 136 shallow 123 8.0
1948 June 15 11:44:43 33¾ l35’/4 shallow 106 6.9
1950 November 5 17:37:27 331/4
l34/4 shallow 169 6.9
1954 March 21 21:54:49 34.2 135.2 10 56 <5.9
1955 July 27 01:20:51 33.8 134.3 10 136 6.0
1960 January 31 05:08:18 33.5 134.5 shallow 152 6.3
1961 May 7 12:14:16 35.2 134.5 shallow 92 5.9

Table 4.3: Earthquakes within 1.5° of Kobe between 1900 and 1965,
from Gutenberg & Richter (1954) and Rothé (1972)

As mentioned above several seismic hazard studies for Japan are reviewed in Appendix
2, but here some studies published only in Japanese and not included in the review are
briefly mentioned, particularly those that refer specifically to Kobe. Kameda & Takagi
(1981) have assessed seismic hazard in the Kansai region using a non-Poisson based
model. From their research it was concluded that prediction of strong ground motion
will vary with time, dependent on the time history of the Nan.kai Trough. In their study a
predicted maximum PGA of 0.224g was assigned to Kobe for the period of 75 years
from 1979.

25
 Year Month Day Time N° E° Depth (km) Epicentral b
1
fl
distance
1967 August 13 20:06:52 35,43 135.49 367 83 6.0
1968 January 12 02:59:49 35.0 135.0 33 43 4.9
1968 March 29 19:04:32 34.19 135.18 18 58 4,6
1968 August 18 07:12:17 35,17 135.36 22 52 5,0
1968 December 11 11:45:32 33.60 134.06 42 167 5.4
1969 November 1 11:20:52 35.36 135.62 374 79 4.7
1973 September 21 02:21:06 35.12 134.49 38 87 4.9
1973 November 25 04:24:48 33.83 135.43 59 97 5.6
1973 November 25 09:19:15 33.84 135.41 60 96 5.6
1977 August 6 19:27:16 34.18 135.19 5 59 4.6
1978 June 13 18:24:43 35.47 135.64 360 91 4.8
1978 August 31 16:21:46 34.92 135.74 375 47 4.7
1979 September 15 22:45:59 35.29 135.86 31 83 4.7
1979 November 12 15:41:46 34.17 135.68 73 68 4.8
1980 March 31 07:32:32 35.49 135.52 362 90 5.7
1980 August 5 11:12:35 33.51 134.38 45 157 4.7
1980 September 18 03:08:56 34.04 135.20 - 74 4.9
1981 April 2 19:04:36 34.41 135.48 50 36 5.4
1982 May 10 19:19:01 33.50 135.58 24 136 4.9
1982 June 21 15:57:02 33.87 135.47 62 93 5.0
1983 March 31 13:24:45 34.35 135.99 381 74 4.7
1983 October 30 16:55:26 35.46 134.02 12 144 4.9
1984 February 10 19:49:23 34.04 135.72 64 83 5.1
1984 February 29 03:32:23 35.19 135.94 359 80 4.6
1984 May 4 17:12:51 34.87 135.64 23 36 4.6
1984 May 30 00:39:44 34.90 134.54 12 73 5.0
1984 May 30 01:02:54 34.91 134.66 7 63 4.6
1984 June 25 11:52:16 34.16 135.10 2 63 4.6
1985 January 5 15:45:37 34.19 135.57 73 62 5.4
1985 April 26 17:34:56 33.85 135.41 25 95 5.1
1985 26 23:56:37 33.67 134.76 31 125 4Q
1985 October 3 11:57:32 35.17 135.85 8 72 4.6
1985 October 21 22:48:49 34.69 134.73 6 52 4.7
1986 January 12 04:53:06 33.84 135.33 63 95 4,6
1987 May 9 03:54:33 34.14 135.40 18 63 5.0
1987 May 27 21:03:34 34.99 135.51 23 37 4.8

Table 4.4: Earthquakes within 1.5° of Kobe from 1964 to 1987 from ISC

A farther study has also been conducted by Kameda & Okumura (1985) including active
fault data with the earthquake data set. From this study they had assigned a maximum
estimated PGA value of 0.306g with a return interval of 100 years to the Kobe region.

Other studies by Shirnazaki et aI.(1985) led to the development of maps plotting the
average return period for an earthquake of M,5 throughout Japan. From these studies
Kobe would lie in a region with an average return period of 26 to 50 years.

26
 Analysis based on use of a standard Poisson model has been carried out by Ishikawa
(1995) using data from the Japan Earthquake Catalogue, including plate boundary
earthquakes. From this analysis several charts relating to hazard have been produced.
Figures 4.11 through 4. 14 relate hazard in the region to various parameters. Ishikawa
has also produced a chart for local Kobe faults that could trigger large earthquakes iii
the region in the future and this is reproduced in Table 4.5,

No Fault Activity Fault Magnitude Epicentral PGA

Cycle Length 1
M Distance (Gals)
(Years) (km) (km)
1 Otsuki 5,100 31.8 7.3 0.8 629
2 Rokko 4,500 28.4 7.3 14.3 400
3 Takatsukayama 23,000 l4.4 6.8 9.6 389
4 Kashiodani 1,500 9.4 6.5 10.1 330
5 Jumantsuji 53,000 33.4 7.4 23.3 327
6 Yamada 890 5.6 6.1 8.2 295
7 Kogoyama 900 5.7 6.1 8.6 287
8 Nojima 2,100 13.0 6.7 19.2 251
9 Koyo 900 5.8 6.1 13.6 212

Table 4.5 : Faults having the potential to release large earthquakes near Kobe. [The
PGA values are calculated from the Fukushima & Tanaka (1990) model]

100
fr
Road & Bfldg s
:
10.1 — Ftdu,koa Tanaka

a,
0 — — — —

C
C)
‘C
10-2
x
uJ
%

io

2
z —

C
C
1o5
.4
.4

io6 -

0 500 1000
Maximum Acceleration (Gal)

Figure 4. 11: Hazard in Kobe based on Fukushima-Tanaka model and the seismic design
code for highway bridges

27
 100

()
41

0
‘C
w
1

10-s

6
io
500 1000
Maximum Acceleration (Gal)

Figure 4.12: Hazard in Kobe based on earthquake and active fault data using the
seismic design code for highway bridges

Hazard Magnitude

5 6 7 8
Magnitude

Figure 4.13 : Relationship between hazard and magnitude for Kobe.

28
 Annual Probability of Exceedence Annual Probability of Exceedence
— -a.
a - 0
a a a
(71 ts) -
a

- 0
w
0
C) II:
01
C
0 0

p
 5. Characteristics of the Earthquake and Geotechnical Effects

In this Chapter, the main features of the earthquake source are presented. together
with the intensity distribution. Geotechnical effects of the earthquake are also briefly
discussed; a separate report would be required to cover all of the geotechnical effects
from this earthquake in detail, hence only an overview of the most important
geotechnical features are discussed. The most significant geotechnical effects were the
widespread liquefaction of artificial fills along coastal areas, and several landslides in
the foothills of the Rokko mountains and on Awaji Island.

5.1 Location and magnitude of the earthquake

The Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake occurred at 20:46:52 (UTC) on 16 January 1995.

the local time in Japan being 05:47 on i7 January. The epicentre of the earthquake
was located at the northern tip of Awaji Island in the Akashi Straits that separate the
island from the mainland, about 15 km to the southwest of Kobe. The epicentre of the
main shock has been placed at 34.58°N, l35.02°E by the US Geological Survey (EDR)
and at the very similar location of 34.60°N, 135.00°E by the Japanese Meteorological
Agency (JMA). The earthquake was a shallow, crustal event and the focal depth was
given as 22 km by both the USGS and the JMA, although other agencies report a
slightly shallower focus.

The seismic moment M

0 of the earthquake has been determined by a number of
agencies:

Harvard University 2.5 x l0’ N.m

EM, Tokyo University 3.1 x l0’ N.m
US Geological Survey 1.8 x i’ N.m

Tüi nionint uiigiiitude M can be determined from the seismic moment using the
relation presented by Hanks &. Kanamori (1979):

M =(2/3)log(M)- 6.1 (5.1)

Using the average of the three seismic moment determinations, the resulting value of
the moment magnitude is 6.9.

Estimates of the surface wave magnitude M were given as 6.5 by Berkeley and 6.8 by
the USGS. Recalculation of the surface wave magnitude using amplitude and period
data supplied by the National Earthquake Information Center (NEIC) of the USGS
was undertaken at Imperial College, applying the Prague formula (Vanek et a!., 1962):

Ms = iog[(A’T)naxJ ± l.66log(A°) + 3.3 (5.2)

where A is the ground motion amplitude in microns, T is the ground motion period in
seconds and z is the epicentral distance. The standard procedure laid out by Wilimore
(1979) for dealing with the tvo horizontal components N and E, was followed
calculating the effective horizontal amplitude AH and period T
11 from the relations:

30
 TH 1
/2(TN+TE) (5.3)
÷2)½
2
AH=(AN (5.4)

If only one horizontal component is given, then the value of AH is taken as 1.41 4AN.
The magnitude is calculated separately for vertical component readings. The NEIC
listing included data from 82 horizontal and vertical long-period seismographs, and all
of these were used with the exception of the reading from the Riverview (MV) station
in Australia, for which the amplitude was given as just 0.5 microns, resulting in a M
value for that station of 4.76; this is so small compared to the mean value that the
reading was judged to be in effor. Using the remaining 81 readings, the average value
was calculated as 7.0 with a rather high standard deviation of 0.42. The actual value
of M is greater than that given by the USGS because in the calculations for the
Preliminary Determinations of Epicenters (PDE) and the Earthquake Data Reports
(EDR), only readings from surface waves with periods in the range from 18 to 22
seconds are employed. Willmore (1979) presents a table of values of predominant
periods of surface waves at different distances, showing that they increase from
between 4 and 6 seconds at 2° to between 18 and 25 seconds at 160°. The apparent
underestimation of M, for smaller events indicated in the well-known graph in Figure
5.1 is probably the result of the unnecessary period restriction in routine US practice
for magnitude calculations.

Moment Magnitude M

Figure 5.1: Saturation of magnitude scales, (Reiter, 1990)

31
Values of body wave magnitude m for the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake have been
given by a number of agencies; the NEIC reported a value of m , of 6.0, The large
1
difference between the calculated values of M and mb is indicative of a multiple
rupture (Gupta & Rastogi, 1972), and it has been clearly shown that the mainshock
consisted of three separate subevents. Kanamori (1995) reports the work of Kiruchi
(1995) who used body waveform inversions to identify three subevents, with moment
magnitudes of 6.8, 6.3 and 6.4. The second and third events initiated approximately 4
and 6 seconds, respectively, after the iirst shock, migrating in a north-eastern direction.

35 00’

34 30’ -

34 00’
134 30’ 135 00’ 135 30’ 13 00
Earthquake Research Institute, University of Tokyo

Figure 5.2: Epicentres associated with the Hyogo-Ken Nanbu earthquake

between 00:00 on 16/1/95 and 18:00 on 18/1/95

32
 The IMA reported the magnitude of the earthquake on their own scale, which is
normally designated as Mjr, or M . The JMA magnitude scale is based on ground
1
motion amplitudes measured from Weichert (medium period, inverted pendulum)
seismographs from the JMA network. The magnitude of shallow crustal events is
calculated using the following equation (Willmore, 1979):

2
log(AN ± 1
)
2
AE + 1.731og(A°) - 0.83 (5.5)

It can be seen from Figure 5.1 that is approximately equivalent to M

8 and the two
scales coincide at about 7.

Two foreshocks occurred prior to the main earthquake. The first was M 3.3 on Jan
1
16th at 18:28 hours and the second M
2.6 on the same day at 18:49 hours. Epicentres
1
for both ofthe foreshocks were approximately coincident with the main shock.

The aftershock sequence extended for approximately 50 km from the northern tip of
Awaji Island through to Takarazuka, north east of Kobe. The strongest aftershock
with magnitude M4.9 occurred two hours after the main shock. More than 6.000
aftershocks were recorded following the main earthquake. Figure 5.2 shows the
hypocentres of the fore and aftershocks one day either side of the main event.

5.2 Fault rupture associated with the earthquake

Fault plane solutions for the earthquake presented by different agencies give the
following angles for the fault geometry and rupture mechanism:

Agency Strike Dip Slip

Harvard 230° 79° 162°

tRi Zi. 104
USGS 65° 81° -169°

The USGS solution suggests right-lateral strike-slip with a small component on a fault
dipping towards the south-east. The EM and Harvard solutions, which agree very
closely with each other, are more consistent with the observed ground rupture and the
tectonics of the region. Both of these solutions indicate a NE-SW trending fault,
dipping steeply to the north-west, and the rupture mechanism as being right-lateral
strike-slip with a small reverse (thrust) component. The Harvard Centroid Moment
Tensor (CMT) fault plane solution is shown in Figure 5.3.

The overall length of the fault rupture suggested by the aftershock distribution is a little
more than 50 km. The dislocation of the fault has been studied in detail using inversion
of strong-motion and teleseismic recordings by Wald (1995). The findings suggest
rupture along 20 km of the Nojima fault on Awaji Island and over about 37 km of the
Suma and Suwayama faults beneath Kobe, with a focal depth of about 17 km. The
first of the three subevents discussed in the previous section was bilateral, propagating
simultaneously along the Nojima and Suma/Suwayama faults. Figure 5.4 shows the
geological faults in the Awaji Island and Kobe areas, and Figure 5.5 shows the faults

33
 that are thought to have contributed to this earthquake. Kanamori (1995) has pointed
out that the source characteristics of this earthquake, in terms of magnitude,
mechanism and stress drop, are very similar to those of the Loma Prieta (California)
earthquake of October 1989, (Elnashai et a!., 1989).

Figure 5.3: Harvard fault plane solution

Nine kilometres of surface rupture along the Nojima fault on Awaji Island was clearly
exposed, in several locations coinciding with the contact between granite and
sediments, with volcanics sometimes exposed in the interface. The fault is then
believed to have ruptured across a previously unknown fault under the Akashi Straits,
joining with the Suma fault on the mainland and connecting with the Suwayama fault
which runs behind the city of Kobe at the base of the Rokko Mountain chain. No
surface faulting was apparent on the mainland, however a GPS survey conlirmed
displacement of the Rokko mountain chain to the north east. Observations of ground
cracking and deformation along several fault lines, including the Suma and Suwayam
faults, are reported by Chuo Kaihatsu (1995).

The exposed Nojinia Fault strikes N49°E and dips steeply to the north-west at an
estimated angle of 72°. The fault displacement was predominantly right lateral strike
slip with maximum local displacements of 1.2 metres vertically and 1.5 metres
horizontally. For the seismic moment M{, determined by Harvard, assuming a crustal
ngidity p of 3 3 x lO’° N m 2 and the length L and width D of the fault rupture

34
 suggested by Wald (1995), the average slip U on the fault can be estimated from the
relation:

M
r
0 = L.D.U.p (5.6)

This yields a value of about 80 cm, which is consistent with the larger displacements
observed locally at sites on Awaji Island.

Figure 5.4: Faulting in the Awaji-Kobe region

The epicentre of the earthquake was immediately adjacent to the site of the Akashi
Kaikyo Bridge which will be the longest span bridge in the world on completion in
1998 with a total length of 3910 metres and a central span of 1990 metres. At the time
of the earthquake the main suspension cables had fortunately just been anchored and
twisted into place which limited the effects on the main support piers. It is likely that if
the earthquake had occurred following the erection of the deck stiffening truss girder
the bridge could have been severely damaged.

linmediately following the earthquake a full inspection was carried out confirming no
damage to the piers or cables. A survey between the piers however revealed that the
central span distance between the piers had increased by 800mm and the lead span on
the Awaji Island side had increased by some 300mm. It was also found that the axis of

35
the bridge had been shifted by 1400 mm transversely and 240mm vertically. As a
result cable sag decreased by 1,280 mm in the main span. Due to the size of the
structure however the overall displacements are reasonably small and do not exceed
the allowable tolerances so only minor design alterations are required in order to
complete the structure.

Figure 5.5: Faults associated with the earthquake

3 1:’ 4A
VU V i ---. .-‘. )VV

Figure 5.6: The Akashi Kaikyo bridge

36
 960.3 m
- -
N

19908 m

3,910m
—
--__-----------
--- --------
I

Awaji Island Side Kobe Side

Figure 5.7: Akashi Kaikyo bridge displacement of the piers due to the earthquake
-

The particularly interesting point regarding the accidental “measurement” of the fault
displacements by the relative movement of the bridge piers is that it clearly indicates
that there is an interconnecting fault system in the sea bed in the Akashi Straits. It
seems that this system has joined the Nojima fault on Awaji Island to the Suma fault
beneath Kobe, permitting a large magnitude earthquake to rupture the two faults
simultaneously. The Nojima and Sums faults are approximately parallel, but the Suma
fault is offset by about 5 km to the south-east with respect to the Nojirna fault.
Geologists from the region informed the EFTU team that the seismic potential of the
Suwayama fault had been confirmed by trenching in 1970, with 1-2 metres of
displacement found to have occurred during the last 10,000 years.

The Geographical survey Institute in Japan produced a displacement map based on

results from their continuously operating array of Global Positioning System (GPS)
stations in the region. Figure 5.8 shows data vectors around the epicentre for eighteen
GPS stations in the Kinki district. The most significant displacements are;

Station 0067 Osaka

- : 40mm to the west.
Station 0068 Nara
- : 30mm west north west.
Station 0071 Hyogo
- : 40mm to the east.

In a report by Kobe University. their own GPS survey indicated that Mount Maya in
the Rokko mountain chain, 2.8 km from the university, had moved approximately
90mm to the north.

37
The largest horizontal and vertical displacements were recorded along the surface of
the Nojima fault on Awaji Island. These were measured at 1.5 and 1.2 metres,
respectively.

36

a5. 35

34

33 33.
1 33 I 35’ 1 36 I 37

Figure 5.8: Permanent displacements recorded by the

Japan Geographic•ai Sun’ey1nst
.

53 Intensity distribution

Earthquake intensity in Japan is determined according to the 7-point JMA scale, which
was based on the scale proposed by Professor Omori in 1900. The scale is described
by Kawasumi (1951) approximately below, adapted for clarity.

Figure 5.9 shows the correlation amongst the JMA intensity scale and the Modified
Mercalli (MM) and Medvedev-Sponheuer-Kamik (MSK) scales, as presented by
Reiter (1990). It can be seen that there is a clear correlation between the 7 points of
the JMA scales and the 12 points on the other two scales, for perceptible and strongly
felt earthquakes. For damaging levels of intensity, there is also a correlation, but with
each degree in the JMA scale corresponding to two degrees on the MM and MSK
scales, making the JMA scale somewhat coarser for assessing and distinguishing
between stronger levels of shaking.

38
 Intensity Description

0 Not felt: only registered by seismographs.

I Slight felt weakly by persons at rest or those particulaily
observant of earthquakes
II Weak felt by most persons Slight shakrng of windows and
latticed shdmg doors (Shöji)
ifi Rather strong shaking of houses and buildings heavy rattling
of wmdows and Shöji swinging ofhangmg objects sometimes
pendulum clocks stop; movement of liquids in vessels. Some
people sufficiently frightened to run outside.
IV Strong: strong shaking of houses and buildings; overturning of
unstable objects; spiffing of liquids out ofvessels.
V Very strong: cracks in brick and plaster walls; overturning of
stone lanterns and grave stones, etc.; damage to chimneys and
mud-and-plaster waiehouses Landslides observed in steep
mountains
VI Disastious to cause destruction of more than 1% of wooden
houses intense landslides, fissures on level gi ound sometimes
accompamed by spoutmg of watel and mud m low fields
VII Rumous destruction of almost all houses large fissures and
fault are observed.

The magnitude of the earthquake was not particularly large, however the degree of
resulting damage was extremely high. Shaking intensity of VII, the maximum on the
Japanese scale was assigned to several wards of Kobe and the neighbouring cities of
Ashiya, Nishmomiya, Takarazuka and the town of Hokudancho on Awaji Island The
intensity of these regions had been upgraded from mtensity VI three days following the
event after a comprehensive initial go ernnient survey to assess damage This was the
Inst time tor the intensity scaie ciassmcanon or vii to fle issuea in Japan Ills is a
point worth comsdenng, because the corresponding levels of XI and XII on the Mlvi
and MSK scales are also very rarely assigned. Geotechnical criteria should only ever
be used to corraborate assessments of intensity based on human reaction and building
damage, especially in a coastal area with several soft sites and reclainiaed land on
hydraulic fill. It was not possible for the EFTU team to carry out an intensity
assessment five months after the earthquake, but the damage statistics suggest that the
intensity was at least IX and very probably X on the MSK scales in the worst affected
parts of Kobe. The number of building still standing after the earthquake, including
wooden houses, suggests that XI might be an over-estimation. Most Japanese reports
confirm that the intensity of VII was assigned on the basis of the cofipase of more than
30% of traditional wooden houses. Figure 5.10 shows the intensity distribution
throughout the Kansai region up to the limits of perceptibility Figure 5 11 shows the
areas designated intensity VII together with three components of the peak ground
accelerations measured at or close to those areas

39
 MERCALLI MEDVEDEV
MODIFIED ROSSI CANCANI SPONHEUER
MERCALU FOREL JMA SIEBERG ICARNIK

I
I
II 1

II
U

III
[I

in in Iv Ill

Iv
Iv II V IV

V
UI VI V

VI

VI IV VII VI
VII

VIII
VII VII
VIII
V

VIII VIII

Ix
Ix I
IX IX
Xi
VI

X XII X

XI X XI

VII

XII XII

Figure 5.9: Relation amongst JMA and other intensity scales (Reiter, 1990)

Figure 5,10: Distribution of intensity due to Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake,

prepared by Kobe University using the JMA scale

40
Figure 5.11: Map of Awaji-Kobe region showing wards of Kobe most heavily affected
(grey) and areas classified as intensity VII (black)
[PGA values for stations close to intensity VII are also shown}

5.4 Earthquake-triggered landslides

Relatively few landslides were triggered by the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake, despite
the very high relief of the Rokko Mountains at the foot of which Kobe is situated
(Figure 3.3). The small number of slides is in part due to the fact that the earthquake
occurred during the dry season. There were several small rockfalls and shallow slips in
the foothills of the Rokko Mountains, whose scarps were clearly visible from Kobe.
There were also two large slides on Awaji Island, both located almost directly on the
Nojima fault. The first was visited at Todai on the northern end of Awaji, where the
fault rupture enters the sea, and which was the location of the epicentre. The slide had
lefi a very steep scarp which was being stabilized by rock bolts and shotcrete. Further

41
 to the south along the Nojima fault an even larger slide was located at 0-ishi.. and the
steep scarp at this location was also bemg stabilized partly by cut and fill operations

The only major landslide associated with the earthquake occurred at Nigawa, near to
Nishmomiya to the east of Kobe, about 7 5 km north of the reclaimed land site at
Koshien The slide occurred m a natural slope with an mclination of about 200,
consisting of sandy soil with two clay layers, one of 0.5 m thickness and the other of 3
metres. A small stream, which was buried under the slide mass and therefore could not
be inspected, had run across the toe of the slide area; the horizontal length of the slide
was between 80 and 100 m. About 30 m beyond the stream the Nigawa River runs
perpendicular to the slope, which in this section runs in a concrete lining. There are
houses on both banks of the Nigawa River and eight of these houses were destroyed by
the slide, causing the death of 34 people. The slide appears to have reached
significant velocities, since it travelled across the river and destroyed houses on the
opposite bank, and slide deposits were clearly visible lodged in the windows of the
second storey of a house on the down slope bank which had remained standing,
(Figure 5.12). Although flow in the Nigawa River at this time of year was quite low,
due to the lack of ramfall, it has been reported that there was significant flow m the
stream at the toe of the slide, which implies that the ground water level was quite high.
The scarp of the slide stopped just short of some large buildings which appeared to be
undamaged when we visited the site. Immediately behind these buildings is a water
treatment plant, which may have played a significant role in triggering this slide, both
because of the considerable e’ctra load this will ha’e applied at the head of the slide and
also because any leakages at the plant will have kept the ground saturated

(m)
80

60

40 -

20 -

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

(m)

Figure 5. 12: Cross-section of Nigawa landslide (Sassa et a!., 1995)

42
 A simplified analysis of this slope failure using the sliding block model has been carried
out by Kamon eta!. (1995); the results of their analysis are shown in Figure 5.13, It
can be seen that if the angle of friction of the material was as low as 20°, then a
horizontal acceleration of 0.2g would have been sufficient to cause instability; this
analysis neglects the cohesion of the clay layers. Even if the friction angle were as high
as 30°, then a horizontal acceleration of 0.35g would have led to instability. The
closest strong-motion recording station was the Japan Rail accelerograph at
Takarazuka, where the maximum horizontal acceleration was 0.6g. A more
sophisticated back analysis of this slide has been presented by Sassa et al. (1995), who
took soil samples from the slide and tested them under dynamic loads in the ring shear
apparatus, but these results have only been presented in Japanese to date.

0
C,)

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Lateral Seismic Coefficient

Figure 5.13: Results of stability analysis for Nigawa slide (Kamon eta!., 1995)

Apart from the failure of natural slopes, there were also failures of several
embankments, particularly those built as river levees flood protection (Imamoto &
Ishigaki, 1995) and also railway lines, (Tateyania et a!., 1995). The railway
embankments were generally supported by retaining walls of different types and several
of these failed, not due to liquefaction, as was generally the case in the ports and
harbours, but due the high seismic forces exerted on the backfill and the wall
structures. Some sections of the railway embankments in the affected area, covering
about 2 km in length and crossing the areas of heaviest shaking, were constructed
using geogrid-reinforced soil with full-height concrete facing; these retaining structures
generally performed extremely well, suffering almost no damage and only minor
deformations where the shaking was most intense, (Tatsuoka et a!., 1995).

There are a number of dams in the area affected by the earthquake, including five dams
along the line of the Shinkansen railway running north of Kobe and Ashiya:
Karasuhara, Nunobild, Shuku-gawa, Kitayama and Niteko. Damage was only
sustained at the last ofthese, reportedly built more than 100 years ago, where the small
upper and middle dams failed and the lower dam was also severely affected. These

43
 failures were of the flow type, with material travelling 70 m downstream, which
suggests that liquefaction may have been the cause of the failure, (Sitar, 1995). The
EFTU team also visited a site adjacent to the Nojima fault rupture on Awaji Island
named Hikino-ura, where a small sand-fill irrigation dam with concrete cover had failed
by slumping of the central portion, again indicative of liquefaction.

5.5 Liquefaction failures

The Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake caused extensive liquefaction in the coastal areas of
Kobe and Ashiya. and to some extent on the coast of Awaji Island. The reasons for
the extensive liquefaction, other than the intense earthquake motion, are the nature of
the natural coastal desposits and the high water table, and also the large areas of
reclaimed land. Approximately 80% of Japanese territory is mountainous and these
areas are sparsely populated, leading to great concentrations of population in low lying
coastal areas. The premium on land and space is obvious to observers in Japanese
cities, with their narrow streets, tall buildings and compact living spaces, including
many very innovative ideas. One of the results of this crowding of the population has
been to generate the need for greater areas of usable terrain for construction and
extensive projects of land reclamation. All around Osaka Bay there are many areas of
reclaimed land, the most outstanding example of which is the Kansai International
airport on the southern side of the bay, built entirely on an artificial island. On the
north side of Osaka Bay, where Kobe is situated, there are large areas of reclaimed
land, including two large, artificial islands: Port Island and Rokko Island. Kobe is
situated on a narrow strip of low lying land between the Rokko Mountains and the
shore of Osaka Bay. The city originally developed around the railway line and then
spread northwards into the foothills of the Rokko Mountains, but the growth of the
city also spread down to the sea front and led to the beginning of land reclamation.

The artificial fills both along the sea front of Kobe and also on the two islands are
generally from granitic soils, which had been loosely placed under water and not well
compacted, leaving it highly susceptible to liquefaction failure. Liquefaction occurred
along most of the sea front and also extensively on Rokko and Port Islands, as
indicated in Figure 5.11. Grain size distribution curves of samples recovered from
sand boils by Kamon et at. (1995) are shown in Figure 5.12. In several sites around
the port of Kobe and over most of Rokko and Port Islands, even five months after the
earthquake when the EFTU team visited the affected area, extensive evidence of the
widespread liquefaction was visible. This consisted of thick deposits of sandy material
over large areas and settlements of several tens of centimetres, and even up to more
than 1 metre in some locations, evidenced from structures on piled foundations. In
general, structures, including some very high-rise buildings on the artificial islands and
in Kobe, did not experience any structural damage as a direct result of liquefaction of
fill. This was mainly because they are supported on deep piles, although some
buildings were rendered uninhabitable for some time due to the complete disruption of
service connections caused by the settlements. The main damage that resulted from
the liquefaction was along the water front on the islands and on the main land, where
failure of the sea wall defenses allowed extensive lateral spreading. In areas where
lateral spreading occurred, the pile foundations of several buildings had been damaged
by the horizontal movement.

44
 N
wE Kitayama Dam

Yodo-gawa
Nuriobiki

Osaka
‘JMA = 7.2
Yainato-gawa

Osaka Bay

Approximate extent of liquefaction

Approximate zone of concentrated
structural damage
Kansai Intl. JR Tokaido Sanyo Shinkansen
g Hankyu Ry. Kobe line
0 4 24km
Municipal Subway
Hanshin Ry. Main Line

Figure 5.14: Areas of liquefaction around Osaka Bay (Sitar, 1995)

The failure of quay walls and sea defenses was extensive and caused almost
the
completely suspension of commercial shipping activity in the port of Kobe, which
is
Japan’s main sea port and of central importance to the national economy. The
port
authorities have estimated that it will take at least three years to restore full activity
in
the port. On the sea front in Kobe itself there is little doubt that the failure of the
sea
defense walls was mainly due to lateral spreading associated with the liquefaction
of
natural and fill sand deposits. However, some reports suggest that the failureof
quay
walls on Rokko Island, which in many cases was manifested as a pure translation
of the
sea wall, of up to 1.9 metres, without rotation or sinking, was due mainly to the very
high horizontal accelerations rather than the liquefaction, (Kamon et a!., 1995).
One
of the reasons for this assumption is that dock workers reported that the failure was
not accompanied by ejection of material from the ground and that the berths remained

45
dry at the time of the earthquake. Figure 5.16 shows cross-sections of the container
berths on Port and Rokko Islands, which were different in a number of aspects,
including the fact that the rockfll behind the caisson and the replaced sand mat below
the caisson are both much smaller on Port Island. Furthermore, the steel piles were
used only on Port Island and the compacted sand columns were used only on Rokko
Island. There are conflicting reports regarding the seismic design criteria employed:
Kamon et a!. (1995) suggest that the caissons were design to resist 0.2g horizontal
acceleration, whereas EERJ (1995) suggest that the design coefficient was equivalent
to only 0.1g. There was damage along almost all ofthe 9,000 metres of wharf on Port
and Rokko Islands and in the Maya terminal in the Port of Kobe, but the damage was
least severe on Rokko Island. Rokko Island is the most recent of the three port
facilities, having been built in 1972, and the superior performance may indicate the
benefits ofthe soil improvement provided by the compacted sand columns.

LI 0
0.001 0.01 0.1 10
Grain Size (mm)

Figure 5 15 Grain size distribution of liquefied material, (Kamon et a!, 1995)

Letters indicate location: A Koshien-hama, Nishinomyia, B Ashiya-hama, Ashiya,
- -

C Rokko Island and D Port Island.

- -

i 16.00
+4(X) 1
reclaimed sand deposits
caisson
*—ged pik
VlZ00i

repiacedsand :: ‘Alluvi*I clay Iayu

- ‘-24.0O—28.00

Figure 5.16: Cross-sections of berths on Rokko and Port Islands (Kamon eta!, 1995)

46
 6. Interpretation of Strong-Motion Data

The Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake triggered a large number of strong-motion

recording instruments, some of which were located very close to the seismic source.
These strong-motion recordings are a significant contribution to the global data bank
and a great deal of information will be obtained from the detailed study of their
characteristics, particularly of near-field effects, vertical accelerations and the influence
of soil deposits. In this Chapter an overview of the records obtained in the earthquake
is presented together with the main characteristics of the ground motion, which are
compared with predictions from applicable attenuation relations. The final section
presents a special set of recordings from the vertical array of accelerographs on Port
Island.

6.1 Strong-motion recordings from the earthquake

At least 184 strong-motion recordings of the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake, recorded

on instruments operated by fourteen different agencies, have been identified from
various sources. The highest recorded acceleration was in excess of 0. 8g at the JMA
Kaiyo station in Kobe. The most distant recordings were obtained more than 300 km
from the epicentre. The station names and locations and the peak values of the
recorded accelerations are all presented in Appendix 4.

A total of 24 triaxial digital records, from both the near- and far-field, were obtained
from three Japanese organisations; these records are listed in Table 6.1. The
acceleration records were processed using the program ELLICOR (Menu,1986).
modified to run on a personal computer for this project. The filter is extremely
efficient and needed only to be applied to the acceleration time history. with the
velocity and displacement being obtained by simple integration. The program was
configured to fit a linear baseline to the acceleration time history only, as the records
were considered to be of good quality This baseline correction served to remove innir
period errors that could be magnified on integration. The filter has a pass band and
upper and lower cut-offs in the frequency domain, the upper being the Nyquist
frequency and the lower usually set at about 0.10Hz in order to remove low frequency
noise.

The velocity recordings could not be processed using ELLICOR directly, so they were
baseline corrected manually using a package program Mathcad 5.0 and differentiated
to give an equivalent acceleration record. These acceleration records were then
processed using ELLICOR.

The acceleration, velocity and displacement time-histories of all the processed records
are presented in Appendix 4. It should be noted that the east-west and north-south
components of the record from the CEORKA station at Ainagasaki and all the
components of the Kobe (B) station appear to have been clipped. Records from the
Port Island vertical array are also presented at the end of Appendix 4 and in section
6.7. Table 6.2 summarises the results of the processed records.

47
 Source Station Name Type of Record
Japan Meteorological Kobe (Kaiyo) Acceleration
Agency. (JMA) Osaka Acceleration
Maizuru Acceleration
Okayama Acceleration
Tottori Acceleration
Hikone Acceleration
Fukui Acceleration

The Committee of Port Island ** Acceleration

Earthquake Observation Kobe University Velocity
and Research in the Kobe (Motoyama) Velocity
Knsai Area. (CEORKA) Amagasaki Velocity
Tadaoka Velocity
Sakai Velocity
Fukushima Velocity
Abeno Velocity
Morigawachi Velocity
Yae Velocity
Chihaya Velocity

Port and Harbour Kobe Port Office Acceleration

Research Institute. Kobe Stn #8 Acceleration
(PHRJ) Amagasaki Port Acceleration
**
CEORKA Port Island Station is a vertical array of 4 instruments

Table 6. 1: Characteristics of digital records presented in this report

CEORKA has advised that the Kobe University site record was affected by the
inclination of the recording sensor and as such there may be an increased error in the
recordings at that location.

The response spectra for the Hyogo-Ken Nanbu earthquake records were obtained
using SPECTRUM, an Imperial College Fortran program, modified to run on a
personal computer. The program determines the spectral response of absolute
acceleration, relative velocity, relative displacement and pseudo-velocity at 91 periods
between 0.04 and 15 seconds for up to five damping levels. All records from the
Hyogo-Ken Nanbu earthquake were processed for periods from 0.04 to 3.0 seconds at
damping levels of 0%, 2%, 50/0 and 10% of critical. The response spectra of all of the
records are also presented in Appendix 4.

48
 Source Station Name N E Epicentral NS EW UD
Lat. Long. Distance (g) (g) (g)
Qun)
J.M.A. Kobe(Kaiyo) 34.68 135.18 18 0.837 0.632 0.340
Osaka 34.67 135.52 48 0.082 0.067 0.066
Maizuru 35.44 135.32 98 0.068 0.053 0.040
Okayama 34.65 133.91 99 0.079 0.060 0.036
Tottori 35.48 134.24 120 0.078 0.075 0.015
Hikone 35.27 136.24 135 0.139 0.150 0.040
Fukui 36.05 136.22 195 0.033 0.042 0.010

CEORKA Port Island ** 34.67 135.20 20 0,348 0.291 0.569

Kobe University 34.72 135.24 25 0.275 0.307 0.430
Kobe (Motoyama) 34.72 135.28 29 0.4 17 0.777 0.369
Amagasaki 34.71 135.40 39 0.273 0.326 0.313
Tadaoka 34.48 135.40 40 0.292 0.192 0.125
Sakai 34.56 135.46 43 0.151 0.124 0.091
Fukushima 34.68 135.47 44 0.183 0.214 0.188
Abeno 34.63 135.51 47 0.215 0.224 0.109
Morigawachi 34.68 135.57 53 0.213 0.125 0.156
Yae 34.68 135.61 56 0.157 0.147 0.123
Chihaya 34.43 135.65 63 0.090 0.108 0.067

PHRI KobePortOflice N/A N/A 21 0.521 0.233 0.457

KobeStn#8 N/A N/A 21 0.699 0.400 0.346
AmagasakiPort N/A N/A 39 0.315 0.504 0.317
*
N/A Information not available.
-

Table 6.2: Results from processing strong ground-motion records

6.2 Characteristics and attenuation of horizontal PGA

The maximum horizontal accelerations recorded at many locations are listed in the
catalogue at the beginning of Appendix 4. In order to compare these observations
with predictive equations, the data is compared to the values obtained from two
attenuation relations. The first of these is the Japanese equation presented by
Fukushima & Tanaka (1990), using a data set of 686 accelerograms. The majority of
these were obtained from Japanese earthquakes, but the authors found it necessary to
supplement their data with recordings from elsewhere, primarily the United States.
The reason for this is that very few of the Japanese records had been obtained in the
near-field, the closest record being at 16 km from the source of a magnitude 5.8
earthquake and most of the records from distances greater than 50 km. The data set of
486 records from 28 Japanese earthquakes was extended with another 200 recordings
from 15 earthquakes in the US and Iran.

49

I
 The attenuation equation obtained by regression on this data is:

logA= 1.30 + 0.4lM- ”

4
log(R+0.032
)- xl0° 0.0034R± 0.21P (6.1)

where A is the peak ground acceleration in cm/sec

. determined from the mean of the
2
two horizontal peaks from each accelerogram; R is the distance from the station to the
fault rupture in km and P takes a value of zero for 50-percentile values of log(A) and
1 for 84-percentiles.

Attenuation of Peak Ground Acceleration Fukushima-Tanaka Fit

10

C,

0
4-,

0.1

C
C:,
0.01
0
a-

o.coi
0 1 10 1X iDD
Distaice from Fault (km)

Figure 6.1 : Observed values of PGA compared to mean prediction from the
Fukushirna & Tanaka (1990) model, and the canes for rock and soft soil sites.

Fukushima & Tanaka (1990) did not explicitly include the site geology in their
attenuation model, but they did explore the distribution of the residuals with respect to
the mean and their relation to the soil conditions. They found that in general the mean
curve for soft soil data was 140% of the average curve, and similarly the rock curve
was 60°/o of the average. In Figure 6. 1 the observed acceleration data is compared to
the mean predicted values from this attenuation equation as well as the predictions for
soft soil and for rock sites. It can be seen that the observed data agrees closely with
the prediction, with 70% of the data lying between the rock and soft soil curves.
Since information about soil conditions is not available for a large number of the
recordings, it has not been attempted to plot all of the data showing whether they are
from rock or soil sites. Nonetheless, inspection of the data for which the soil
conditions are known reveals that at greater distances there is good agreement
between the predictions and the observations. In the near-field, however, at distances
of less than about 10 km from the fault rupture, several of the data points exhibit the
opposite behaviour to that predicted, with accelerations on rock sites lying above those

50
 on soft soil sites. This may in part be the result of the highest accelerations actually
exceeding the maximum resistance of the soft soil, (Ambraseys, 1973).

The observed values of PGA have also been compared to those predicted by the
European attenuation equation of Ambraseys & Bommer (1991). This equation was
obtained from regression analysis on 529 triaxial records from 219 shallow
earthquakes. The attenuation relationship for peak horizontal acceleration is:

logA -1.09 + O.238M - log(r) 0.00050r

- + 0.28P (6.2)

where A is the larger of the two horizontal peaks (in g). and r is (d 2+36)0.5 where d is
the shortest distance to the surface projection of the fault rupture (km): P is defined as
for equation (6.1). Figure 6.2 shows the comparison between the observed values of
peak acceleration and the mean values predicted by this equation. The limits of the
mean plus or minus one standard deviation are also shown to illustrate the scatter of
the data.

Attenuation of Horizontal Peak Ground A2ceIation : Antraseys-Borrnier Fit

C
C

G)

C.,
C.,

C
z
C

a,

0 1 10 1W icxx
Distace From F.iIt Projection (km)

Figure 6.2: PGA from the earthquake and the mean and mean ± one standard
deviation accelerations from the equation of Ambraseys & Bommer (1991)

This attenuation equation appears to predict very well the observed behaviour of the
ground motion in the near-field, with 90% of the data lying within the one-standard-
deviation limits, For the accelerations recorded at greater distances, however, the
equation seems to over-estimate the attenuation, with the majority of the recordings
beyond 20 km lying well above the mean prediction and frequently even above the
mean-plus-one-standard-deviation value, in the predictions with both the Japanese

51
 and the European attenuation models, the published value of M of 6.8 has been used
for the magnitude. If the value of 7.0 re-calculated in Section 5. 1 is employed instead.
the curves will move slightly higher but not sufficiently to explain the apparent under
estimation by the European equations.

From both Figures 6. 1 and 6.2 it can be seen that there is very considerable scatter in
the data, particulaily at greater distances even though it is usually found that the
dispersion of the peak acceleration is greatest close to the source The most obvious
outliers, particularly the three apparently very low accelerations at distances between
60 and 100 km warrant fi.irther exploration. The large scatter of the data at distances
greater than a few tens of kilometres might be related to azimuth of travel paths and
directivity effects of the source. It also appears that attenuation characteristics in
Japan differ from those in Europe, as is confirmed by the better fit obtained with the
Fukushima & Tanaka (1990) equation.

6 3 Characteristics and attenuation of vertical PGA

Earthquake-resistant design has traditionally been concerned with the lateral loads
imposed on buildmgs by earthquakes, m part because of the fact that structures are
usually design for vertical (gravity) loads with appreciable factors of safety Field
observations in many recent earthquakes have suggested, however, that the vertical
earthquake excitation can be a major cause of damage and this is reflected by the fact
that some seismic codes specifi vertical, as well as horizontal, earthquake loads. In
parallel with these developments, there is increasing research activity into the nature of
vertical earthquake ground-motion and its prediction for engineering purposes. There
are a limited number of attenuation equations for vertical PGA, such as that developed
by Abrahamson & Litehiser (1989) and more recently by Ambraseys & Simpson
(1995) For the purposes of a preliminary e’aluation of the vertical accelerations
recorded durmg the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake, in this report the recorded values
aft wU4dIeU Witfi tflOsc prccik4ea Dy tlIC eqUdtlOH UI unb1aseys & Bommer 139I)
This equation was obtained from regression analysis on subset of the records used to
derive equation (6.2), consisting of 459 records from 191 earthquakes. The equation
is:

1ogA= -1.34 + 0.230Mg- log(r) + 0.27P (6.3)

where A is the peak vertical acceleration (g), and the other parameters are all defined
exactly as for equation (6.3).

Figure 6.3 compares the observed values of vertical acceleration with those predicted
by the European attenuation equation. It is observed that the data set from the
earthquake exhibits distinct groupings of very high vertical acceleration at distances
between 20 and 50 km. The model shows a reasonable fit to the far-field data, at
distances greater than 150 km. The near-field effect may be partially attributed to local
faulting near some of the stations.

52
 The vertical accelerations recorded by the vertical strong-motion accelerograph array
are discussed in Section 6.7 and then structural engineering implications addressed in
Chapter 7.

Attenuation of Vertic Peak Ground Acceleration A1traseBonn1er Fit

C 0. 1XX
C
C.)
0

C
D
C
0
C 0. 01 co
C.)

C
>
C
C
0
o.cDio
1 10 1(X) 10
Distence From FiIt Projeclion (km)

Figure 6.3: Observed values ofvertical PGA compared to predictive equation of

Ambraseys & Bommer (1991) for mean and mean ± one standard deviation values

6.4 Comparison of horizontal and vertical acceleration

Tiw cinificnC
C -
nf thp hjol vpriril ‘nmnnnpnt hz hpn h 1,the4 ;,
-—
£fl iti.fl*3

earthquakes such as Northridge (Broderick et a!., 1994). It is not unusual for vertical
components to be greater than the horizontal close to the source and bearing in mind
the proximity of Kobe and surrounds to the earthquake source, this appears to have
been reflected in the data. In order to highlight the characteristics of the vertical
component the database from Appendix 4 was utilised to plot vertical and horizontal
components as shown in Figure 6.4, and the ratio of vertical-to-horizontal at distances
from the epicentre as shown in Figure 6.5. In addition to this, recording on various
structures were used to compare vertical and horizontal acceleration response as
shown in Figure 6.6.

It is of particulai mterest that ‘Specifications for Fhghway Bndges PartV Seismic

Design (Japan Road Association 1990) states that ‘J ettical seismic coefficients foi
design shall not general/v be considered.” It further states: “It has been co!?fIrmed
from observation results of strong earthquakes that there are less opportunities in
which maximum values of horizontal and vertical acceleration occur simultaneous/i.
and that the maximum value of the vertical acceleration is about haf or less than the
horizontal.” From Figure 6.4 however, it can be observed that 42% of the data points
have a peak vertical component greater than half of the corresponding peak horizontal

53
value and 11% of the peak vertical components actually exceed the corresponding
peak horizontal value. The implications of such code recommendations are discussed
further in Chapters 7 and 9.

Cortaison of Vertical and Horizontal Corrionents

C,
C
a, 0. icto
C
C
C.
E
C
C.)
a,
C.,

a, 0.01(0
>
a,
a,

oct10
0(010 0.01(0 0. icrx
Peak Horizontal Cononent IG)

Figure 6.4 Peak horizontal and vertical accelerations

Vertical to Horizontal Corronent Ratio Versus Epicentral Dstsice

1o.cxxD

EE4
C
HffEFE EFEEEEZ
a,

-__
a,
C A
C A
N A

C
i.axo — - —

—4- - 4
—--
———-— — —
—
- -+-———

- -t—r—————-—--— - -f
—
C
‘S
EZ LZ EZEZ
— —

a,
— -

0 -

‘S
A
> A
AA A AL
- I A
A
A

0. icxD A —
1 10 1(0 icco
Distance From Epicentre (km)

Figure 6.5 Peak vertical to horizontal ratio against distance from epicentre

54
 Cormaison of Vertic and Horizont Pccdwaiion in Structures

A &iikirigs • Brickjes S Eçssy I Le

C:, --

C ---

2
4—
*

j
--

t*A
A.4<
—___
.

I i
Io,o ZZEEZ ZEE EEE —

A
---
---—-
.: —--

—--—-—-—--—————.—--—--

--__---

--

—--..-
— --

o.oico o. lcxxi tcwD

Peak Horizont NceIeration (G)

Figure 6.6: Peak vertical to horizontal ratio for structural response records

It is also observed from Figure 6.5 that the majority of stations where the peak vertical
acceleration component exceeded more than half of the peak horizontal acceleration
component, are predominantly in the mid-field, at distances between 20 and 50 km
from the epicentre. This is somewhat surprising as it would have been expected that
such a phenomena could occur close to the source due to the local effects of energy
release, but not at the distances observed.

The Port Island station gave the highest ratio of vertical to horizontal acceleration and
is known to have liquefied, (Section 5.5). It is interesting to note that whilst
liquefaction caused a very marked reduction in horizontal acceleration towards the
surface, the vertical acceleration was actually magnified. It is also interesting to note
that recordings at the New Kansai International Airport also demonstrated similarly
high ratios, with four stations showing values of 1.47. 1.39. 1.47 and 1.61. Two
stations at Amagasaki recorded vertical-to-horizontal ratios of 1.1 and 1.4 and this
may be due to response of the alluvial layer in that region. Similarly for Kakogawa,
where two separate stations both recorded motions with a ratio of 1.25, and close to
the Higashi Kobe Ohashi bridge, where a ratio of 1.21 was observed. The unusually
high ratio at Shin-Kamogata is probably due to recording accuracy and can be ignored.

For sites where recording equipment was fitted to structures, a separate data base was
created and catalogued in Appendix 4. The responses have been broadly classified into
four categories as follows: (i)buildings, (ii) bridges, (iii) expressways, and (iv) levees.
This data has subsequently been plotted in Figure 6.6 to show the ratio of peak vertical

55
 acceleration to peak horizontal acceleration in structures. Again, although the data set
is limited, it is noted that there is a trend for a high vertical component to be registered
at a significant number of structures.

6.5 Attenuation of response spectral ordinates

The normal procedure for generating elastic response spectrum for design is to carry
out a hazard assessment in terms of peak or effective acceleration, and then to anchor a
standard spectral shape to the hazard-consistent value of this parameter. This practice
has been recognized as not taking into account the variation in spectral shape with
increasing magnitude and distance, as discussed in Appendix 2. As a consequence, an
alternative practice has developed in which the hazard-consistent design spectrum is
constructed ordinate by ordinate using response frequency-dependent attenuation
relations.

Attenuation equations for spectral ordinates have been derivea for Japan by
Kawashima et a!. (1984). The equations predict absolute acceleration response
ordinates (cm/sec
) at 10 periods between 0.1 and 3.0 seconds. The equations have
2
been determined by regression analysis on 197 accelerograms obtained at 67 free-field
recording sites from 90 Japanese earthquakes with focal depths of less than 60 km.
The two horizontal components from each accelerogram were vectorially resolved and
then the absolute acceleration spectrum with 5% of critical damping determined. The
regression equation is of the following form:

SA a.10(A ± 3O)h78 (6.4)

where SA is the absolute spectral acceleration, M 1 the magnitude on the JIVIA scale
(Section 5 1) and z the epicentral distance m km a and b are the regression
coefficients The study also considered the soil conditions, but rather than mcluding
this as another term m the equation, separate regressions were performed foi each of
the three site categories. The ground conditions are classified into three categories as
follows, according to the type and thickness of the deposits and the fundamental period
of the site:

• Group I - Tertiary or older rock or diluvium less than 10 metres thick.

Period < 0.2 seconds.

• Group II - Diluvium with a thickness 10 metres or more, or alluvium less

than 25 m thick, including soft layers of less than 5 m thick
Period between 0.2 and 0.6 seconds.

• Group ifi - Other than aboe usually soft alluvium or reclaimed land
Period> 0.6 seconds.

The values of the coefficients a and b from equation (6.4) for 10 response periods and
for the three ground condition classifications are given in Table 6.3, together with the
standard deviation of each regression.

56
 Period Ground group I Ground group H Ground group HI
(Sec.) a b 1
a a b 1o2V
0 a b 10
a
0.10 2420 0.211 0.262 848.0 0.262 0.256 1307 0.208 0.219
0.15 2407 0.216 0.229 629.1 0.288 0.244 948.2 0.238 0.218
0.20 1269 0.247 0.226 466.0 0.315 0.273 1128 0.228 0.211
0.30 574.8 0.273 0.241 266.8 0.345 0.270 1263 0.224 0.217
0.50 211.8 0.299 0.278 102.2 0.388 0.249 580.6 0.281 0.240
0.70 102.5 0.317 0.239 34.34 0.440 0.245 65.67 0.421 0.243
1.00 40.10 0.344 0.273 5.04 0.548 0.305 7.41 0.541 0.307
1.50 7.12 0.432 0.254 0.719 0.630 0.288 0.803 0.647 0.305
2.00 5.78 0.417 0.267 0.347 0.644 0.264 0.351 0.666 0.276
3.00 1.67 0,462 0.249 0.361 0.586 0.248 0.262 0.635 0.263

Table 6.3: Regression coefficients for equation (6.4) by Kawashima eta!. (1984)
I!
For each of the digitized strong-motion records for which information regarding the
site conditions was available, the larger horizontal response spectrum in each case is
compared to that predicted by the equations of Kawashima et a!. (1984) and shown in
Figures 6.7-6.27.

Acceleration Response Spectral Ordinates for Abeno station (Soil 2

A,
-. - -

-. Kaveshima eta!.
0. EO
AtuaI response

<
0.10_

o.cxJ
o.co o. i.co lEO 2.OD ZEO acx
P&od (Seconds)

Figure 6.7: Comparison of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Abeno Station

57
 Acceleration Response Spectral Ordinates for Amagasaki Station (Soil 3

1.40.

1.20 -
i... Kawshma eta!.

cIuaI response
1.W
a
0
C
C
0.
0
a
co0J
.A.
0.40

o.a .A.

0.W
0.a) o.EO i.co lEO 2W 2E0 3.cO
Period (Seconds)

Figure 6.8: Comparison of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Amagasaki
Station

Acceleration Response Spectral Ordinates for Pi-IRI Angasaki Station (Soil 3

1.40

Kawisima eta!.
1.20
ADtuaI Response

S
C
0. UJ.
0

C
.2 0.&J
a
a
• 0.40.
cZ A
o.a
o.co
o.co 0.EO 1.E0 2W 2E0 3W
Period (Seconds)

Figure 6.9: Comparison of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for PHRI
Amagasaki Station

58
 eceleration Response Spectral Ordinates for Chihaya Station (Soil 1)

0.45 T
A
0.40 Kaasima et aL
A.

0.35 Atual Response

C,
0.1)
C
C
0.25

0.a-L
I
- 0.15-r

0.10 A.

0.
A
o.co
0.(X) 0.w i.co 1W 2W 3.03
Period (Seconds)

Figure 6.10: Comparison of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Chihaya
Station

ceJeration Response Spectral Ordinates for Fukui Station (Soil 3

0.14 -

0.12 Kavnshima eta!.

+
Aclual Response

Io.c.

o.c6
. 0.
4
0.02

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 25 3
Period (Seconds)

Figure 6. 11: Comparison of actual and predictive spectral ordinates for Fukui Station

59
 Nceleration Response Spectral Ordinates for Fukushima Station (Soil 3

0.9 -
Kashima et al.

0.8 Atual

0 0.6
0.
U,

C
. 0.4 -

‘A.

0.3:

0.2
0.1

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Period (Seconds)

Figure 6.12: Comparison of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Fukushima
Station

celeration Response Spectral Ordinates for Hikone Station (SoiI2)

0.8D T

KavashimaetaI.

A1ua Response

G)
C 0.O
0
0.

C
0
. 0.a

• A.
A..

0.10

o.co
OXD 0.EO 1.J ZOD 2E0 3W
Period (Seconds)

Figure 6.13 : Comparison of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Hikone
Station

60
 Acceleration Response Spectral Ordinates for Kobe Station (Soil 2

- -- -
- KaasNma et al.

,Actijal Response
aco
C
C

- +
C
C

i.a
A-
A,
A
A
z

A
o.co A

OXD CEO lEO 2(X) ZEO aco

Period (Seconds)

Figure 6.14: Comparison of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Kobe JT’b4A
Station

Acceleration Response Spectral Ordinates for Kobe Sta1ion (Soil 3)

3
- -
- - - Kavas[ima et al.

ADtuaI Response
C,
2J
C
C

I.ZJ-
C
C

1--
0
-A- . -

- , -A’ - -
A-.
O.5
A

A
0
0 (15 1 1.5 2 2.5
Period (Seconds)

Figure 6.15 : Comparison of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Kobe #8
Station

61
 Acceleralion Response Spectral Ordinate.s for PHRI Kobe Station (Soil 3

1.20-

CD

C
0
a,.
U,
a,

C
0 fr*”
a,
a, 0.40-u A
0,
0

o.a
0.cD 0.EO 1.) aco zo 3.cO
Period (Seconds)

Figure 6.16: Comparison of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for PHRI Kobe
Station

Acceleration Response Spectral Ordinates for Kobe University Station (Soil 2

-.
k’.. Kavastima eta!.

0.7 -
ALIUa! Response
CD
a,
U, 0.6
C
0
a,. 0.5
U, -

a,
0.4 -

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Period (Seconds)

Figure 6.17: Comparison of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Kobe
University Station

62
 Nceleration Response Spectral Ordinates for Kobe Motoyama Station (Soil 3)

1.D

tJ - . . .
-. Kaesima eta!.

- 1A0 Alual Response

1.20 -

C
C
C.
a,

a, 1

0.40 4 A* -.

0.20

o.co
0. EO 1.EO 2c0 2E0 3.co
Piod (Seconds)

Figure 6.18: Comparison of actual and predicted ordinates for Kobe (Motoyama)
Station

4cceleration Response Spectral Ordinates for Malzuru Station (Soil 2

0.
&

a, G20
C
C
C.
a,
U15 A.
C
0
a,
a, 0.10
a,
C.,
C.,

005

o.co
o.co cio 2(X) 2.EO 3W
Period (Seconds)

Figure 6.19: Comparison of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Maizuru
Station

63
 Aeceleralion Response Spectral Ordinates for Morigawachi Stalion (Soil 2

0.9
- -
- Kaasima eta!
08
C, AtuaI response
I 0
0 06
0.
0
0
u5
C
0
0.4
0
0
0 0.3 A
0 - A..
0.2-

-
A

0.
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 25 3
Period (Seconds)

Figure 6.20: Comparison of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Morigawachi
Station

Acceleration Response Spectral Ordinates for Okayama Station (Soil 1)

0.35

oa Kaasimaeta!

S.
. ,A
fl IR
0.25

•5 0.10-i-
0

aw o.Eo 1.OD 20J 2E0 ax

Period (Seconds)

Figure 6.21: Comparison of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Okayama
Station

64
 Acceleration Response Spectral Ocdinates for Osaka Station (Soil

-
- A - - Kawshrna eta!.
0.o -

A
Alual Response
cri
a, 0.40
U, A
C
0
0.
U,
a’
a: 023
C
C
.4-,
a,
a,
a>
0

0.10

A
0.03
o.co 0. !EO 1.03 1.D zco 3.03
Period (Seconds)

Figure 6.22: Comparison of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Osaka Station

Acceleration Response Spectral Ordinates for Port Island Station (Soil 3

1.OL.

023
0,D

a,
U,

0
0.
U,
a’
a:
C
• 0.40
a, A.

0.3J.
023-

Gb

0.03 —-

0(X) OEO 1(X) 123 203 2E0 ace

Period (Seconds)

Figure 6.23: Comparison of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Port Island
Station

65
 ceIera1ion Response Spectral Ordinates for Sakal station (Soil 2

0.
A,
Kavasma et al.
0.EO A
AtuaI Response
Q
A
a, 0.40
C
a
0
a, 0.3J
C
a
a,
a, 0.20
I-

a>
C.>

&10 +
0.OD
o.co 0.EO 1.D ZOD aco
Period (Seconds)

Figure 6.24: Comparison of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Sakai Station

celeration Response Spectral Ordinates for Tadaoka Station (Soil 2

140

12

a>
0
C
. 0J

C
C

a,
0.40 +
C.,

0.20

o.co
Ofl) 0.E0 1.EO 2.cO 2.EO 3.tD
Period (Seconds)

Figure 6.25: Comparison of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Tadaoka
Station

66
 cceleration Response Spectral Ordinates for Tottori Station (Soil 2)

0.45

0.40 — KaastimaetaI.

Alual Response
Q
0.33
0
0. 0.25 1

C
C
o.a-. A
A

0.15 —

C
C.)
C.) 0.10
‘4.
o.os
0.03
o.co 0.EO 1.03 1.) zco 2J acx
Period (Seconds)

Figure 6.26: Comparison of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Tottori Station

celeration Response Spectral Ordinates for Yae Station (Soil 2

ol i... Kasma et al.

Alual Response

A.

A
A ‘A

1’..

0.20 -

CE
0.10
‘A

“A
OCX)
0.03 1.J 2.03 ZEO aco
Period (Seconds)

Figure 6.27: Comparison of actual and predicted spectral ordinates for Yae Station

67
 From Figures 6.7 through to 6.27 it is observed that the results of the Kawashima
model compared with actual spectral ordinates are varied. The primary failure of the
model to miss siificant peaks in the response spectra, which can be seen in Figures
6.8, 6.9, 6.12. 6.13, 6.14, 6.26 and 6.27, is immediately evident. This, however, is to
be expected using equations predicting mean spectral ordinates derived from several
real spectra. which will tend to smooth local troughs and peaks. In others the spectral
shape itself is , however the peak is siguificantly under-estimated, as observed in
Figures 6.18 and 6.24. It is noted that the model was quite sensitive to the selected
ground conditions, and other recent studies at Imperial College have highlighted the
fact there is still no consensus regarding the extent and nature of site amplification on
response spectra, (Ambraseys et a!., 1995). Initially the ground conditions for the
Hyogo-ken Nanbu records were selected based on the database information compiled
in Appendix 4; however those curves demonstrating poor fit were plotted against the
three ground conditions and in several cases a better fit was established. Based on this,
soil parameters were adjusted as follows:

Fukui Station : Soil 2 > Soil 3

Fukushinia Station : Soil 2 > Soil 3

Kobe University : Soil 1 Soil2

Several of the plots however do exhibit strong correlation between the model and
actual results. In order of best fit these are: Chihaya Station (Figure 6.10), Sakai
Station (Figure 6.24), Fukui Station (Figure 6.11), Kobe University (Figure 6.17) and
Abeno Station (Figure 6.7).

One response spectrum deserving particular attention is the extraordinary record from
Kobe#8 station shown in Figure 6.15. This record is from a location at which it has
been reported that there was extensive liquefaction andlateral spreading therefore
the recorded should be used with some caution.

6.6 Ground motion amplification and special arrays

Inspection of the response spectral plots shown in the previous section and the
correlation between the spectral shape and the soil classification, confirms that there
clearly was a very strong influence of the local geology on the recorded ground
motions. It is beyond the scope of this initial report to carry out site response analysis,
but as more soils data is made available iinvestigations are being made into the
influence of the soil deposits on the ground shaking, including the fills and the soft bay
deposits. Some Japanese researchers have already published some analyses of the
response of soils to the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake (Yamazaki el a!., 1995).

Port Island is a 436 hectare region of reclaimed land in Osaka Bay to the immediate
south of Kobe City. The total area consists of both port facilities and a commercial
and residential zone. The island was constructed in several stages between 1966 and
1981. utilising some 80 million cubic metres of ‘Masa’ fill (primarily weathered

68
 granite) taken from the surrounding mountainside west of Kobe. Soil conditions for
the site are shown in Figure 6.28.

The Port Island Array is located on the northwest corner of the island and has been
marked with a”+ “on Figure 3.3. The array consists of four 16-bit digital servo
acceleration recorders located at relative depths of Om, 12m, -28m and -79m and the -

locations of these are also shown on Figure 6.28.

Full corrected acceleration, velocity and displacement records, and spectra for each of
the recording instruments are given in Appendix 4. A summary of the acceleration,
velocity and displacement traces plotted against depth for each component are given in
Figures 6.29, 6.30 and 6.31. The peak values for each component at depth have been
summarised in Table 6.4.

I!i
I
I Depth
(m)
Soil
Type
.1 Bore
Log

;°.
10
I

.L
SPT N-value
20 30 40

0
50
4 1

Q26
Vs &Vp (km/sec.)

I
.0
ii ,i
2.0

I ReclaImed 1

10 Land 0.78
-
Acceleromer
::
I::
021
. .•
-16mg (-12m)
J 1.4.8
20- Silty —

Clay 0,18 [1.88

[ L
o Gravel,
Sand and
.z::::
..:
1g..

0.245 11.33
M

40 Gravel,
..—“rz::::::;—•——-’ 3C5 1.53
Sand and

50- Sfra

— 0.35
, .‘

60- . Yj I
Silt
5’
70- and 0.303
Clay

-: -]
—

80-

-83zn • .y 0.32

I I 41 I III

Figure 6.28: Soil profile for Port Island strong-motion array

69
 Depth Acceleration (G) Velocity_(cmls) Displacement cm)
(in) E-W N-S Vertical E-W N-S Vertical E-W N-S Vertical
0.0 0.2910 0.3485 0.5693 50.977 91.058 61.877 30.566 40.075 27.868
-12.0 0.5555 0.5619 0,7968 53.142 76.841 35.326 25.004 31.335 22.533
-28.0 0.4714 0.5559 0.1988 58.473 65.223 27.100 21.772 28.169 11.484
-79.0 0.3099 0.6938 0.1904 29.253 65.736 28.460 11.554 25.799 12.204
Note: Depths reftr to depth below ground level @ + 4 metres.

Table 6.4: Peak acceleration, velocity and displacement at different depths

recorded by the Port Island Array

Figure 6.29 shows the acceleration, velocity and displacement of the east-west
component for each station depth. It can be seen that the peak value ofo.31g at -79
metres, has been amplified to 0.47g at -28 metres and then to 0.56 g at -12 metres.
This acceleration is then reduced through the reclaimed ff1 (weathered granite) to a
ground acceleration of 0.29 g . The acceleration for the north-south component
however is seen to attenuate from the peak value of 0.69g at -79 metres, through to
0.56 g at -28 metres, amplify slightly 0.56 g at -12 metres, and then attenuate again to
0.35 g at the surface. The vertical acceleration follows a similar trend to the east-west
component, with initial amplification from -79 metres to a maximum of 0.80 g at -12
metres and then attenuates through the reclaimed fill to 0.57 g at the surface. This
behaviour may partially be explained by the fact that considerable liquefaction occurred
on Port Island. From the horizontal acceleration and velocity records it is very clear
that there is a filtering of high-frequency motion through the soil layers, but the effect
is less marked on the vertical components.

70
 EU

Hil
C) 4
E I

j
*I
U.,ot3
4*’
(*)A.UDTA
:41 :1
Ed F F
I
:
j
4

.4 E}

---.

(o 3
,ci;
M
. ,; (0) (01 M(YV

2 2 2 2
0
Go
I I I

Figure 6.29: East-west components of Port Island array time-histories

71
 Depth (m) Acceleration (G) Velocity (cmls) Displacement (cm)
0

IIIIITT

0.0 m
L
I : 3. 13 4• 43
3 1* 21 3*
T)
31 34 II 4* 43 34

-12.Om Ii.
I, LI 4* 21 34 Z 4• 23 3*
3 44 II I. 21 34 4. 44 43 ,.
T2M (.h)
TDE ()

.28.0 m

.
1P(h)
TTM(.k) •
f i.—t;;t;t [H H
2
HH;HH f:_____________________________
I 79.0 m

• ,b2
flM1(...h)
4 z3
zH f
 (q.’—rNu (N
Si it IS SE N it ii it
I I U
:t:;
I w 06L-
0
(‘.)3r41L •
is •5 SE N U SE a a
\f\I’/\FJv * H-H’h wo.8z-
I
l Lt St a .5
(q—)I
it St it SI S
it II
(1I
1
I I I I I I
.5 SE N SE IS SE SI S C
0
C,)
9
I
(qi)
“INSEam
. n S. It SE SE it •1 it SI I S Ii it St a ii it a it i a
HHH***H—+1 L HHHH4H—H it
C

WOIO
(w3) iuuinids! (s/tu) pOjaA (o) uo!jeiIav (Ui)
 7. Structural Effects

In this Chapter an overview of the structural damage caused by the earthquake is

presented, beginning with a brief examination of typical damage patterns in different
types of structures. Subsequently. particular consideration is given to the ductility
demand imposed by the earthquake motions, which are compared to those from the
Northridge earthquake which occurred exactly one year before the Hyogo-ken Nanbu
earthquake. The effect of the vertical ground motion on structural response of elastic
and inelastic systems is also examined.

7.1 Overall assessment of damage

The extent of damage inflicted by this earthquake on structures and services has taken
everybody by surprise. This is because the Kansai region has been hit by damaging
earthquakes before, Japanese earthquake engineering is highly developed and previous
modern times earthquakes in Japan have had much less damaging effects. It is not the
objective of this report to review in detail the damage on various structural types and
materials, since this has been undertaken by other groups (All, 1995a,b; EERJ, 1995;
EQE, 1995; DPRI, 1995, amongst other Japanese and international groups). Herein, a
short summary of the main observations by structure type is given.

7.1.1 Reinforced concrete bridges

Heavy damage and collapse has occurred in many instances. Spectacular collapse of
several frames of the Hanshin Expressway has been widely reported in the media and
in the literature (Seible et a!., 1995). The main causes of this heavy damage, according
to the literature, are:

Inappropriate location of lap splices in the pier members, causing shear failure.
- I-ugh stiffless and strength coupled with low ductility causing the exceedance of
the displacement supply.
- Low levels of shear reinforcement leading to severe shear cracking.
- Overstressing of seismic restrainers leading to local failure.
- Large permanent displacements due to soil liquefaction and/or pile deformation.
This leads to unseating and other geometric effects.

In addition to the above, which could not have been verified by the EFTU mission, it is
postulated that the effect of the vertical component of earthquake ground motion
played a significant role in the observed damage. The reduction in the axial
compression which is not usually taken into account in shear design, may lead to shear
failure. Moreover, as discussed in subsequent section hereafter, the compression over-
stressing of columns, due to vertical vibrations, could lead to compression failure.
Such modes of failure, characterised by a symmetric disintegration of concrete and
symmetric buckling of steel bars, have been observed repeatedly in the area affected.

74
 7.1.2 Steel bridges

Many steel piers have failed in local and panel buckling modes, causing tearing at
welds. This was extensively reported by Bruneau et a!. (1995), who reported that on
the whole steel bridges behaved better than RC bridges. It was reported that some
modes of failure have not been observed before, especially the bearing failure and
damage to long span cable stayed bridges. The main observed damage modes are as
follows:

- Squashing vertically of box sections used for piers. This was attributed to weld
seem failure.
- Local buckling of circular steel columns in an elephant foot mode, sometimes
not at the bottom of the pier.
* Brittle fracture of steel sections prior to yielding. This occurred in hollow and
concrete-filled sections.
- Failure of seismic restrainers causing unseating.
- Failure of bearings, especially rollers, with the cylinders ending up some distance
from the bearing. Also, bolts connecting rollers and bearing plates often failed
(reported by the Hanshin Expressway Public Corporation, 1995),
- Partial collapse of approach spans, due mainly to soil failure.
- Large permanent displacements (nearly 1 metre) of towers of cable stayed
bridges (The Awaji Kaikyo Bridge).

In the case of steel bridges also, the writers consider that vertical dynamic vibrations
could have played a significant role, especially in view of the comments of Bruneau et
a!. (1995) regarding vertical squashing of piers not at the location of maximum
moment and bearing failure. In general, the failure of many steel bridges, coupled with
those of RC bridges, caused extremely serious disruption to life and business alike and
lead to very substantial indirect economic loss (not included in the 13 trillion yen direct
losses).

7.1.3 Reinforced concrete buildings

All the modes of failure of RC structures, save one, observed and reported in this
earthquake have been observed in previous events around the world. The commonly-
observed modes are soft storey collapse, failure due to excessive thear loading and
effects of low ductility. The peculiarity of the performance of RC structures in this
earthquake is the cases of intermediate storey collapse (at least six cases observed,
many more reported). This could be attributed to one or more of the following effects:

- Reduction in column dimensions due to high over-strength if uniform sections

are used at higher stories. Such an abrupt change in stiffness and strength could
lead to failure at the level of change, since the floor load above and below is
almost the same.
- Change of material and/or detailing at intermediate floors. In some cases, the
bottom stories are constructed from composite (steel/concrete) changing to RC
at some level. Thus deformation demand may be concentrated at this floor.

75
 Response of higher transverse modes would impose double curvature on an
intermediate column. This may stress sections not considered critical, hence not
detailed for ductility.

For medium and high-rise RC structures, Koukleri (1992) showed that net tensile
forces may develop at intermediate storey columns. This causes erosion of the shear
capacity. leading to failure. The writers consider that this is a very strong possibility, in
view of the high vertical motion recorded in this earthquake. This issue is further
discussed in subsequent sections of the report.

7.1.4 Steel buildings

Steel is used extensively in Japan. Many old steel structures suffered very heavy
damage and collapse. These are mainly lattice sections which lack stilliiess and
ductility, and were invariably in a very poor state of repair prior to the earthquake.
Japanese assessment efforts have intentionally ignored this class of structure, hence
these are not discussed further.

Of great concern was beam-column connection failure reported by survey teams from
the AIJ Steel Committee of the Kinki Branch (AIJ, 1995b). Also, brittle fracture of
members was particularly severe and disconcerting, since little or no inelastic
deformation preceded the onset of fracture. The main observed damage patterns are as
follows:

- Cracking at beam-to-column connections (very high incidence rate, up to 70%).

- Complete severance of members near the weld access hole.
- Severe damage or failure of column bases (101 out of2l8 buildings inspected!).
- In few cases, beam hinging was observed.
- Fracture at the location of internal stiffeners.
- Buckling of members and collapse at connections of tubular steel frames.
..4-11 Utifl Ui aiu iLiLU&J.i .

The behaviour of steel structures was on the whole disappointing. It confirmed the
serious doubts raised in the wake of the Northridge earthquake regarding the adequacy
of existing design guidance. It will take very considerable efforts to establish precisely
the causes of the observed damage patterns. It will take even longer to regain
confidence in steel as the primary seismic resistance material, if at all.

7.1.5 Base isolated structures

A short report on a base isolated structure was made available to the EFTU group
(Matsumura-Gomi, 1995). The building under discussion is the laboratory of the
research institute of the Matsumura-Gomi Corporation. It was the first base isolated
structure in the Kansai region. It is a three storey reinforced concrete frame with high
damping rubber bearings. A total of eight bearings were used, four of diameter 600
mm under the corner columns, whilst use was made of 700 mm diameter bearings
under the four intermediate columns. The equivalent fixed structure would have had a
structural period of 0.37 seconds; the isolated structure had a period of 1.2 to 2.3
seconds, depending on the modelling assumptions used. The response periods during

76
 the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake were 0.8 and 1.5 seconds. It is interesting to
compare the response acceleration of the isolated buildmg and that adjacent to it (steel
frame). Whereas the top response acceleration of the steel building was 0.9g and 0.6g
m the NS and EW directions, respectively, those of the isolated buildmg were 0 2g and
- 0 27g The amplification from foundation level to the top for the isolated buildmg was
approximately unity The amplification m the vertical direction was about 1 4
I
The response of this structure is a clear indication of the benefit of base isolation in
reducing transverse response excitation. It is, however, important to note that had the
high vertical accelerations recorded elsewhere in the epicentral area (sometimes
exceeding the horizontal motion) been close to this building, the response of the
structure vertically would have been much larger (even assuming the amplification of
1.4 as measured). The writers therefore consider that this structure constitutes a very
effective example of the benefits of base isolation, but further experimental and field
verification are required in the presence of high vertical acceleration.
II
I 7.2 Ductility demand spectra and comparison with Northridge

A number of the records from Northridge (17 January 1994, USA) were selected for
comparison purposes, based on a PGA of0.3g (with tolerance). These are the Arleta
Fire Station, Newhafl Fire Station, Downstream Pacoima Dam, Sylmar Hospital and
Santa Monica City Hall. Ten Kobe records were processed for ductility demand
(inelastic spectra). These are JMA Kobe, surface Kobe Port Island, Abeno,
Fukushima, Hikone, Kobe University. MorigawachL Sakai, Tadaoka and Yae. In all
cases. both horizontal components were studied, since the selection of the most
onerous based on peak ground acceleration is actually misleading. The characteristics
of these records are given in Table 7. 1.

Station Epicentral PGA

11 PGA
Distance (kin) (g) (g)
Arleta 6 0.350 0.590
Newhall 12 0.630 0.620
Pacoima 11 0.440 0.190
Sylmar 9 0.910 0.600
S.Monica 15 0.930 0.250
JMA 18 0.837 0.340
Port Island 20 0.569 0.569
Abeno 47 0.224 0.109
Fukushima 44 0.214 0.188
Hikone 135 0.150 0.040
University 25 0.431 0.430
Morigawachi 53 0.214 0.156
Sakai 43 0.151 0.091
Tadaoka 40 0.292 0.125
Yae 56 0.158 0.123

Table 7. 1: Characteristics of selected strong-motion records

77
Analysis was undertaken using an elastic perfectly plastic system. An equivalent
damping coefficient of 0.5% was used for all analyses, to represent sources of damping
other than hysteretic. Iterative analysis was conducted, whereby the yield force is
modified if the target ductility is not achieved, Equilibrium iterations are performed at
each step up to very tight convergence. The elastic and inelastic spectra are shown in
Figures 7.1 through 7.15. In all cases, Figures show top and bottom the longitudinal
and transverse components, respectively.

As an initial assessment tool, the characteristics of the cun’es for ductility factor 2 are
examined for all records. The periods of maximum amplification (in terms of Sa/g) are
quoted alongside the peak force demand within the period range quoted. The bottom
threshold of force demand is set to 0.5 Sa/g. The results are summarised in Table 7.2.

Record Component Period (sec) Threshold (SIg) Peak (SIg)

Arleta Long. 0.10-0.35 0.5 0.75
Arleta Trans. 0.10 0.20 - 0.5 0.75
Newhall Long. 0.15-0.70 1.0 1.40
Newhall Trans. 0.15-0.35 1.0 1.60
Pacoima Long. 0.20 0.60 - 0.5 0.80
Pacoirna Trans. 0.20 0.50 - 0.5 0.65
Sylmar Long. 0.20-0.60 1.0 1.50
Sylmar Trans. 0.40 0.65
- 1.0 1.20
S.Monica Long. 0.10 0.20
- 1.0 < 1.0
S.Monica Trans. 0.10- 0.40 1.0 1.40
JMA Long. 0.25 0.85
- 1.0 2.30
JMA Trans. 0.20-0.35 1.0 1.10
Port Isl. Long. 0.45- 1.10 0.5 0.70
Port Isl. Trans. 0.30 1.20
- 0.5 < 0.5
Abeno Long.
Abeno Trans. 0.15-0.20 0.5 0.55
Fukushima Both - - -

Hikone Both - - -

University Long. 0.25 0.90

- 0.5 0.65
University Trans. 0.15 0.35
- 0.5 0.50
Morigawachi Long. 0.55 0.65
- 0.5 0.50
Morigawachi Trans. - - -

Sakai Long. 0.25 - 0.25 0.5 0.60

Sakai Trans. - - -

Takaoka Long. 0.15-0.35 0.5 0.75

Takaoka Trans. 0.15- 0.20 0.5 0.60
Yae Both - - -

Table 7.2: Ductility demand characteristics of selected Northridge and Kobe

records (for overall displacement ductility demand p= 2, 05% viscous damping,
above hysteretic damping. Period ranges in column 3 are at maximum
amplification above the force demand threshold of column 4. The peak force
demand in the same period range is given in column 5)

78
 Examination of Table 7.2 shows some interesting observations. In general, the
average force demand imposed on Northridge structures is higher than that imposed
on Kobe structures. Exceptionally, the JMA Kobe records, which exhibits the highest
peak ground acceleration recorded in the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake imposes very
high force demand on structures of ductility 2. Another interesting observation is the
width of the zone of high amplification of the Port Island record, namely 0.45 to 1.1
seconds. The implication is that most structures of 4 to 10 stories in steel and 6 to 15
stories in RC will be subjected to extremely high forces even if they exhibit sone
ductility.

The Kobe JMA and Northridge Sylmar records were selected for further comparisons,
since they have very similar peak ground acceleration values. Their characteristics are
given in Table 7.3. Spectra for 2% and 5% damping are shown in Figures 7. i6 and
7.17. These are derived purely for demonstration purposes and they have no physical
significance, since hysteretic damping is afready included. It may be argued that
additional damping may represent mechanisms other than those normally included in
elastic spectra evaluations, such as radiation damping.

Record Distance Depth PGA (g) 7 (cmls)

PG a/v a/v class
JMAKobe 18 14 0.837 90.4 0.93 intermed.
Sylmar 15 18 0.843 128.9 0.65 low

Table 7.3: Characteristics of JMA and Sylmar records

The following comments ensue from comparison of the two sets of spectra:

- The Kobe record shows two areas of high amplification, compared to one only in
the Northridge record. Both records have a milder hump around the 1.2 to 1.5
seconds range.

- For example, an eight stories high RC structure may have a fundamental period
(inelastic) of about 0.7 seconds, and is therefore subjected to high ductility demand
by the Kobe record in its fundamental mode. It is interesting to note that vibrations
in its second mode, which could be in the range of 0.3 seconds (based on Fourier
amplitude spectra of a sample RC structures analysed inelastically at Imperial
College), is also subject to high ductility demand (accepting the conceptual error in
considering the complex inelastic response as a superposition of individual
responses). This may lead to failure at intermediate floors, as observed in several
cases in Kobe. It is appreciated, however, that other factors may have contributed
to the observed intermediate floor failure, such as section changes or material
(composite then bare steel or RC) changes.

- Whereas the two records have only less than 1% difference in PGA (the Sylmar
record being higher). the ductility demand imposed is vastly different, with JMA
Kobe imposing higher force demands. This is despite the fact that the peak
velocity of the Sylmar record is higher than the Kobe record, as shown in Table
7.3 above. Moreover, for a period of say 0,45 seconds and ductility demand 2, the

79
 required strength will be proportional to a response acceleration of more than 2g
for Kobe and l.3g for Sylmar. It would be interesting to study the effect of the a/v
ratio; whereas the Sylmar record is categorised as low, the Kobe record lies in the
intermediate range.

- The width of the high amplification range of the Kobe record for limited ductility
structures (i2) is significantly wider than that of the Sylmar record. However, the
situation is reversed when considering higher ductility. Hence, it may be concluded
that the Kobe record is more taxing for low ductility structures, whilst the Sylmar
record is more onerous for high ductility structures.

- The relationship between force reduction factors and ductility factors in the short
period range (0.05-0.3 seconds) is, as observed before, non-linear. In the
intermediate period range (herein considered to be 0.3-2.0 seconds), the
relationship is consistent, but does not follow the statically-derived factors of l/i
p 111/2). For the Sylmar record at 0.5% damping, the ratio between
and (lI[
2 -

elastic and inelastic = 2.0) spectra in the intermediate period range is

somewhere between 2.2 and 2.6. For the Kobe record, with a few exceptions, the
average force reduction factor is 2.8-3.0. This is due to the hysteretic damping.
which changes for changes in the yield force. As such, it is also a function of the
number of cycles and their amplitude. For long period structures, the average force
reduction factor for both records is about 2.5, with severe local fluctuations. In
this respect, it is noteworthy that the hysteretic model used over-estimates energy
absorption and hence force reduction factors.

- For 2.0% damping, the force reduction factors calculated are not vastly different
to those obtained from the 0.5% damping inelastic analysis, which is expected in
view of the hysteretic damping element included. This is further emphasised by
examining the force reduction factors for 5?/ damping. All analyses indicate that
force reduction factors for both records are similar in the short period range,
li1gt1r fcr TM4 Vrh ipfriiiii rct1 cit’ n’ic 2nd 11n cipiln fnr lnn
period structures.

- For all analyses, the highest force reduction factor for Sylmar is 9.0 (ductility 4.0,
damping 0.5%, period 1.5 seconds), which is still lower than the value of 12
recommended in the UBC. For the JMA Kobe record, the corresponding value is
13 (as for Sylmar, but at a period of 0.9 seconds). This is in spite of the fact that
the hysteretic model used is potentially unconservative, as mentioned above.

- For periods longer than about 3 seconds inelastic spectra converge, regardless of
the value of ductility factor.

It is noteworthy that most of the base shear coefficients shown in Table 7.2 are beyond
the limits that seismic design may cater for. What would have saved many structures
from collapse is uplift of foundations, rocking, soil radiation damping and other soil-
structure interaction effects. It is still a matter of concern that the force reduction
factors shown in Figures 7.16 and 717, notwithstanding that they are rather on the
unconservative side, are above those recommended in modem US codes.

80
 7.3 Structural effects of vertical earthquake ground motion

In the immediate aftermath of the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake, comments on the

vertical component of earthquake ground motion were made. This rapidly died out,
probably due to more pressing needs for recovery and strengthening This obsenation
also applies to the Northridge earthquake, where the same sequence of events
occurred.

Analytical evidence of the possibility of reduced compression or even tension in

columns of multi-storey frames subjected to combined transverse and vertical
earthquake ground acceleration have been documented (Papadopoulou, 1988;
Koukleri, 1991; Rosset. 1992). Moreover, the possible structural effects were studied
for long-span steel frames (Broderick et a!.. 1994; Elnashai, 1993), for RC beam-to-
column connections (Agbabian et a!., 1994) and for bridge piers (Elnashai, 1995, as an
extension of the work of Dodd et a!., 1994). It was shown that independent beam
vibrations may increase the rotation demand on connections by 100%, that the shear
deformation ductility of RC connections may drop by 30-40% due to the reduction in
column compression and that bridge piers deemed adequate for shear strength may fail
in shear when the vertical component of the earthquake is included in the analysis.
These studies, when combined with the recently published evidence that the ratio
between peak ground accelerations in the vertical and horizontal directions is grossly
under-estimated in code, point towards an urgent need for re-assessing current
procedures for analysis and design. Whereas an extensive study gave the values
shown in Table 7.4 below (Ambraseys & Simpson, 1995), all existing codes
recommend a value in the vicinity of 0.7 and the Japanese code a value of 0.5, as
pointed out in Section 6.4 above.

Global Global Stnke * *

Global Thrust European *
ms
6.0
d0 d’15 d0 1 d=15 d0 d15 d0 d15
0.80 0.67 0.97 0.50 0.79 0.79 0.41 0.39
7.0 0.98 0.84 1.18 0.71 0.95 0.95 0.84 0.82
7.5 1.06 0.93 1.29 0.82 1.03 1.03 1.05 1.03
*
results based on limited data sets

Table 7.4: Peak ground acceleration ratio (vertical:horizontal) after Ambraseys &
Simpson (1995)

The implications on the safety of structures designed to resist a downwards force

consistent with a vertical spectrum derived by scaling down the horizontal spectrum by
30%, and subjected to significantly higher downwards and upwards forces, is self-
evident.

To contribute to the investigation of the effect of the vertical component and possible
means of accounting for hitherto neglected effects, a study of the vertical spectra from
the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake has been initiated, following the return of the EFTU
mission. For comparison purposes, a selection of Northridge records is also studied.

81
 All records were chosen from the existing databank, with the criterion of vertical PGA
of O.3g or higher (with 5% tolerance).

Whereas transverse vibrations of a frame is usually behaviourally-symmetric with

respect to the vertical axis, vertical vibrations of RC and composite structures produce
asymmetric effects with respect to the horizontal axis. Therefore, in the analysis below.
upwards and downwards (bi-directional) spectra are studied. [This approach may hold
some promise for dealing with the design including vertical earthquake motion].
Hereafter, these are referred to as linear bi-directional vertical spectra (LBVS).
Moreover, the stilThess of RC members is asymmetric with respect to the horizontal
axis, unlike transverse characteristics which are commonly symmetric with respect to
the vertical axis. Therefore, another set of spectra is derived whereby the stilThess in
tension and compression are dissimilar. These are referred to as bi-linear bi-directional
vertical spectra (BBVS). A sample of spectra are presented in Figures 7.18 through
7.23. Only BBVS plots are shown; it is to be noted that LBVS plots give higher
tensile forces, but lower tensile displacements, compared to the corresponding BBVS.
hi all cases, spectra are shown top and bottom for 2% and 5% damping, respectively.

In the shown figures, damping of 2 and 5 percent is used, for demonstration purposes,
since it is not well-established what level of equivalent viscous damping should be used
for vertical motion. Moreover, a stiffliess ratio of 5 (ratio of compressive-to-tensile
stifThess) is used. This will correspond to a typical RC column with reinforcement
ratio of about 2-2.5% (forJ of 20-30 N/mm 2 andj. of 460 N/mm ). The axial force
2
factor mentioned in the figures refers to the applied axial force which represents the
sum (positive or negative) of the axial force from gravity and from over-turning. On
the compression side of sway, this factor will be higher than 1, dropping for the tensile
side below unity. The unity BBVSs are considered to be an average.

The main observations from these spectra are as follows:

- The highest upwards iorce is obtained fiom the Port Island record, reaching an
amplification of l.8g for 2% damping, compared to peaks of 0.8g and 0.85g for
IMA and Kobe University.

- Upward forces occur in a period range of 0.1-0.18 seconds, 0.04-0.3 6 seconds and
0.18-0.32 seconds for the University. Port Island and JMA stations, respectively.
This may coincide with fundamental or higher vertical vibration modes of many
structures of both concrete and steel it may be assumed very roughly that vertical
-

periods are 10% of horizontal periods (Papadopoulou, 1988).

- The Port Island record shows several distinct peaks. whilst the two others are
more clustered into one peak. This could be because of the complex site condition
of Port Island, which is a man-made fill on top of existing strata (it is also of great
interest to note that the Port Island array, discussed in Section 6.6, shows
significant reduction of horizontal PGA towards the surface, whilst the vertical
PGA increases or retains its value recorded at depth. This may indicate, for the
first time, that liquefaction, which affected the horizontal records, does not affect
the vertical component).

82
- The three Northridge records are, on average, more destructive than the Kobe
records, showing amplifications for 2% damping of 1. 8g for Arleta and Newhall,
and 0.8g for Sylmar. They also have a slightly wider period range in upwards
force magnification (up to 0.44 seconds for Newhall).

- For all records, the LBVS is lower than the corresponding BBVS. However, the
displacement associated with the BBVS is invariably higher.

- With regard to the downwards force, it is most interesting to note that

amplification of nearly 3g (superimposed on the ig axial force factor, leading to
compressive forces of 4g downwards for the 2% damping Port Island ground level
record) are observed. Several piers in Kobe City and the connection with Port
Island have suffered compressive-dominated failure modes (such as pier P664 of
the Hanshin expressway, where a perfectly symmetric failure pattern with
symmetric reinforcement buckling at 2/3 height was observed). These high
downwards forces may explain such failure modes.

- Downwards forces in several records exhibit a period range higher than the
corresponding upward forces, typically up to 0.5 seconds. In the very short period
range, the spectra are affected by the accuracy of the digitised record, hence it is
probable that higher amplifications than those shown would ensue if the
digitisation penod increment was reduced These forces do indeed impose uplift
displacements (for unanchored structures) or tensile displacements (for anchored
structures)

Further work is urgently needed to mclude the effect of the vertical motion in the
design process both for downvard and upward forces The iesults shown abo e
though contribute to the increasing debate on the significance of vertical ground
motion and lend weight to the opimon that code recommendations should be ie
assessed Further work is currently midenav at Imperial College and a report will be
issued shortly (Elnashai & Papazoglou 1995)

83
 ELASTO-PLASTIC SPECTRA NORTHRIDGE
ARLETA FIRE STATION
0.5% viscous damping
longitudinal component
Sa: g
2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
transverse component
Sa: g
2.5
ji=1.0

1.1=3.0
1.5
.0

0.5

0
0 0,5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec

Figure 7.1 The elastic and inelastic spectra of Northridge earthquake:

An eta Fire Station

84
 ELASTO-PLASTIC SPECTRA NORTHRIDGE
NEWHALL FIRE STATION
0.5% viscous damping
longitudinal component
Sa: 9
5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
transverse component
Sa: g
5

4 i2.0

ji=3 .0
3
ji4 .0

2 11=5.0

1i6.O
I

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
Figure 72 The elastic and inelastic spectra of Northridge earthquake:
Newhall Fire Station

85
 ELASTO-PLASTIC SPECTRA NORTHRIDGE
PACOIMA DAM DOWN-STREAM
0.5% viscous damping
longitudinal component
Sa: 9
2.5
.LI.0

1.5
i=40

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
transverse component
Sa:g
1.6

1.4

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec

Figure 7.3 The elastic and inelastic spectra of Northridge earthquake:

Pacoima Dam Down-Stream

86
 ELASTO-PLASTIC SPECTRA NORTHRIDGE
SYLMAR HOSPITAL
0.5% viscous damping
longitudinal component
Sa: g
5

L=5.0
2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
transverse component
Sa: g
3
iI.O
2.5
j.L=2.0

ji=4 .0
1.5

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
Figure 7.4 The elastic and inelastic spectra of Northridge earthquake:
Sylmar Hospital

87
 ELASTO-PLASTIC SPECTRA NORTHRIDGE
SANTA MONICA CITY HALL
0.5% viscous damping
longitudinal component
Sa: 9
2.5
11=1.0

2 11=2.0

11=3.0
1.5
11=4.0

11=5.0
I

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2,5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
transverse component
Sa: g
6

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
Figure 7.5 The elastic and inelastic spectra of Northridge earthquake:
Santa Monica City Hall

88
 ELASTO-PLASTIC SPECTRA KOBE
KOBEJMA
0.5% viscous damping
longitudinal component
Sa: 9
7
11=1.0
6
11=2.0
5
11=3.0

4 11=4.0

3 11=5.0

2 11=6.0

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
transverse component
Sa: g
5

4 11=2.0

L3.0
3
11=4.0

2
11=60

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
Figure 7.6 The elastic and inelastic spectra of Kobe earthquake: Kobe
JMA

89
 ELASTO-PLASTIC SPECTRA KOBE
KOBE PORT ISLAND GL
0.5% viscous damping
Iongitudina component
Sa: 9
1.6

1.4

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
transverse component
Sa: g
1.6

1.4
2.O
1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
Figure 7.7 The elastic and inelastic spectra of Kobe earthquake: Kobe Port
Island GL

90
 ELASTO-PLASTIC SPECTRA KOBE
ABENO
0.5% viscous damping
longitudinal component
Sag
2

15

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
transverse component
Sa: g
2

2.0
1.5
i=3 .0

L=4 .0
I
i=5 .0

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec

Figure 7.8 The elastic and inelastic spectra of Kobe earthquake: Abeno

91
 ELASTO-PLASTIC SPECTRA KOBE
FUKUSHIMA
0.5% viscous damping
longitudinal component
Sa: g
2.5
j.11.O

2 11=2.0

11=3.0
1.5

I
L1
.
6 O

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
transverse component
Sa: 9
1.6

1.4

1.2

I
LL=4.O
0.8
1.1=5.0
0.6

0.4

0.2 j

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec

Figure 7.9 The elastic and inelastic spectra of Kobe earthquake:

Fukushima

92
 ELASTO-PLASTIC SPECTRA KOBE
HIKONE
0.5% viscous damping
longitudinal component
Sa: g
1.4

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
transverse component
Sa: 9
2
ji=1.O

1.5

I.L=4 .0
I
11=5.0

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
Figure 7.10 The elastic and inelastic spectra of Kobe earthquake: Hikone

93
 ELASTO-PLASTIC SPECTRA KOBE
KOBE UNIVERSITY
0.5% viscous damping
longitudinat component
Sa: 9
1.6

1.4

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
transverse component
Sa: 9
2.5
L1 .0

2 i=2.0

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
Figure 7.1 1 The elastic and inelastic spectra of Kobe earthquake: Kobe
University

94
 ELASTO-PLASTIC SPECTRA KOBE
MORIGAWACHI
0.5% viscous damping
longitudinal component
Sa: 9
2
i=I.O

j.i=2.O
1.5

I
1.L5.O

0.5

0
0 0.5 I 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
transverse component
Sa: g
1.6

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 35 4 45 5
period: sec

Figure 7.12 The elastic and inelastic spectra of Kobe earthquake:

Morigawachi

95
 ELASTO-PLASTIC SPECTRA KOBE
SAKAI
0.5% viscous damping
longitudinal component
Sa: 9
2

1.5

0.5

0
0 0,5 I 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
transverse component
Sa: g
1.4
1=1.0
1.2
t=2 0
I

0.8 j4 .0

0.6 J.L5.0

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
Figure 7.13 The elastic and inelastic spectra of Kobe earthquake: Sakai

96
 ELASTO-PLASTIC SPECTRA KOBE
TADAOKA
0.5% viscous damping
longitudinal component
Sa: g
4

3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
transverse component
Sa: g
2

1.5
i=3 .0

I
i=5 .0

116.O
0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
Figure 7.14 The elastic and inelastic spectra of Kobe earthquake: Tadaoka

97
 ELASTO-PLASTIC SPECTRA KOBE
YAE
0.5% viscous damping
longitudinal component
Sa: g
2

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
transverse component
Sa: g

t=I .0

t=4.0

ji=5.0

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

period: sec
Figure 7.15 The elastic and inelastic spectra of Kobe earthquake: Yae

98
 ELASTO-PLASTIC SPECTRA NORTHRIDGE
SYLMAR HOSPITAL

longitudinal component
2% viscous damping
Sa: 9
3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
longitudinal component
5% viscous damping
Sa: g
3

2.5
20

2 1.1=4.0

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec

Figure 7.16 Inelastic spectra for 2% and 5% damping for the Sylmar record

99
 ELASTO-PLASTIC SPECTRA KOBE
KOBE JMA

longitudinal component
2% viscous damping
Sa: 9
4

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
longitudinal component
5% viscous damping
Sa: g
3

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
period: sec
Figure 7.17 Inelastic spectra for 2% and 5% damping for the Kobe JMA
record

100
 BI-LINEAR AND GRAVITY SPECTRA NORTHRIDGE
ARLETA FIRE STATION
VERTICAL COMPONENT Sa (+) = NET UPWARD TENSION Sa(-) = TOTAL
,
, DOWNWARD COMPRESSION
stiffness reduction factor 25.0 axial force factor 1.O
,

2% viscous damping
Sa: 9
2
linear
I +gravity

bi-linear
0 +gravity

—1

-2

.3

.4
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
period: sec

5% viscous damping
Sa: g
I
linear
+gravity
0
bi-linear
+gravity
-I

-2

-3

-4
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
period: sec

Figure 7.18 Bi-linear Bi-directional vertical spectra (BBVS) of Northridge

earthquake: Arleta Fire Station

101
 BI-LINEAR AND GRAVITY SPECTRA NORTHRIDGE
NEWHALL FIRE STATION
VERTiCAl.. COMPONENT , Sa (+) = NET UPWARD TENSION , Sa(.) = TOTAL DOWNWARD COMPRESSION
stiffness reduction factor = 5.0 ,axial force factor =1.0

2% viscous damping
Sa: g
3

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
period: sec

5% viscous damping
Sa: g

linear
+ra vity

bi-linear
+gravity

0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2

period: sec

Figure 7.19 Bi-linear Bi-directional vertical spectra (BBVS) of Northridge

earthquake: Newhall Fire Station

02
 BI-LINEAR AND GRAVITY SPECTRA NORTHRIDGE
SYLMAR HOSPITAL
VERTICAL COMPONENT Sa (4.) = NET UPWARD TENSION Sa(.) = TOTAL DOWNWAR
, , D COMPRESSION
stiffness reduction facto 5.0 axial force factor =j .0
,

2% viscous damping
Sa: g
2
linear
1 +gravity

bi-Iinear
0 +gravity

—1

-2

-3

.4
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
period: sec

5% viscous damping
Sa: 9
I
linear
0.5
+gravity
0
bi-linear

-0.5 +gra vity

—1

-1.5

-2

.2.5

.3 i
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
period: sec

Figure 7.20 Bi-linear Bi-directional vertical spectra (BBVS) of Northridge

earthquake: Sylmar Hospital

103
 BI-LINEAR AND GRAVITY SPECTRA KOBE
KOBE JMA
VERTICAL. COMPONENT , Sa (+) = NET UPWARD TENSION , Sa(-) = TOTAL DOWNWARD COMPRESSION
stiffness reduction factor = 5.0 ,axial force factor =1.0

2% viscous damping
Sa:g
2
linear
I +gravity

bi-linear
o +gravity

::
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
period: sec

5% viscous damping
Sa: g

.0.5
A - r;:;
bi-linear
+gravity

: 0

Figure 7.21
0,25 0.5 0.75 1
period: sec
1.25 1.5 1.75

Bi-linear Bi-directional vertical spectra (BBVS) of Kobe

2

earthquake: Kobe JMA

104
 BI-LINEAR AND GRAVITY SPECTRA KOBE
KOBE PORT ISLAND GL
VERTICAL COMPONENT , Sa (+) = NET UPWARD TENSION , Sa(-) = TOTAL DOWNWARD COMPRESSION
stiffness reduction factor
5.0 ,axial force factor 1.0

2% viscous damping
Sa: g
3
linear
2 +gravity

I bi-linear
+gravity
0

—1

-2

-3

-4

-5
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
period: sec

5% viscous damping
Sa: g
2
linear
+gravity

bi-Iinear
+gravity

-4
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
period: sec

Figure 7.22 Bi-linear Bi-directional vertical spectra (BBVS) of Kobe

earthquake: Kobe Port Island GL

105
 BI-LINEAR AND GRAVITY SPECTRA KOBE
KOBE UNIVERSITY
VERTICAL COMPONENT Sa (+) , C NET UPWARD TENS)ON,Sa(-) TOTAL DOWNWARD COMPRESSION
stiffness reduction factor x 5.0 ,axial force factor =1.0

2% viscous damping
Sa: g
2
linear
+gravity
I
bi-linear
0 +gravity
I

—1

-2

-3

-4
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
period: sec

5% viscous damping
Sa: g
0.5 —

linear
+qravity

bi-linear
-0.5 +gravity

—1

-1.5

-2

-2.5
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
period: sec

Figure 7.23 Bi-linear Bi-directional vertical spectra (BBVS) of Kobe

earthquake: Kobe University

106
 8. Overview of Damage to Highway Structures

One part of the infrastructure that was particularly affected by the Hyogo-ken Nanbu
earthquake was the transportation system and especially highway structures. The failures of
several highway structures impeded rescue, fire-fighting and evacuation efforts and
heightened the disruption caused by the earthquake. in this Chapter an overview is given of
damage to highway structures in previous earthquakes in Japan and this is followed by a
review of the damage caused by the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake.

8.1 Damage in previous earthquakes

Bridges and highway structures suffered extensive damage in Japan during several
earthquakes prior to the Hyogo-ken Nanbu event (Swanton, 1995) and as far back as in the
earthquake of 1891 (Appendix 1). This is summarised as follows:

8.1.1 The Great Kanto (ML = 7.9) earthquake of 1923

This earthquake had a devastating effect on the area of Tokyo and Yokohama. causing a
death toll of hundreds of thousands, many caused by fire. Bridges were severely affected.
The Tsurumo Bash bridge suffered abutment sliding and pier tilting as well as bearing bolt
failure. The Shin-minato steel truss bridge displaced off its bearings and the abutments
moved substantially. The same type of distress was observed on the bridges of Bankoku,
Yamashita. Hanazano and Toyokuni, all of which were short span steel trusses on stiff
abutments. All 33 spans of the RC bridge at Sakawa collapsed along with most of its piers.
Another RC bridge (Hayakawa) suffered partial collapse and large displacements of up to 50
cm. Another RC bridge which was under construction at the time of the earthquake
suffered extensive damage and cap beam failure, possibly due to insufficient curing time for
concrete. Some caissons floated due to liquefaction. In general, the damage observed was
more due to displacement than excescive fbrce demand, except in the case of two RC
bridges which suffered damage attributable to inadequate strength.

8.1.2 Nanki (ML = 8.1) earthquake of 1946

In this earthquake, only two bridges were affected, both steel trusses supported on RC piers.
The first (Kumano) suffered bearing damage and sliding of 5 trusses, whilst in the second
(Shimanto) case, 6 trusses fell into the river and several piers cracked. In the case of this
earthquake, similar to the Kanto event, damage was due to large displacements.

8.1.3 Fukui (ML = 7.3) earthquake of 1948

Many bridges were affected adversely by this earthquake, which was not far from the area
affected by the earthquake of 17 January 1995. The Nakazuno bridge suffered collapse of
many of the steel truss spans as a consequence of large displacement and tilting of the stiff
RC piers. Similar effects were observed in the case of the Benten bridge, where the 2 middle
of the 6 span steel truss collapsed due to the failure of the central RC pier. lii contrast, the

107
 Nagaya bridge settled without failure as a consequence of settlement of the piers, possibly
due to liquefaction, similar to the observed effects on the Shioya bridge; both structures
were steel trusses on RC piers. Very heavy damage was inflicted on the RC deck Itagaki
bridge where 8 spans collapsed transversely whilst no such movement was observed on the
piers.

Of special interest to the work of the ESEE Section at IC is the damage inflicted on the
Koroba bridge. This is a 3 span RC deck bridge supported on 3-column RC frames. The
columns suffered compression-dominated collapse with reinforcement buckling. Also, the
deck suffered damage at mid-span. Both modes of failure indicate a possible effect from high
vertical earthquake motion, an issue discussed in some detail in Chapter 7 of this study.

8.1.4 The earthquakes of 1949, 1952 and 1962

Three earthquakes of potentially damaging intensities (Imaichi ML 6 4 and 6 7 1949

Tokachi-oki, ML = 8.1, 1952; Northern Miyagi, ML 6.5, 1962) had a limited effect on
bridges in Japan, with only few cases of cap beam, bearings and foundation distress. No
significant super-structure or pier damage was reported.

8.1.5 Niigata (ML = 7.5) earthquake of 1964

This earthquake is well-known for the extent of liquefaction-induced damage to bridges and
buildings, with large apartment blocks tilting and sinking into the ground with no apparent
structural damage. Spectacular collapse of the Showa bridge occurred with the collapse of 2
piers and 5 spans of the composite slab on steel piers. The bridges of Bandai (eight span RC
arch supported on RC piers and abutments), Yachiyo (fourteen span mixed pre-stressed
concrete and composite deck supported by RC piers), Fujimura (four span RC girder
supported on RC abutments and piers) and Kosudo (three span steel truss and RC piers), all
sunere,11.ilqueacdon am.,1 SC 1-.cincik thuUu LaIuagc to Lne picis .tiiu supi-stiuLLuie. inc
,

Matsubama 14 span steel truss bridge was under construction at the time of the earthquake.
The right RC abutment slid I m downstream and a simple span truss collapsed.

8.1.6 Ebino (ML = 6.1) and Tokachi-oki (ML 7.9) earthquakes of 1968

In these two events, the bridges of Kamezawa, ficejima and Kamimasaki (the first and third
had pre-stressed decks, whilst the second was a steel girder, all supported by RC piers and
abutments) suffered failure mainly due to support movement and tilting of the abutments,
Evidence of liquefaction was observed and related settlement seemed to have had an effect
on the documented damage. Bearing and joints damage was also reported.

8.1.7 The Miyagi-ken old (ML = 7.4) earthquake of 1978

This earthquake indicates a turning point in bridge response to earthquakes in Japan. Prior
to this event, most observed damage was due to sub-structure problems of bearing,
settlement, large displacements etc. This was taken into account in new construction, by

108
 design of foundations to withstand large displacement. This meant that larger forces were
transmitted to the piers and deck, thus revealing design deficiencies that remained hitherto
unnoticed. A total of 95 structures were reported to have been damaged, including a case of
total collapse. Many piers suffered shear, compression and fiexural failure.

8.1.8 Nihon-kai-Chubu (ML = 7.7) earthquake of 1983

The comments given above regarding bridge damage in the Miyagi-ken oki earthquake apply
here also, Modem bridges suffered structural distress to piers, with fewer cases of
foundation and sub-structure damage. In total 176 bridges were affected to varying degrees.
It became clear that improved design recommendations have effectively reduced damage due
to large displacements. For instance, regulations regarding the design of seismic restrainers
dictated that these be designed to resist forces at the joints and to carry the whole dead
weight of a span if unseating occurs. This in itself ensures that the inertia load from the deck
is always transmitted to the piers, hence the strength and ductility of the latter becomes
more significant than for older type construction.

8.1.9 Kushiro-oki (ML = 7.8) earthquake of 1993

Damage to eight structures was reported. This comprised failure of piers constructed with a
severe reduction of reinforcing bars at mid-height in the Shin-Shiriuchi bridge. New piers on
the same bridge constructed without this feature survived the earthquake. Another six
bridges suffered damaged patterns similar to the latter bridge, thus confirming the
inadequacy of such detailing for piers. It is important to note that this pattern of failure was
the main reason for the collapse of about 18 spans of the Hanshin Expressway in the recent
earthquake, as discussed further below. Another failure pattern which was to be repeated in
the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake was the failure of seismic restrainers observed on the
Hatsune bridge, which is a 6 span simply supported steel plate girder constructed in 1969.

In contrast to the earlier earthquakes mentioned above, the latter two events have great
significance to the damage observed in the earthquake which is the subject of this study.
This is mainly brittle failure of piers and damage at halfjoints, either by impact or failure of
restrainers. ‘Whilst measures implemented in Japanese practice to safeguard against
liquefaction-induced and foundation failure have been successful, they transmitted the
seismic forces elsewhere, hence damage was inflicted on piers and joints.

8.1.10 Hokkaido Nansei oki (ML 7.8) earthquake of 1993

Two bridges suffered damage to piers at the location of reinforcement curtailment, whilst
one structure suffered settlement-induced damage. The Yanagisaki bridge, which was
retrofitted by restrainers and abutment stoppers, suffered extensive damage at the locations
of the retrofitting devices. Restrainers were severely damaged. This earthquake may have
been a precursor of the effect of seismic forces on modern retrofitting procedures: similar
damage was observed in many cases in the area affected by the Hyogo-ken Nanbu
earthquake.

109
 8.2 Effect of the flyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake

Whereas the damage to building structures, followed by fire, was the main cause of loss of
life in the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake, damage to bridge and elevated roads has had a
devastating economic effect on the community. Secondary effects have also been sustained
by communities further afield, due to the fact that Kobe is a major port City. Table 8.1 and
Figure 8. 1 list and depict, respectively, the damaged transportation structures.

Table 8.1: Principal highway structural damage

Highway Location Superstructure Substructure Damage

National Mondo- Steel plate R/C T-bents Deck collapse
Highway 171 Yakujin girder with piers of due to
rectangular differential
cross section. displacement at
abutment
supports.
National lwaya Simply Rectangular Compression
Highway 43 supported P.C. steel piers. buckling in steel
girder & steel piers.
box girder.
National Hamate Continuous Rigid Deck
Highway 2 By-pass steel box girder rectangular displacement
steel box resulting from
frame bearing failure.
Meishin Onishi Continuous RJC wall type Combined
Expressway. five span RJC piers. compression!
structure. shear failure of
RJC piers.
Meishin Amagasaki Continuous R!C wall type Combined
Expressway. five span RJC piers compression!
structure. shear failure of
RJC piers
Meishin Mukogawa Continuous R!C oval Failure of
Expressway. three span cross section seismic restraints
structure with piers. and bearings.
composite steel Concrete
plate girder. spalling.
Meishin Kawaragi Continuous R/C wall t’vpe Combined
Expressway. three span piers compression!
structure. shear failure of
RIC piers. Tilting
rocker columns.
Chukoku Takarazuka Continuous R/C bents Tilting and
Highway. R!C structure. with piers of flexural failure in
rectangular piers.
cross section. Bearing failure.

110
 Table 8.1: Principal highway structural damage (continued)

Highway Location Superstructure Substructure Damage

Hanshin Nishinomiya Steel Plate T Type K/C Pier failure
Expressway - Koshien Girder bents of leading to deck
Kobe Route 3. circular collapse
cross section.
Hanshin Nishinomiya Steel Plate Steel bents of Steel pier failure
Expressway - Imazu Girder Rectangular
Kobe Route 3. cross section.
Hanshin Nishinomiya Steel Plate T Type RJC Two span deck
Expressway - Girder bents of Collapse to the
Kobe Route 3 circular east due to
cross section. bearing failure.
Hanshin Nishinomiya Continuous Steel bents of Steel column
Expressway - K/C structure Rectangular compression
Kobe Route 3. cross section. failure.
Hanshin Nishinomiya Steel Box T Type RJC Concrete column
Expressway - Girder bents of failure leading to
Kobe Route 3. rectangular deck collapse.
cross section
Hanshin Kobe Multiple span RIC T-bents Deck collapse
Expressway - Fukae Honcho cantilevered with circular due to column
Kobe Route 3. construction + piers. failure.
suspended span
Hanshin Kobe Three span RIC T-bents Shear failure in
Expressway - Fukae Honcho continuous with pier.
Kobe Route 3. (west side) steel box girder rectangular
piers
Hanshin Kobe Steel plate R/C Compression
Expressway - Chuo Ward girder. rectangular failure in piers.
Kobe Route 3. piers
Hanshin Japan Rail Continuous Circular steel Steel pier
Expressway - Watamisaki Steel girder. buckling.
Kobe Route 3. Line Overpass.
Hanshin Minatogawa Steel girder T type steel Deck collapse
Expressway - Ramp, bents & T due to
Kobe Route 3. type RIC decoupling of
bents with adjacent spans.
piers of Failure of
circular cross seismic restraints
section /bearings due to
shear failure in
mid-section of
piers.

111
 Table 8.1: Principal highway structural damage (continued)

Highway Location Supei structure Substructuie Damage

Hanshin Nishinomiyako Nielsen-Rose Steel frame. Deck collapse
Expressway - Ohaslu bndge girder bndge due to beanng
Wangan Approach - failure.
Route 5. steel box Excessive pier
girders. movement due
to liquefaction.
Hanshin Shin- Bearing failure
Expressway - Shukugawa leading to deck
Wangan bridge, displacement,
Route 5. Due to ground
deformation.
Hanshin Shin- — Steel Rigid Steel Rigid
Expressway - Ashiyakawa Frame. Frame Support
Wangan bridge. Failure.
Route 5.
Hanshin Fligashi Kobe Steel Cable — Separation of
Expressway - Ohashi bridge. Stayed Bridge bridge approach
Wangan on Pneumatic and
Route 5. Caissons. superstructure.
Hanshin Rokko Island Rose Bridge. — Bearing failure.
Expressway - Ohashi bridge.
Wangan
Route 5.

Probably most affected were structures belonging to the Hanshin Expressway Public
Corporation. especially the Kobe Route (Route 3) and the Wangan Route (Route 5). These
are described further in the next Chapter of this report.

Assessment of structural response of several elevated transportation structures were

presented by several researchers. A quick equivalent static calculation was presented by’
Seible et a! (1995). In this treatment, a response acceleration for collapse was estimated at
between 1.5 and 2.0g. Taking into account that one record showed a maximum acceleration
of nearly 0. 85g. it was stipulated that a response acceleration of 1.5-2. Og is not unattainable.
It remains to be conlirmed that (i) the 0.85g peak ground acceleration corresponded to the
0.75 seconds period of the piers, (ii) the direction of this peak coincided with the direction
of the tributary mass used in the calculation and (iii) the 0. 85g record is sufficiently close to
the site of the collapsed structure, hence is indeed representative. It is, though, clear that the
treatment attempted by Seible et a?. is the earliest and most sensible rapid assessment
undertaken for the collapsed structures. On the other hand, a qualitative assessment of the
damage patterns was given by lemura et a?. (1995). The paper attributes the damage to
flexural or mixed mode (flexure-shear) distress either at sections of maximum moment
(maximum demand) or at locations of severe reduction in reinforcement (minimum supply).
The damage was positively correlated with the age of the structure, implying a significant
effect of the design code used. A summary table was presented by Kawashima (1995). This
is reproduced below:

112
 Routes 1964 1971 1980 1990 Total
Route2 91(64%) 58(39%) - - 149
Route 43 129 (97%) 4 (3%) - - 133
National Route 171 162 (100%) - - - 162
Highways Route 176 24 (89%) 3 (11%) - - 27
Sub-total 406 (86%) 65 (4%) - - 471
Route3 971(83%) 204(17%) - - 1175
Hanshin Route5 - 308(84°/o)
- 58(16°/o) 366
Expressway Sub-total 971 (63%) 204 (13%) 308 (20%) 58 (4°/o) 1541
Meishin 1099(100%) - - - 1099
JH Chugoku 574(100%) - - - 574
Sub-total 1673 (100%) - - - 1673
Total 3050 (83%) 269 (7%) 308 (8%) 58 (2°/o) 3685

Table 8.2: Damaged transportation structures by year of issue of design code

It is evident from Table 8.2 that older structures sustained the highest percentage of damage
in this earthquake. It is, however, disconcerting that modem structures suffered serious
levels of damage, as indicated by the damage of structures comprising Route 5 (Wangan).

To re-emphasise the effect of damage to highway structures in the Hyogo-ken Nanbu

earthquake, it is sufficient to state that traffic in the affected area dropped by 70%, causing
very substantial economic and social hardship. The observations from this earthquake, with
regard to transportation structures, will have a marked effect on retrofitting and design of
such structures not only in Japan but also worldwide.

In the subsequent section, two case studies of reinforced concrete pier structures are
investigated using static and dynamic analysis. Both structures belong to the Hanshin
Expressway Public Corporation, and design details were provided by the directors of the
maintenance and design divisions of this corporation. The two structures were selected on
the basis of different levels of damage; the first is the Fukae-Honcho structure (piers 126-
142) which suffered total collapse. The second is the structure comprised of piers 663, 664
and 665 of the Hanshin Expressway and sustained failure at intermediate sections of piers
663 and 664 but no collapse. The former structure is founded on piles, whilst the latter is on
isolated footings. Since the former structure has been, and is currently being, studied by
many groups around the world, emphasis was placed on the second structure, to enrich the
available information on more than one structure. Effort was allocated to comparing some
of the calculated supply and demand quantities for the Fukae-Honcho structure with the
equivalent static analysis of Seible eta! (1995).

114
 9. The Hanshin Expressway

The Hanshin Expressway is a network of major toll highways and interlinking feeder routes
combmmg to form one of the primary artenal ioadways within the Hanskm (Osaka-Kobe)
region. Planning and design of the initial stages of the expressway commenced in the late
1950’s early 1960’s with construction proceeding in phases from 1965 through to 1970.
This was followed by the extension of routes through to Osaka, Eastern Osaka. Matsubara
and Moriguchi. and the construction of the Wangan, bayside route connecting the new
Kansai International Airport between 1991 and 1994.

9.1 Case study 1 - Piers 124-142; Fukae-Honcho structure

The Kobe Route 3 section of the Hanshin Expressway is a major toll highway extending
from Osaka, alongside Osaka Bay through to the western side of Kobe and is almost
entirely elevated for approximately 40 kilometres. The type of construction and materials are
varied along the route (and the entire network) and some of these have been classified in
Table 8.1. The Kobe Route sustained heavy damage from the earthquake, resulting in a total
of 47 collapsed piers, 82 severely damaged piers and 471 partially damaged piers.

9.1.1 General description and structural characteristics

The section of elevated expressway considered was a six hundred and thirty five metre
portion of Kobe Route 3 on the Hanshin Expressway located at Fukae-Honcho, Higashi
Nada ward in Kobe City. This section consisted of a four lane (2 each way) deck supported
by seventeen central columns (Piers 126 to 142), constructed above the central median of
the 8 lane (4 each way) National Road 43.

Designs for the section were approved in 1964 and construction commenced in 1969. The
design is a multi-span cantilevered construction with suspended slab, where each column is
rigidly fixed to a section of deck. The suspended deck slab is seated between consecutive
column deck members. This style of construction is referred to as PiIz (columnldeck unit)
and Gerber (suspended span unit) construction. There are several reasons why this type of
construction was considered favourable;

1. Single column allows maximum use of limited land available

and is suited to construction over existing roads.

2. As the column and deck are rigidly connected there are less
problems with noise.

3. Flexible deck connections avoid residual stress build up from

differential settlement, particularly on reclaimed land.

The material strength used in design are 26.5 MPa for the compressive strength of the
concrete whilst the steel yield and ultimate stress values were 300 and 450 MPa,
respectively. The deck details are shown in Figure 9.1. The 20.25 metre wide reinforced
concrete deck over the column is cast in-situ to form a monolithic deck/column “Pilz bridge”

115
 unit. The deck of this unit is 13 metres in length and hea’ily stiffened to effectively transfer
the loads to the columns. At the ends of the “Pilz bridge” unit is a deck seating arrangement
which received the main deck. The deck connection detail is shown in Figure 9.2. The main
20.25 metre wide deck reinforced concrete suspended “Gerber” deck is connected to the
“Pilz bridge” by means of a “Gerber” hinge. This configuration resulted in an effective deck
span between columns of35 metres.

The columns are circular reinforced concrete of 3,100mm diameter and 14,967mm in length.
2.300mm of which forms the upper part of the pile cap. A further 2,800 mm at the top of the
column is cast monolithically with a reinforced concrete girder deck of the substructure.
leaving 9,867mm of free column. The longitudinal column reinforcement consists of three
concentric rings of 60-D35 bars up to a height of 2500mm above the top of the pile cap. At
this point the inner ring is cut-off while the two outer layers continue fill length of the
column. The column is conned by D16 bars at 200mm centres on the outer transverse
reinforcement and 400mm centres on the inner transverse reinforcement up to the 2500mm
cut-off The bars are then spaced at 300mm centres on the remaining outer layers of
transverse reinforcement for 4200mm at which spacing reduces to 200mm centres for the
remainder of the column. Cover to the reinforcement is 100mm with 100mm between layers.
The distance between ground level and the top of the pile cap varied with location between
500 and 1500mm. The details of the column reinforcement are shown in Figure 9.3.

Each column is founded on a 10,000mm x l1,000mmx 2300mm pilecap anchoring the three
concentric rings of longitudinal reinforcement. The pilecap is quite heavily reinforced with
upper D29 at 250 mm centres and lower D32 at 125 centres in both directions. These are
tied by Dl6 transverse links.

The pilecap is supported by seventeen 1000mm diameter x 15,000mm long piles.

Longitudinal pile reinforcement consists of a single ring of 18 x D29 bars to a length of
7000mm from the top of the pile, at which nine alternate bars are cut-off The remaining
bars continued for the fhll length of the pile. The piles are confined throughout by D13
hoops at 300mm centres. Cover to reinforcement was I 10mm in the transverse direction and
100mm on the end bearing face. The detail of the pilecap and pile reinforcement is shown in
Figure 9.4.

Bore log details, as shown in Figure 9.5 were available for soil at depth around column P138
and these have been assumed to be uniform throughout the length of the structure for the
purpose of the analysis. It appears from the log that the soil in the vicinity of the collapse
was fully or partially re-claimed land. In order to estimate the soil stithiess characteristics
along the length of the pile a graphical relationship between SPT and stiffness was utilised
(Jardine, 1991).

The seismic design coefficients assumed for use in the Japanese bridge code were 0.2 for
horizontal action and ± 0.1 for vertical action.

116
 -
HANSHIN EXPRESSWAY General Layout
Kobe Route 3, Fukae-Honcho, Nada-Ku, Kobe, Japan,

35,000
I —

L 13,000 22.000 13,000 20,250

43,10 7,125
240

I i
4
1 i—’l I I C
LJ
(‘4

a)

,500
1,000 Averag’

I
UL]UU UUU ULiLJL J
Efl flflEflfl I
1,500 ø—

10,000

-
ESEE Imperial College
15 August 1995. All Dimensions in
Hyogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake millimetres

-
Figure 9.1 : Hanshin Expressway Kohe Route 3 General Layout
 Suspended Cantilever Deck
Seating Connection Detail

Piiz Deck
Seating Connection Detail

Riald Connection Detail Flexible Connection Detail

Figure 9.2: Deck connection detail

118
 HANSHIN EXPRESSWAY Reinforcement Detail
-

Kobe Route 3, Fukae-Honcho, Nada-Ku, Kobe, Japan.

LI-28x160@200mm
L2 -28 x 16O2OOmm

A A
-14 x 160@300mm
LI LI
L2-l4xI6D3OOmm
L2
L3

LI -22 x 16D2OOmm
2500mm
B
L2-22x160@200mm
L3-11x16D4OOrnm

3,100

100z
100-
Section A-A Section B-B

ESEE Imperial College

- Figure 9.3: Column reinforcement detail All Dimensions in
15 August 1995. millimetres
Hyogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

119
 HANSHIN EXPRESSWAY Reinforcement Detail-

Kobe Route 3, Fukae-Honcho, Nada-Ku, Kobe, Japan.

D16
C
D

E
a

JIL P
15,000
D13@300mm

9-D29

- 1,000

0
ill
110 -

Section E-E Section F-F

ESEE Imperial College

- Figure 9.4: Pilecap and pile reinforcement detail All Dimensions in
15 August 1995. millimetres
Hyogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

120
 I
0 10 20 30 40 50

SPTN
Figure 9.5: Soil bore log and SPT values

9.1.2 Description of damage

Collapse of this section of the elevated highway was initiated by formation of a local hinge
mechanism near the base of the columns, at the height of cut-off of the inner layer of
longitudinal reinforcement. This mechanism lead to the entire superstructure overturning
until the deck edge rested on the ground, as shown in Plate 9.1 and 9.2. One factor believed
to have contributed to the hinge formation is failure of the conlining stirrups due to
insufficient anchorage length. With excessive rotation in the column due to overturning, the
longitudinal reinforcement effectively split the column, spalling large sections of concrete
away, further weakening the column. Stripped sections of spalled concrete running the
length of the columns are evident in Plate 9.3 and 9.4. Other contributing factors for the
collapse were reported to be failure of the pressure gas welds on reinforcing bars and high
shear stresses coincident with the high flexural ductility demand (Seible et at, 1995; lemura
eta!, 1995).

121
Plate 9.1: Hanshin Expressway, Kobe Route 3, section collapse from Kobe side.

Plate 92: Hanshin Expressway, Kobe Route 3, PiIz deck pier base failure.

122
 Plate 93: Hanshin Expressway, Kobe Route 3, hinge at base reinforcement cut-off.

Plate 9.4: Hanshin Expressway, Kobe Route 3. column separation due to tension generated in
longitudinal reinforcement on overturning.

123
 9.1.3 Modelling of structure

i. ‘ADAPTIC’ Nonlinear D’amic Analysis Program

-

For the investigation into the response of the expressway structure to the strong ground
motion the finite element program ADAPTIC as utilised ‘ADAPTIC has been
specifically des’ eloped for the non-linear anah sis of both 2D and 3D steel i einfoi ced
concrete and composite structures and the static, dynamic and eigensolution facilities of this
program have been thoroughly tested elsewhere (Elnashai et at ,1989, Izzuddin 1990
Madas & Elnashai, 1992). For static analysis, either force or displacement loading may be
specified and it is also possible to vary the loads independently within the time domain.
Dynamic analysis is performed by direct integration using either the unconditionally stable
Newmark method with automatic time step adjustment, or the Hilber-Hughes- Taylor
scheme. The latter scheme was utilised for the analyses in this report as it has the advantage
that it ensures that only accurately modelled vibration modes are included in the response
and that any small out of balance forces existing at the end of each time step will not
accumulate to corrupt this response. Independent support motion is also possible using
either given displacements, velocities or accelerations. The solution procedure is iterative
and can be Newton-Raphson or Modified Newton-Raphson. Figensolution, giving mode
shape and natural circular frequency is obtained using the Lanczos algorithm.

ii. Model description and assumptions

The expressway was modelled in three dimensions, assuming inelastic behaviour to be

restricted to the column and pile sections while the deck remains elastic. The structural
models were assembled by considering the structure to be a sequence of identical units
connected at the deck. The overall model representing piers 126 through 142 is shown in
Figure 9.6. This is an assembly of units. as shown in Figure 9.7, linked with the appropriate
connection boundary conditions, as described hereafter. An average ground level elevation
of 1 metre above the centroid of the pilecap (node 90) was assumed for each pier. The
aflS
-nn,l
ti-t
fnr
WL UI
wi-nm,c ,,o,4r
LfliL t.Z
ntJ,a
Sfl nfl.
‘+-nttl-ii-r-n
-.3 UI
ann+nA n V-.rnnn 0
%jJfl.tU in I 1LIi A. 0.

iii. Structural elements

The deck was assumed to remain elastic throughout the analysis. Three elements vvere
utilised to replicate the properties of the deck in terms of vertical and transverse stilThess
and distributed mass contribution. The assumption of the deck remaining elastic facilitated
the use of a three dimensional quartic elastic element which was modelled as an equivalent
steel section. The deck mass was distributed on identical axis as structural elements, using a
cubic three dimensional mass element. Flexibility of the Gerber hinge connection between
the Pilz and Gerber decks was not accounted for in this analysis as it was felt more
information on the connection detail would be required to accurately model this effect.

The connection between deck and pier was represented by a rigid link element. The length
of the rigid link was determined so as to allow connection between the centroidal node of
the deck and the top of the column. A three dimensional non-structural lumped mass
element was applied at the top of the link to account for the increased weight of the
reinforced concrete girder configuration at the deck-to-column connection.

124
Figure 9.6: Complete ADAPTIC model of expressway

125
 Pdz Deck
Cap Beam Cubic Elasto-Plastic
Rigid Link
Gerber Suspended Span
Quartic Elastic
Column
Cubic Elasto-Plastic

Pilecap
Rigid Link

Piles
I Cubic Elasto-Plastic
I Soil Springs
I Joint Elements

Figure 9.7: Single unit model and element types

The piers were split into three separate elements of 5600mm, 4200mm and 2500mm to
reflect the changing reinforcement and confinement conditions along the length.
Reinforcement details for the columns by which confinement factors were assessed are
shown in Figure 9.3. Each of the sections was modelled as a circular reinforced concrete
section as shown in Figure 9.8. A three dimensional cubic elasto-plastic element was
utilised. The element was selected as it employs a cubic shape function and allows the
spread of plasticity both along the individual members and across the cross-section to be
monitored. As such, additional nodes where provided at ground level in the region of
anticipated failure and 100 monitoring points were assigned to the gauss sections to
generate the required level of accuracy.

126
 INPUT PARAMETERS

dl [àij2
j//
z b : Element Width
d : Element Dpth
4
b

Rectangular Solid Section

INPUT PARAMETERS

D : Outer Diameter
t : Tube Thickness

Circular Hollow Section

INPUT PARAMETERS

RCI Radius of Section.

RC2 : Radius of Internal Void.
NBI : Number of Outer Bars per Quadrant.
RSI : Radius of Outer Reinforcement layer.
ARI :Areaofl OuterReinforcementbar.
NB2 : Number of Inner Bars per Quadrant.
RS2 Radius of Inner Reinforcement layer.
AR2 : Area of I Inner Reinforcement bar.
Circular Reinforced Concrete Section

Figure 9.8: ADAPTIC structural elements used in the model.

127
 The massive and highly reinforced nature of the pilecap was considered sufficiently stiff to
warrant the use of rigid links. This ensures that the actions resulting from excitation of the
piles are effectively distributed to the structure and vice versa with the structural response
being distributed back to the piles. An assembly of rigid links were employed to connect the
column to the pilecap and each of the four pile groups as well as central pile. A three
dimensional non-structural lumped mass element was inserted at the centroidal node of the
pilecap to account for the pilecap mass. Pilecap details are shown in Figure 9.4.

As information emerged that pile drilling investigations had revealed heavy pile damage. it
was decided to model the piles using three dimensional cubic elasto-plastic element, similar
to the piers. The piles were modelled in two sections reflecting the varying longitudinal
reinforcement conditions along the 15 metre length as shown in Figure 9.4. Both the vertical
and transverse restraint to motion of the pile group was provided by the soil springs with the
transverse load being transmitted at all pile nodes and the vertical load being transmitted to
the end node only as shown in Figure 9.9.

A three dimensional joint element with uncoupled axial, shear and moment actions was used
to model the soil-structure interaction effect. This element allows for definition of the
action-deformation curves for the element consisting of two initially coincident nodes. A bi
linear curve was adopted to model the non-linear characteristics of the soil, with equivalent
stifihiess calculated at depth as shown in Figure 9.10. It is recognised that from a soil-
structure interaction analysis viewpoint, this model is inadequate. However, for seismic
structural assessment purposes, including soil effects in this fashion is sufficient and is a
significant improvement over the often-used frxed base assumption.

Restraints were provided in the x y and z directions with no restraint for moment, at the
extreme free deck nodes at either end of the structure.

iv. Material models

,1s, .1, a.:.i,

j I4JLiUi Ufli “viWdI IS

passively resisting the lateral expansion of the concrete under axial compressive load. This
confining action increases the actual compressive strength and ductility of the section. The
concrete model used (Madas & Elnashai, 1992; Martinez-Rueda & Elnashai, 1995) accounts
for the increase in core compressive strength due to the confinement by evaluating the
instantaneous confined strength from the state of axial stress for each monitoring area within
the section. Confinement factors were calculated from the Eurocode 8 model. A bilinear
elasto-plastic model with kinematic hardening was adopted for the reinforcing steel. A strain
hardening parameter of 0.01 was utilised.

v. Earthquake acceleration input

The three acceleration components of the Japan Meteorological Agency Kobe Station
(Station record I.D. Hll70546.KOB) were used. These were applied to the joint element
non-structural node which was unrestrained in the direction of applied loading. The vertical
component was applied only to those joint elements at the base of each pile.

128
 Pile I

Structural Node

Soil Spring

Figure 9 9 Soil Structure Interaction Model

Figure 9.10: Soil Action Deformation Curve

129
 9.1.4 Static and dynamic analysis of the structure

In order to assess the ductility supply of the piers and to allow the accurate determination of
failure criteria for use in Interpreting the output from the dynamic anab sis a simple
cantilever static analysis was conducted. The model is essentially identical to the colurnii
configuration used in the dynamic analysis, but is restrained for both rotation and
displacement in all three planes at the base. The objective was to determine the curvature
and displacement ductility supply of various sections of the pier and to ascertain the realism
of the adopted geometry and material characterisation.

The top of the column model was subjected to uniform monotonic displacements increasing
in increments of 10mm. To account for the axial dead load acting on the column, a vertical
initial load of 10,221 kN was applied. For each increment of displacement the maximum
steel strain, maximum concrete compressive strain and stress were recorded at the critical
section. The yield criterion was defined as the point of departure from linearity of the force-
displacement response of a single pier. This gave a yield displacement of 62 mm. Also
checked was the displacement corresponding to first yield of main tensile reinforcement.
This gave a value of yield displacement of 59 mm.

The point of ultimate failure was assumed to be at the point of crushing of the confined
concrete core. This was determined by plotting the stress-strain curve for the confined
concrete using peak values at the monitoring points in the compression zone. The ultimate
compressive strain was subsequently defined as the constrained concrete strain
corresponding to a 15% drop from peak stress which equated to 0.0068 microstrain. From
the static analysis, the ultimate displacement corresponding to the critical concrete
compressive strain in the confined core was 309 mm. The displacement ductility of the pier
is therefore between 4.9 and 5.2, depending on which yield displacement is considered. It is
the writers opinion that the value of 62 mm is more realistic, since first yield of a single bar
in a circular cross-section will have little effect on the member response.

i.ynaLm i)i Ui LiW iUfl SLiULLU WaS WiUitdKii USifl tiiC LIIJcC UU4JUiieutS 01 tilC
JMA Kobe record, as mentioned above. It was apparent that this is extremely computer
intensive, since the seventeen pier model included a large number of piles, springs, pier and
deck elements. Therefore, only the first few seconds response was considered. The analysis
was then re-started using a model comprising two piers and three spans. The restraints at the
extremities of the deck were altered to represent cases of internal and external spans of the
larger model. The dynamic analysis results yielded relative displacement time-histories in the
two orthogonal directions. Since the pier sections are symmetric, vectorial summation of the
two displacement components was undertaken, and the peak combined value obtained. For a
less restrained transversely (representing an intermediate pier) the combined maximum
displacement reached a value of 312 mm.. whilst the pier with a higher restraint reached a
value of 259 miii

130
9 1 5 Comments on the results

The supply and demand for piers of the Fukae-Honcho structure based on the abo e
anal) sis are summansed m Table 9 1

gj supply dynamic analysis Jd demand

59-62 309 4.9-5.2 259-312 5.0-5.3

Table 9.1: Ductility supply and demand for piers 127- 142

The material strength and results presented above are summarised in Table 9.2, where the
results from Seible et ai(1995) are also shown.

f. MPa) f (IVIPa) ecu u $d M

11 (Ku-rn)
This study 26.5 300
- 62 0.007 309 4.98 4
6.48x10
Seibleetal 35.0 350 57 0.005 134 2.36 4
6.09x10
Difference 25% 16% 8% 40% 130% 1 10% 7%

Table 9.2: Material strength and ductility supply comparisons

The study by Seible et a! (1995) impressively provided rapid assessment of the possible
causes of failure by making use of equivalent static concepts and analytical expressions for
plastic hinge length, effect of yield penetration and tension shift on member length and
effective length, respectively, and critical strain values. The differences observed in Table
9.2 are attributed to:

i. Differences in strength parameters. The values used in the current study were
obtained from the Hanshin Expressway Public Corporation drawings.
ii. Differences in the definition of the critical strain value. Seible et a! adjusted
tItfllr
Lii..LL a 3U1
.-c ñ .r-rarl
4
, - ran hnr.n rnnCnran,ae
.r tl,.t n
4
LL LiJJjJ aLflJ,
I ..LrLJ1 1

down to 0.005 in lieu of the poor hoop detailing. The current study applied the
EC8 criterion to the stress-strain relationship obtained using passive
confinement modelling in a fibre analysis environment.
iii. Seible et al make assumptions on plastic hinge length and yield penetration.
whilst the current study automatically obtains the former (and not the latter)
effect from the detailed model of the pier and its foundations. Therefore,
ultimate moment values are not strictly comparable, especially in the light of
the differing critical strain values.
iv. The ultimate displacement derived by Seible et al assumes a rectangular
distribution of curvature in the plastic hinge zone. Such an assumption is not
needed in the current study where inelasticity is allowed to spread along the
member length and across its depth.

The above list is not exhaustive. Considering the fundamental differences of approach in the
two studies, the results obtained are surprisingly close, especially for strength values and
yield limit state.

131
With regard to the behaviour of the structure, Seible et a! conclude that the shear capacity
of 6.4x10
3 kN-m will be reached prior to the attainment of the flexural capacity of 5.4x10 ,
3
hence shear failure will occur. It was also stipulated that a response acceleration of 1. 2g is
needed to cause the exceedance of the displacement ductility capacity, which is attainable
when considering that the peak ground acceleration for the JMA Kobe record is more than
0.85g. The current study indicates that the displacement ductility demand evaluated from a
3D analysis of a two pier model equals or exceeds the supply calculated from detailed
inelastic analysis. Both the current study and that by Seible et a! agree that the piers
possessed inadequate strength and deformation capacities to resist the demand imposed by
the very high levels of ground shaking.

9.2 Case study 2 Piers 663, 664 and 665 of the flanshin Expressway
-

9.2.1 General description and structural characteristics

Less information is available on the location and general layout of this section of the
expressway, compared to that on case study 1. Detailed design drawings and damage
reports were kindly made available by the heads of the maintenance and design sections
of the Hanshin Expressway Public Corporation (Messers Seki and Nagashima.
respectively). The general layout of the bridge is showii in Figure 9. 11 (a), where the
three piers P-663, P-664 and P-665 support the two spans S-663 and S-664. Since the
bridge structural system is repetitive, analysis of three spans will represent the behaviour
of the whole structure.

The total height of piers P-664 and P-665 is 15,234 mm from the top of the cap beam to
the bottom of the footing, with a clear stem height of 10,434 mm. Pier 663 is slightly
longer. Footings of square shape and side dimension 7000 mm and 8000 mm support
piers P-663 and P-664, respectively. Pier 665 utilises the larger footing dimension, whilst
the depth of all footings is 300 mm. Pier dimension are given in Figure 9.11(b). The
iLU UUll44i.ik v’.a avauavI
.
LU
.t..
LU inip$iai
r..n....
UiiL;

group, with a fill of 3320 mm height above the top of footing.

The piers are circular solid sections of diameter 2.3 m for P-663 and 2.5 m for P-664 and
P-665. They have two layers of reinforcement, with the inner ring curtailed at mid-height
(8770 mm from the bottom of the footing), as depicted in Figure 9.12 (a).

The deck comprises a deck slab supported on six steel girders. Steel circular hollow
sections are used as bracing between the six girders. The steel girders, shown in Figure
9.12 (b) are unequal H-sections of top flanges of 354xl9 mm and 304x15 mm for the
outer beams of S-663 and S-664 respectively. The corresponding bottom flanges are
500x25 mm and 430x28 mm. whilst the webs are both 1600x9 mm. Internal girders have
slightly smaller dimensions. At each pier location, one span is simply supported and free
to slide longitudinally, whilst the other span is fixed along the axis of the structure.

132
 (Unit: mm)
26000 34000
I100
S-664 S-663

Fixed Free Fixed Free 250

-

r,zZY//Z’,zA

P-665 P-664 P-663

Figure 9. 11 (a): General layout of the bridge

(Unit : mm)
P-663 P-664 & P-665
16100
— 15% 15%

7000 8000 j

Figure 9 11(b): Dimensions of Piers

Figure 9.11: Layout and dimensions of piers 663-665 of Hanshin expressway

133
 (Unitsinmm)
tot. 77
tot 100 A
16mm dia. x 4500

(1074)

A tot. 60
l6mmdia.x 4200 B

2500(2300) IIl
2500 (2300) -!
bottom middle
():for pier P-663

Figure 9. 12(a): Cross-section of RC piers

(Unit: mm)
1) S-663 2) S-664
External girders External girders

Figure 9. 12(b): Dimensions of deck girders

Figure 9.12: Section dimensions of RC piers and deck girders

134
 9.2.2 Description of damage

Piers P-663 and P-664 suffered severe damage at mid-height. as shown in Plate 9.5. The
failure pattern is difficult to attribute to a known mechanism, such as flexural, shear or
compression failure. The concrete cover was spalled symmetrically, with buckled
longitudinal reinforcement. The core concrete was nearly crushed, but has not
disintegrated fully. It is not known whether damage has been inflicted on the piers below
ground level. It was this pattern of failure that motivated the Imperial College group to
study this particular bridge.

•1

nI ii
riaLei.
flit tii
Ii. JUSiVeu (lalliagew pier r-oo+
.

(note the symmetric damage pattern)

9.2.3 Modelling assumptions

The general approach towards modelling the structure is the same as that used for case
study 1. The deck is modelled by elastic elements with cross-sectional properties to
duplicate the bending and torsional stiffliess of the deck, with distributed mass elements
to represent dead and live loads, as indicated on the Hanshin Expressway Public
Corporation’s drawings. Gap elements were used at the pier-deck connection, with
moment release in all directions in addition to the longitudinal displacement release where
the free end of spans is effected.

The piers were modelled using the 3D cubic inelastic element formulation with the
constitutive relationship for confined concrete by Madas & Elnashai (1992), as modified
by Martinez-Rueda & Elnashai (1995). Confinement factors were calculated by the EC8
set of equations. The kinematic hardening bi-linear model for steel was employed, since it
was not expected that extensive inelasticity in the reinforcing bars will occur. The

135
sections used to model the pier are similar to those depicted in Figures 9.3 and 9.8 for the
Fukae-Honcho structure.

The footings are modelled by cubic elements as above and rigidly connected to the pier.
Soil springs with compliances representing an average stiflEhess soil were used at the
bottom of the footing. To represent the restraining effect of the liii material, transverse
soil springs are also inserted up to a height of 3320 mm from the soffit of the footing
(Figure 9.11).

The record used in the analysis is the JMA Kobe station, described in detail in earlier
parts of this study. The three components are used, but separate analyses were
undertaken with and without the vertical component to ascertain the effect of vertical
earthquake motion on this structure.

9.2.4 Static and dynamic analysis results

Displacement controlled static analysis of the piers was undertaken to evaluate force and
deformation capacities of the structure and to define the required limit states. However,
preliminary dynamic analyses were undertaken to evaluate maximum and minimum axial
loads for the accurate assessment of flexural strength. The maximum and minimum axial
forces in piers under the effect of static and vertical earthquake loads at the bottom and
reinforcement cut-off sections are given in Table 9.3.

Pm kNx Pmjn kNxlO

3
Pier/Section bottom middle bottom middle
P-663 -2.6 -0.4 -10.5 -6.1
P-664 -5.0 -2.2 -13.8 -8.6
P-665 -5.2 -1.5 -10.7 -5.1

Table 9.3: Maximum and minimum static and dynamic axial forces on piers

Accounting for the effect of axial force on flexural and shear capacities, the static
strength values are approximated as shown in Table 9.4.

Max Mumm
4
kN-mx10 4
kN-mxlO 3
kN-mxlO 3
kNxlO
Pier bot mid bot mid bot mid bot mid
/Section
P-663 6.3 2.8 6.1 2.6 5.8 5.3 174.0 170.0
P-664 7.4 3.2 6.9 3.0 7.1 6.4 198.0 194.0
P-665 7.2 3.1 6.9 3.0 6.7 6.0 198.0 194.0

Table 9,4: Strength characteristics ofpiers

136
 P663(H+T) P663(H+T+V)
*10 10’

5 10 15 20 25 30 30
Teme(sec) Trne(sec)

P664(H÷T) P664(H+T+V)
•1 0’ ‘lO’
10.0 10.0

9.0 9.0

8.0 8.0

7.0

6.0

& 5.0’ 5.0

4.0 4.0

3.0’ 3.0’
I,
2.0’ 2.0’

1.0’ 1,0’

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time(sec) llme(sec)

10’ ‘lO’
9.0- 9.0-

8.0 8.0-

7.0- 7.0

5.0- 6.0
z z

I
I
5.0 5.0

4.0

3.0
* 4.0

3.0’ : ,

2.0 “
2.0

1.0 to, !fT

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time(sec) Tme(sec)

Figure 9.13: Shear capacity (solid line) and demand (dotted line) versus time with (rhs)
and without (lhs) vertical earthquake motion for sections at the bottom ofpiers.

137
 P663(H+T) P663(H+T+V)
. •10’ •10’
6.0 6.0

rvv
5.0 5.0

4.0 4.0
z z
C C

3.0 30
S S
0,

2.0- 2.0

1.0- 1.0

i 0.0- U.U

1i 0 5 10 15 20 25 3.0
T(sec
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
flme(0,ec)

I P664(H+T) P664(H+T+V)
I 10’ •10’

I 8.0..1 7.0-

1 7.0 6.0-

6.0
I1 15.0
1’.
1
5.0-

0 ii
40
I 30
30 1
20
20

10 1 10

0.0• I
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time(sec) T,me(sec)

P665(H+T) P665 (H÷T÷V)

10’ 10’
7.O— 7.0—

6.0 6.0-

5.0— 5.0-
z z
0, 4.0- Ga 4.0
C
La

3.0- I 3.0
II I; I a
C
U) U)

2.0- 2.0 1 .
k... a
- I . &
_1
1.0- 1.0 ‘ _—

I —

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 I 5 10 15 20 25 30
T,me(sec) Time(sec1.

Figure 9.14: Shear capacity (solid line) and demand (dotted line) versus time with (rhs)
and without (lhs) vertical earthquake motion for sections at the reinforcement cut-off

138
 P663 P663
10’O 5 15 20 25

Tme(sec)

-1.0- 2.0

P664 P664
10’ 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0.0- 4.0
Tme(sec)
-1.0- 3.0

-2.0-
2.0
-3.0-

JLj • 00

P665 P665
10 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
I 4.0
0.0
TIrne(s)

3.0
-1.0

2.O—1
-2.0

A
;.v

Figure 9.15: Axial force (left) and bending moment (right) versus time with (dotted line)
and without (solid line) vertical earthquake motion for sections at the bottom of piers.

139
 P663 P663
•10’ 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 .10

2 E
z A AA
I

P664 P664
•10’ 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 *10
1.0
Tme(sec)
0.8

0.6

-4.0 0.4

0.2
S
tIl
I -8.0
2

-02

-0.4
-y

-10.0 -0.6

-0.8
-12.0
-1.0

-140- -12

P665 P665
10 0 5 10 15 20 25 *10
1.0-
Tme(sec)
0.8-
-2.0- 0.6-

0.4-
-4.0
2 02
2
0.0

-0.8

-10.0 -0,8

-1,0

-12.0 -12

Figure 9.16: Axial force (left) and bending moment (right) versus time with (dotted line)
and without (solid line) vertical earthquake motion for
sections at the reinforcement cut-off

140
Dynamic analysis was conducted with and without the vertical component of earthquake
ground motion. The first thirty seconds of the JMA record were utilised and bending
moments, shear forces and axial force variation was monitored. The shear capacity as a
function of time was also recorded using the shear resistance model of Priestley et a!
(1995). Also assessed were the strain levels in steel and concrete. All response values
were recorded at the bottom of the pier and at the location of reinforcement cut-off (at
8770 mm from the bottom of the footing).

In Figure 9 13 six plots are proided for the shear supply and demand for the three piers
where the solid line is for supply and the dotted line for demand On the left hand side are
the case of the two transverse components of ground motion whilst the nght hand side
plots mclude the effect ofertical motion All plots are for the vectorial sum of the two
shear force components The figures indicate that firstly the effect of vertical motion is
negligible This is due to the mis-match of the periods of ibration of the structure and
the period content of the vertical motion as well as due to the negligible effect of the
vertical force contribution compared to concrete and reinforcing bars foi the very large
section and member dimensions Most significantly the plots indicate that the demand
exceeds the supply, albeit for a short dutation The exceedance of demand o er supply is
more significant foi the case of piers P-663 and 664 than 665 Smce the aailable
information does not comment on damage below the ground le’el no correlation
between analysis and actual behaviour is possible from these figures

The same quantities as aboe are plotted for the section where reinforcing bais are
reduced to one layei m Figure 9 14 It is quite clear that demand exceeds supply only
Just for piers P-663 and 664 but not foi P-665 This correlates perfectly with the
obsened damage pattern However the failure mode observed is not in shear In an
attempt to investigate further the response, attention is focused on the flexural response
It is instructive herein to state that the maximum moment is not at the base of the piei
since the restraining effect of the o erburden soil and the stiffliess of soil below the
footing dictate a response pattern akin to a beam on elastic foundations. The critical
mommt zone is therefore closer to the reinforcement cutoff section.

The bending moment at the bottom section and at the reinforcement cut-off is plotted
versus time for all piers in Figures 9.15 and 9. 16 alongside axial force variation with time.
Solid lines are for analysis under the two horizontal components whilst the dashed line
includes the third (vertical) component An mterestmg observation is that the maximum
moment occurs after about 8 seconds whilst the peak axial force occurs 3-4 seconds
later. If these coincided, a much higher degree of damage would have been likely.
Moreover, in all cases, the bottom section moment is 20% or less of the moment
capacity. Hence, no plastic hinging would have occurred. On the other hand, the cut-off
section moment reaches 3.2xl04 kN-m which is very marginally above the section
moment capacity of approximately 3.0x10 4 kN-m. It is noticeable that pier 665 has a
moment higher than that of pier 663, yet the latter suffered the least damage. This point is
further emphasised by the observation that the lowest moment is that of pier 663 reaching
about 2.6x 10 kN-m in one direction. A further interesting observation is that there is
indeed a predominant direction of force application, but the difference between the two
directions is rather small, in the range of 10-i Finally, the ductility demand in fiexure
imposed on all three piers is rather low.

141
Figures 9 15 and 9 16 also include plots of a’ual force anation versus time These point
‘

towards two mteresting obsenations Firstly, that ‘ertica1 earthquake motion should be
included in seismic assessment smce the vanation of axial load is affected rather
markedly when the vertical component is added. Secondly, the variation of compressive
axial force is higher for piers 663 and 664 than for pier 665 Another mtelestlng
observation is that whereas the bottom section is more stressed in the axial direction, the
fluctuation in axial force is higher at the middle section

9.2.5 Comments on failure modes

From the above, it is reiterated that piers 663 and 664 are close to shear failure, but the
observed failure mode is not shear. Moreover, piers 664 and 665 are more stressed in
flexure than 663, yet the observed damage indicates that 665 suffered very much less
distress than 663 and 664. To try to explain this, the axial force and capacity are
examined. The applied axial force is a fraction of the axial capacity for all piers. However,
piers 663 and 664 are subjected to significantly higher compressive forces than 665 at the
middle section (6. lxlO
3 kN for 663, 8.6x103 kN for 664 and 5. 1x10 3 kN for 665). These
forces also fluctuate more for the former two piers than in the case of the latter. It is
therefore postulated that the observed damage pattern is due to the combined effect of all
three components; shear, flexure and axial actions. Minor site effects may have played a
significant role, in terms of long-term relative settlement which will tend to alleviate the
load off the settled pier, increasmg it on adjacent pieis It is clear though from the results
above that the pier design is inadequate but by a small margin Relatively minor
retrofittmg of this structuie will produce irnpro ed behaviour m fl.rtme earthquakes

142
10 Conclusions

The Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake is a particularly significant natural disaster that has
attracted the attention of workers in fields related to seismic risk and will continue to do
so for many years to come. This report is a contribution towards the massive task of
distilling the available information and presenting to the engineering community the
lessons to be learnt from this event which may aid in mitigating the effects of future
damaging earthquakes. In this respect, specific conclusions were listed in various sections
of this report. Herein, a summary of the most significant observations is given, and the
reader is referred to the salient part of the report for supporting evidence.

The Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake occurred in an area which had been assessed as of
lower seismic hazard than Tokyo in most studies, but had nonetheless been included in the
highest seismicity zone of the code map. This conservatism was incorporated to reflect the
uncertainty of assessing hazard associated with faults with very long seismic cycles, and
the earthquake vindicates this decision. At the same time, since it was assessed that there
was a higher probability of a large earthquake in Tokyo than in Kobe, priority for
retrofitting after code modifications was given to the former; it would be misleading to
state that the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake shows that this was incorrect, since it is
entirely consistent with the aims and objectives of medium-to-long-term risk mitigation.
(Appendix 2).

The heavy toll of the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake in large part is the result of the rupture
of faults directly below a major population centre, which confirms that the highest hazard
results from “direct hit” earthquakes. This highlights the great importance of including
detailed geological information in seismic hazard assessments since local events of
moderate magnitude are generally far more destructive than large earthquakes at distance.
At the same time the earthquake highlights the need to extend geological investigations to
cover scenarios such as this case of simultaneous rupture of sub-parallel but not co-linear
faults. (Section 5.2).

The extensive liquefaction caused by the earthquake was not surprising and rather
confirms understanding of this phenomenon. Of greater engineering significance is the
good performance of the few sea front structures that did not suffer distress and the
reinforced earth embankments that performed exceedingly well in the earthquake. (Section
5.5).

The large number of ground motion recordings from the earthquake contributes
significantly to our understanding of earthquake shaking, particularly in the near-field. The
presence of large displacement pulses in near-field strong-motion has again been seen to be
one of the most important characteristics of damaging ground shaking. Horizontal peak
accelerations recorded in the near-field were surprisingly well predicted by attenuation
relationships, but the response spectra show that there is still uncertainty in the predictions
of spectral ordinates, especially in ternis of the influence of the soil conditions. Vertical
peak accelerations exceeded predictions for a wide range of distances, up to 100 km.
(Chapter 6)

143
 Analysis of elastic and inelastic horizontal spectra of this event indicate that demands well
in excess of those experienced in most previous earthquakes of similar magnitude have
been imposed on a wide range of structures. Even for structures exhibiting displacement
ductility of 2-4. force demands in excess of ig were at times imposed. The period range
of such demands covers structures of 4 to 15 stories. (Section 7.2).

Assessment of hi-linear spectra of the vertical component of earthquake motion

demonstrate clearly that very large vertical forces have been imposed on structures. These
reached three times the dead load (a total of 4g downwards) in the epicentral area.
Moreover, for many records, the vertical excitation was sumcient to cause uplift or
tensile forces and displacements in unanchored and anchored structures, respectively.
Some of the failures of intermediate stories of buildings and the symmetric buckling
modes of bridge piers may be attributable to the effect of vertical earthquake motion, as
conlirmed in the spectra presented. (Section 7.3)

The combined effect of unusually high horizontal and vertical displacement demand
caused the widespread damage to structures in the stricken area, which was certainly
much more severe than expected.

Back-analysis of two transportation RC structures highlight a number of design

deficiencies which caused the coliapse of one and the severe damage of another. The
termination of one of two reinforcement layers in large RC piers caused the critical
section to be located at this reinforcement cut-off level. Since this section was not
checked for the ultimate limit state, it failed with catastrophic effects. Moreover, the
flexibility of the foundation system leads to a distribution of actions distinct from that of a
cantilever. Hence, the reinforcement cut-off section was often subjected to maximum
moment and shear actions. (Chapter 9)

In one of the bridge back-analysis cases, two piers were subjected to somewhat similar
bending and shear actions but showed very different damage levels. In this case,
exammation ot the axial loading condition, when vertical earthquake motion was included
in the analysis, indicated that the level of axial stress, although well below capacity, would
have encouraged cover spalling leading to reinforcement buckling in one pier but not the
other. (Section 9.2)

The repair methods undertaken are in instances novel and effective. It is felt, however,
that in many cases the effect of the intervention on the distribution of stiffliess and
strength and on period shortening of the structure was not addressed. The response of
such structures in fiature events is therefore a matter of concern. (Appendix 5)

Many of the above observations will be investigated further and the findings of the
investigations in Japan and in Europe shared and disseminated through the work of the
“Japan-UK Seismic Risk Forum” which has been formed as a result of the work arising
from the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake.

144
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 APPENDICES

APPENDiX 1. The Great Earthquake of 1981

APPENDIX 2. Review of Seismic Hazard Studies for Japan

APPENDiX 3. Development of Japanese Seismic Codes

APPENDIX 4. Strong-Motion Records

APPENDIX 5. Case Studies of Repaired Structures

 APPENDIX 1

The Great Earthquake of 1891

This is probably the first earthquake in Japan to be filly reported with photographs. It
occurred at about 6:00 am local time in the Aichi and Gifli Prefecture (Figure A1.l; map
with location shown) on 28 October 1891. The earthquake severely shook an area of
approximately 4,200 square miles, Damage to masonry structures was observed as far as
Tokyo to the east and Kobe to the west, covering an area of about 24,000 square miles.
Felt effects are reported as far as Shanghai. In Tokyo (about 200 miles away), long-
period vibrations were witnessed and caused nausea to many residents.

or to the earthquake, many shocks had been observed in the Nagoya-Gift area, as
given in Table Al. 1 below, alongside earthquakes in the Tokyo area during the same
years:

Year Gifu-Nagoya Tokyo

1885 9 51
1886 4 55
1887 10 80
1888 12 101
1889 15 115
1890 36 93

Table Al. 1: Number of earthquakes in six years

preceding the 1891 event

There are documented comments on damage from earthquakes in the same are affected
by the 1891 event, in 1826, 1827 and 1859, with many dwellings damaged and fatalities.

The earthquake of 1891 devastated the area of Mino, with 7,270 people killed, 17,000
injured and 142,000 houses suffered total collapse with many more suffering significant
damage.

The account given by Mime & Burton (1891) is fascinating in that it states clearly that
structures on soft ground suffer from amplified motion, whilst those founded on rock are
subjected to less shaking. The reference also advises on design of structures to resist not
only vertical forces but also horizontal, or near-horizontal, forces.

It is reported that Biwajima (a suburb of Nagoya) was all but wiped out. Fires also
erupted, but were reported to have been effectively dealt with. Also, a bridge in
Biwajima collapsed, as shown in Figure A1.2. A masonry cotton mill in Nagoya suffered
severe damage and partial collapse at several locations (Figure Al.3).

A1.1
Several other bridges constructed of timber or steel trusses supported on masonry piers
suffered total or partial collapse. The bridge over the Nagara-gawa was an advanced
structure for its time. ‘Whilst the deck was a steel truss, the piers were concrete-filled
steel tubes Howe ei the tubes ere in segments and joined at internal flanges Failute
occurred at the flange location, causing the collapse of the super-structure (Figure Al. 4)

Surface faulting was observed following the earthquake (Figure Al. 5) near the village of
Midori in the Neo valley. This showed a maximum lateral displacement of about 8
metres, and vertical throw of 2-3 metres was observed in a number of locations. Careful
examination of field evidence revealed a fault rupture of about 80 kiiometres length,
consistent with a magnitude in the region of 7.5; in most Japanese earthquake catalogues
the magnitude is given as 8.0. The relations of Slemmons (1977) between earthquake
magnitude. fault length and fault rupture, would estimate a magnitude of about 7.1 on
the basis of the rupture length of this strike-slip earthquake. However, on the basis of
the maximum displacement on this rupture, the relations would suggest a magnitude
closer to 7.7.

The fault rupture observed at the ground surface was significant also as a landmark in the
development of seismology. The first documented account of a fault rupture associated
with an earthquake was in the Cutch iii India in 1819, and other cases were observed
subsequently in New Zealand in 1855 and in Owns Valley, California in 1872. The
naturalist Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859) investigated the origin of earthquakes
and was amongst the first to establish some relation between geological faults and
earthquakes. Nonetheless, at the end of the nineteenth century it was still the widely
accepted view that the cause of earthquakes were explosions within the interior of the
Earth. These ideas about earthquake genesis had been included in the classic work of
Lyell Principles of Geology, published in 1839, and were also reflected in the extensive
report by Robert Mallet on the Naples earthquake of 1857. Within this framework, the
surface ruptures that had been observed after some earthquakes were interpreted as
being the result of the earthquake rather than its cause. After the Mino-Owari
earthquake of 1891 in Honshu, a geologist from the University of Tokyo, Bunjiro Koto,
made a very careful study of the observed rupture and proposed a new and, at the time,
revolutionary interpretation. Koto suggested that the fault rupture was not an effect of
the earthquake but rather its source, and that it was the fracture along 80 km of fault that
liberated the seismic energy. These ideas were subsequently developed further by
Ferdinand Montessus de Ballore and A. Sieberg. The study of the rupture of the San
Andreas fault in the San Francisco earthquake of 1906, which led him to publish the
model of elastic rebound, finally confirmed the rupture of geological faults as the source
of shallow earthquakes.

Massive landslides occurred in Neodani and more than 10,000 landslides were triggered
in total. Mud cones caused by liquefaction were reported in many areas following the
earthquake.

The significance of this earthquake is that it is probably one of the largest in south-west
Japan, an area not considered to be highly seismic. The earthquake caused very severe
and well-documented damage that gives insight into the state of construction practice in
the late nineteenth century. It seems likely that site amplification played an important
role, since the earthquake affected an area mainly in an alluvial valley. Lessons from this
earthquake are still relevant today, more than a 100 years on.

A1.2
Figure A1.1 Map of old Japan showing the area affected by the earthquake. Also
shown is Kobe, affected by the 1995 earthquake

A1.3
 4

Figure Al .2 Collapse of the Biwajima timber bridge

Al.4
Figure A 1.3 Damage to the Cotton Mill in Nagoya. Masonry structures were
adversely affected even in Tokyo, 200 miles away

A1.5
Figure Al.4 Partial Collapse of the Nagara-gawa bridge, showing failure of
concrete-filled steel tubes

Al .6
I
 APPENDIX 2

Seismic Hazard Studies for Japan

The long-term mitigation of seismic risk m any region is achieved through designing
structures to appropnate le els to provide adequate resistance to the expected le el of
earthquake loading. The assessment of the earthquake loads expected within the lifetime
of a structure is the mam objectne of seismic hazard anahses camed out m probabilistic
terms to predict the likely levels of earthquake ground motion. The main inputs to this
assessment are a model of the regional seismicity, m order to determme the size frequency
and location of future earthquakes, and a model of the attenuation of earthquake strong
motion m order to predict the effects at a site produced by earthquakes of different
magnitudes and at different locations. The amount and quality of the available data for
both of these models is quite limited even for a highly seismic country such as Japan and
hence there are always very considei able uncertainties m the assessment of seismic hazard
As a result, it is always of mterest to review seismic hazard e’ aluations following majoi
earthquakes and to compaie the obsen ations with the models employed and with the
ovei all hazai d assessment

A number of recent earthquakes ha e had unexpected features which were not foreseen m
seismic hazard assessments One example is the magnitude 8 2 earthquake that occurred
Just north of the island of Hokkaido Ofl 4 Octobei 1994, in an area where all previous
recorded earthquakes had been thrust events typical of the subduction tectorncs Tins last
event was actually of a strike-slip mechanism and within rather than at the boundaries of
the descending lithospheric slab. In California, a number of recent earthquakes, including
Coalinga in 1983, Whittier Narrows in 1987 and Northridge in 1994, all occurred on
“blind thrust” faults, which are reverse faults that do not daylight but terminate in the axial
region of an aiiticlinal fold. These events have triggered new geological investigations for
seismic hazard assessments to identily locations where such blind thrusts may be situated
and to evaluate their seismogenic potential, (Allen. 1995). Another surprise in ternis of
seismic nazaru assessments came a lew mourns aneinie rlyogo-Ken raiwu eannquaKe
and coincided with an Imperial College field mission to Greece. On 13 May 1995 a
magnitude 6.5 earthquake struck the area near the cities of Kozani and Grevena in
Macedonia in northern Greece, causing widespread damage and ground motions in the
near-field that have been estimated in excess of 0.5g. (Alexandris, 1995). The surprising
aspect ofthis earthquake was that it occurred within Zone I of the new zoning map for the
Greek design code, which represents the lowest level of hazard with expected ground
motions a third of those expected m the highest seismicit Zone IV (Makropolous 1993)
The Hyogo-ken Nanbu ear hquake and its characteristics were not particularly surprising,
since the Kobe area is included iii the highest hazard region on the zonation maps for
Japan. Nonetheless, it is still interesting to briefly review the process of seismic hazard
assessment in Japan prior to this earthquake and, given the proximity of the seismic source
to a major city and the discontinuous rupture associated with the event, to look
particularly at the incorporation of information regarding active faults into these
assessments.

A21
 a

op

Figure A2. 1: Seismic hazard map for 100-year return period, (Kawasuini, 195 1)

An overview of seismic hazard assessments for Japan is presented by Katayama (1993), in

which it is reported that the first evaluation was presented by Kawasumi (1951). In his
paper, Kawasumi reports that the initiative for the hazard assessment came from civil
engineers in Japan, and in particular was requested by the Ministry of Construction in
order to set the strength levels of buildings to resist the maximum earthquake intensity to
which they could be subjected. For his study, Kkiwa suini employed an earthquake
catalogue of 342 events, the first from 599 A.D. and the most recent from 1949.
Although Kawasumi reported that the level of seismicity suggested by his catalogue for
historical times was comparable to that of the last 80 years, Katayama (1993) reports that
the catalogue was nonetheless extremely incomplete. The “magnitude” assigned to each
earthquake was done according to a unique convention of the author, where the intensity
(on the JMA scale) at an epicentral distance of 100 km was taken as the earthquake
magnitude. Attenuation relations for intensity as a junction of distance and magnitude
were derived, and then the intensity at each of 350 mesh points on a 0.5° x 0.5° grid
throughout Japan was calculated for each of the 342 earthquakes in the catalogue. The
frequency distribution for different intensities at each mesh point was thus determined and
these distributions were employed to find expected intensities; these in turn were
converted to ground accelerations via empirical relations based on recorded accelerations
observed at Hongo from Ishimoto accelerographs. The results were presented in the form
of maps of expected acceleration (in gals) for return periods of 75, 100 and 200 years.
which would correspond to probabilities of exceedance of 49%. 39% and 22%

A2.2
respectively for a design life of 50 years. The 100-year return period map is shown in
Figure A2. 1, in which it can be seen that the highest level of accelerations are in the
Tokyo-Yokohama region, where they reach levels of 700 gals. By contrast, the expected
acceleration level for the Kobe area is between 200 and 300 gals, although it is interesting
to note that for the longer return-period of 200 years, the accelerations expected for the
Tokyo-Yokohama regioii reach 1,000 gals and for the Kobe region 300 to 500 gals.
Katayama (1993) reports that the Kawasumi maps, and modifications of thenL were
extensively used as the basis for determining design levels for civil engineering structures
until the 1970’s.

Since this first seismic hazard assessment was made by Kawasumi (1951), a large number
of studies have been made for Japan. There are large numbers of individuals and
institutions in Japan working on research in the fields of engineering seismology and
earthquake engineering, including the task of assessing seismic hazard. Katayama (1993)
points out that this is both a strength and a weakness, since on the one hand it means that
a great deal of work is produced on the subject, but on the other hand this makes it more
difficult to co-ordinate efforts to arrive at a national consensus. This second point is
important anywhere in the world, since the support of the entire academic and engineering
research community will obviously create greater confidence in the results of hazard
assessments, and particularly in Japan where consensus and agreement is highly valued.
The diculty arises because of the large number of studies that are made: Katayama
reports that in 1990 alone, well over 1,000 papers on earthquake engineering problems
were presented in meetings of learned societies and engineering institutions, and about one
third of these papers dealt with ground motion characteristics and hazard assessment.

The hazard zoning maps that are actually employed in the Japanese codes for earthquake-
resistant design (Appendix A3) were developed in a research project entitled
“Establishment of a new aseismic design method”, which was led by the Ministry of
Construction from 1972 to 1976. The zoning maps were produced on the basis of
combining the results from twelve previous seismic hazard studies, which were weight-
averaged hi a study by 1-iaiLoii et a!. (1977). The approach used by Jiattori et a!. was
rather novel and seems to have been at least in part motivated by the need to establish
consensus. They took twelve seismic hazard studies carried out for Japan by different
research teams between i951 and 1977 and selected from these the eight hazard maps
which had been produced considering only seismicity and excluded the four that had also
incorporated ground conditions into the zoning. The maps produced by these eight
studies corresponded to different combinations of return periods of 50, 75 100 and 200
,

years. and 100 years was chosen as the representative return period for the final map. For
those studies that had produced maps for return periods other than 100 years, the 50 or 75
year map was taken to be equivalent.

A2. 3
 140°

413°

130° 135°’

E[Z

135°

2 50

Figure A2.2: Normalised seismic hazard map from twelve independent studies,
(Hattori et aL, 1977)

The lirst stage of the procedure was then to normalise each of the eight maps with respect
to the highest ground motion contour, unless the highest value was conlined to a veiy
limited area, whence the next highest value was employed. This resulted in each map
showing a distribution of values from 1.0 down to 0.1; this procedure allowed maps of
acceleration, velocity, displacement and response velocity to be used to produce a single
zoning map. A grid of 0.5° x 0.5° was then established over the whole of Japan and the
coefficient at each node read off from each of the eight maps. The resulting value at each
node was found by calculating the weighted average of the eight values, where the weights
took values of 1, 2 or 3 depending upon the reliability of the study. Higher weightings
were awarded to those using more accurate and complete seismological data, the highest

A14
 weighting being for those studies using data from the instrumental period (after 1885),
with lower weightings for those using historical data from after 1600 (when Japan became
politically unified) and the lowest weighting to those using earlier historical data. All of
the maps had been produced using procedures similar to that employed by Kawasumi
(1951), calculating the expected motion at each node resulting from each of the
earthquakes in the catalogue. The differences arose in the method of then calculating the
expected future motions and Hattori et a!. (1977) gave higher weighting to those studies
that employed Gumbel extreme value distributions than to those that used purely statistical
analysis of the accumulative frequency of ground motions Fmally greater eightmg as
‘

given to those studies that employed a finer mesh for calculations of hazard levels. A map
was then produced showing the mean plus one standard deviation levels of the calculated
coefficients and this was normalised to obtain the final hazard map, which is shown in
Figure A2.2 in which the values range from 1.0 to 0.2. This map was the used as the
basis of the zoning map in which the seismic design coefficients are defined, which are to
be multiplied by a standard acceleration value to obtain the horizontal base shear
(Appendm. 3) The resulting zoning map and its relation to political boundaries is shown
in Figure A2.3; it shows a simplification of the hazard map from Figure A2.2 into a three
zones. A more important observation is that although the lowest coefficient in the hazard
map is 0 2 on the zoning map this is increased to 0 8 Hattori et a! (1977) applied these
zoning values to reduce the regional differences and also to take account of the lack of
uniformity of knowledge of seismicity throughout Japan at the time, tending towards a
conservative compromise. This was also done to take account of the fact that for some
areas of Japan, the length of the historical period was considered too short to estimate the
long-term seismic activity.

Katayama (1993) reports that seismic hazard assessments for Japan are generally based
only on seismological data. Seismotectonic information is not widely incorporated into
hazard studies because it is considered to poorly defined, and not all the plate boundaries
have been clearly and unambiguously defined. Considerable information has been
compiled regarding active faults in Japan, with 2,000 identified on land, although the faults
assuciaLed with the largest earthquakes are nearly all off-shore. Katayama (1993) states
that as a result of the most major faults being located in the ocean and the fact that the
recurrence periods of large earthquakes on large on-land faults, are long (of the order of a
thousand years), information on active faults is generally not included in hazard
assessments for engineering purposes. This presumably is because of the difficulty of
clearly associating past earthquakes with particular faults and the even more challenging
task of evaluating the seismic potential of faults with which known earthquakes have not
been associated. This is a point of particular interest with regard to the Hyogo-ken
Nanbu earthquake, which occurred on known faults in the Kobe-Awaji area. Allen (1995)
reports that this was a long-recognized northeast-trending active fault, and that the strike-
slip mechanism of the rupture was consistent with earlier, pre-historic events revealed by
neotectonic field studies and that the magnitude was consistent with the known mapped
length of the fault zone. Although all of this is true, it does not take account of the fact
discussed in Section 5.2, that the two sections of the fault rupture were not co-linear and
their apparent interconnection is located in the sea bed. It would have been very difficult

A2. 5
 to locate the interconnecting fault structure and even more so to postulate the possibility
of this structure as permitting the simultaneous rupture of the Nojirna fault on Awaji
Island and the fault running through Kobe city.

a) 2Oyr

b) 5Oyr

c) IOOyr

d) 200yr

PROBABILITY
lift .9-L00
1111 .8- .89
.5- .79
.1— .49
.0!— .09
<.01

Figure A2.3: Hazard map in terms of probability of intensity of at least V on JMA scale,
conisderin2 only the influence of interplate seisnhlcity, (Wesn ouckv el. I 9$4.

The issue of mapping geological faults for seismic hazard mapping in Japan is discussed by
Kobayashi (1974). Kobayahsi points out that mapping of active faults and evaluation of
fault activity would be very useful for seismic hazard assessment, and discusses work
being carried towards this end, including the decision by the Geographical Survey Institute
to repeat precise distance measurements for bench marks separated at distance between 8
and 50 km. totalling 6,000 throughout Japan, every five years after 1974. The importance
of locating potentially active faults is illustrated by the magnitude 6.9 Izu Peninsula
earthquake of 9 May 1974, in which the damage distribution was not concentric around
the epicentre but related to the distance from the fault rupture, a feature which is now
universally recognized. On the other hand, Kobayashi points out several difficulties in
carrying out this survey work to locate potentially seismogenic faults and to quantifi their
activities. Kobayashi (1974) presents a list of 11 earthquakes that created surface

Al 6
 ruptures in Japan, with magnitudes in the range from 6.5 to 7,9; the earliest of these is the
great earthquake of 1891 (Appendix 1). Kobayashi reports that if all of the 38 large
(M>7.0) earthquakes in Japan between 1891 and 1955 are considered, then only 26% of
these were associated with surface ruptures, partly because the majority of them occurred
off-shore. Kobayashi also points to aseismic creep of faults as one of the problems in
estimating the activity of faults, using the example of the fault rupture associated with the
Great Kanto earthquake of 1923, for which seismological data revealed a co-seismic
displacement of 2 metres (Kanainori, 1971), whereas geodetic data suggested total
deformation prior to the earthquake of the order of 6 metres, (Ando, 1971)

a) 2Oyr

b) 5Oyr

c) IOOyr

d) 200yr

PROBABtLITY
.9—1.00
fflj .8- .89
.5— .79
.1— .49
.01— .09
LI <.o
Figure A2.4: Hazard map in temis ofprobability of intensity of at least V on JMA scale,
conisdering only the influence of intraplate faults, (Wesnousky et at., 1984).

Wesnousky et at. (1984) have carried out a seismic hazard analysis for Japan, explicitly
including the available data on Quaternary faults. They showed that the moment release
rate calculated from 400 years of seismicity data is consistent with the slip rates
determined geologically. The study produced maps of probabilities of exceedance of
intensity >V on the JMA scale in different time windows. Figure A2.3 shows the results

A2. 7
 considering only plate boundary seismicity and those obtained considering only the seismic
potential of intraplate faults are shown in Figure A2.4. Figure A2.5 shows the combined
seismic hazard from the two different types of earthquakes.

a) 2Oyr

b) 5Oyr

c) IOOyr

d) 200yr

PROBABILITY
.9-1.00
.8 .89
.5- .79
.1— .49
<I
<.01

Figure A2.5: Hazard map in terms of probability of intensity of at least V on JMA scale.
conisdering both types of seismicity, (Wesnousky eta!., 1984).

The usual purpose of regional seismic hazard maps is to provide engineers with
a
simplified method for constructing design response spectra by anchoring a standard
spectral shape to a zero-period (ground) acceleration taken from the zoning map.
McGuire (1977) pointed out that this approach will lead to inconsistent representation of
the hazard by the resulting spectra in some cases, because it does not take account of the
fact that not only the spectral amplitude, but also the variation of amplitude with period
,
vary with magnitude and distance. This has led to different approaches being adopte
d in
order to obtain hazard-consistent response spectra for design. In the Canadian code for
earthquake-resistant design, hazard maps have been produced for both ground
acceleration and ground velocity, and since the attenuation characteristics of these two
quantities are different, the contours on the two maps are different. For any particular

A2. 8
 location within Canada. the two maps are used to determine the appropriate levels of peak
acceleration and peak velocity and the spectral shape is then selected according to the
ratio of these two quantities, (Basham et a!., 1985). Zhu et a!. (1988) have shown that
different types of strong motion and their corresponding spectral forms, can be related to
the ratio of ground acceleration to ground velocity, (a/v). If acceleration is measured in g
and velocity in m/sec, then ground motions can be classified as high (> 1.2), intermediate
(0.8 < a/v < 1.2) or low (< 0.8); those ground motions with high ratios will have several
lzrge amplitude, high-frequency pulses, and those with low ratios will have few long-
period pulses, (Tsu et a!,, 1992). Another approach has been adopted in the United
States, where hazard maps have been produced showing expected levels of peak ground
acceleration and spectral accelerations at periods of 0.3 and 1.0 seconds, damped at 5%.
(Algermissen & Leyendecker, 1992).

,1
T—0.2 $
fAX—1061
T-1.Os
4I— 441 c/$
2
(,,
)
T—4.Os
2
CD/S MAX 54.3 2
Cm/s
kIN- 391 c/2

p
kIN:
::: 0

tLTN + 0.75

aN + 0.50

!IN + 0.25

Figure A2.6: Hazard maps showing 75-year response spectral ordinates at periods
of 0.2, 1.0 and 4.0 seconds, (Katayama, 1982),

Katayama (1982) has similarly produced maps for Japan using frequency-dependent
attenuation relations for spectral acceleration ordinates at 18 periods from 0.1 to 4.0
seconds. Hazard calculations were performed for 400 nodes in a 0.5° x 0.5° grid covering

A2. 9
Japan to determine the spectral ordinates with 75-year return period for each of the 18
structural periods. The hazard maps for natural structural periods of 0.2, 1.0 and 4.0
seconds are shown in Figure A2.6 These maps suggest a considerably lower level of
seismic hazard in the Kobe area than in the area of Tokyo-Yokohama. This is also shown
also Figure A2.7 which shows the 75-year return period spectra for five locations in Japan
as determined using these hazard maps; the closest location to Kobe is Kyoto-Osaka.
although according to these hazard maps the spectrum for Kobe would be even lower than
the Kyoto-Osaka spectrum in the long-period range.

1000

‘-4

. 500
U)

z
0
4-4

200

C)
C.)
100
U)
z
0
U)
50
x
h=0.05
GC = II (DILUVIUM)
t—75ys.
20.
fl 1Y

I I III I 111111 I III I

0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 4
PERIOD: T(s)

Figure A2.7: Hazard-consistent 5% damped elastic design spectra for five loactions
in Japan, the closest to Kobe being Kyoto-Osaka, (Katayama, 1982).
The spectra correspond to a 75-year return period.

A2. 10
 APPENDiX 3

Development of Japanese Seismic Codes

Japan was amongst the first nations in the world to adopt codes to regulate the design of
civil engineering structures in order to ensure adequate resistance to earthquakes. Berg
(1982) reports that after the Mino-Owari earthquake of 1891 (Appendix 1), Japanese
engineers and architects had begun to consider seismic resistance in the design of
buildings. In 1892 the Council for the Prevention of Earthquake Disasters was
established. The real impetus for the development of earthquake-resistant design codes
came with the disastrous Kanto earthquake of 1 September 1923, which led to more than
140,000 deaths in Tokyo and Yokohama. Although the death toll was very high, and
there was also significant economic damage estimated to be in excess of two billion US
dollars, most of the destruction was actually caused by fire. Engineered buildings of
structural steel and reinforced concrete actually performed very well under the earthquake
shaking: only about 10% of reinforced concrete buildings in Tokyo were severely
damaged and nearly 80% escaped completely unharmed. Nonetheless, the 1923
earthquake led the Home Office of Japan to introduce a number of changes to the building
regulations, including the specification of a lateral seismic design coefficient of 0. 10 for all
important new structures, and size limits were placed on structures. These seismic design
regulations were introduced into the Urban Building Law in 1924.

Regulations for earthquake-resistant design in Japan appeared in the first world list of
seismic building codes published by the International Association for Earthquake
Engineering (IAEE, 1960). These regulations refer to civil engineering works, with
separate chapters on waterworks, harbours, bridges and dams, and three separate zoning
maps are presented. One is the map of 75-year return period accelerations from
Kawasumi (1951), discussed in Appendix 2, and two zoning maps giving design
coefficients for harbour construction and dams. In all cases, Kobe is included in the same
zone as Tokyo, in which the highest coefficient is applicable.

In the next issue of the world list (IAEE, 1966), the Standard Building Law is presented.
This Law was first enacted in 1946, following the destructive Nankaido earthquake. A
horizontal seismic design coefficient of 0.2 was adopted. In this regulation. the horizontal
seismic coefficient of 0.2 is specified for all structures, with an increment of 0.01 for every
4 metres above 16 metres be added to this coefficient for the upper storeys of buildings.
A higher coefficient of 0.3 is specified for tall structures such as elevated water tanks and
chimneys projecting from roofs, and also for wooden buildings in districts where the soil is
designated as exceedingly soft. Sites were classified as exceedingly soft if there was
alluvium including soft delta deposits, topsoil or mud, whose depth is greater than about
30 metres, or where there was reclaimed land. The classification of very soft ground was
introduced after the 1964 Niigata earthquake in which there was extensive damage due to
widespread liquefaction. An additional notification from the Ministry of Construction,
issued in July 1952, allows the seismic coefficient to be reduced by two factors, the first
depending on site geology and construction type: for steel buildings on rock, the reduction

A3.1
factor was 0.6 and for reinforced concrete structures 0.8. The second reduction factor
dçpends upon the geographical location, with a zoning map specifying three regions with
corresponding factors of 0.8, 0.9 and 1.0; Kobe again was located in the same zone as
Tokyo, with no further reduction permitted in these areas.

0
it’s

450
4
4 S°

400 135°

130°

3
z=1.0
zo.9
Z:O.8

130°
Figure A3. 1: Seismic zoning map from Japanese design code.

A3 .2
 New regulations came into effect in June 1981 and were presented in the 1984 world list
of seismic codes, (IAEE, 1984). In this code, the different levels of seismic design were
explicitly recognized with the code having two stated purposes. The first was to provide
buildings that will resist moderate earthquakes that could occur se eral times during then
design lives, with almost no damage, and the second to neither collapse nor harm human
lives which would occur maybe once within the useful life of the building. This was the
first time that the inelastic behaviour of structures under severe earthquake loads, and
therefore ductility, was considered in the regulations.

The base shear force to be used in seismic design, Q, was specified by a lateral coefficient,
C, multiplied by the combination of the dead weight of the structure, some proportion of
the live load, and, in certain districts, the snow load. The base shear coefficient was
determined from the following expression:

0
C=Z.R .C (A3.1)

where Z is the seismic hazard zoning coefficient, taken from the map shown in Figure
A3. 1: here also, Kobe lies in the Zone A together with Tokyo, and the corresponding
value is 1.0. R is the spectral shape, which depends upon the soil profile at the site, as
shown in Figure A3.2. For short periods the value of R 4 is 1.0 for all site geologies, and
the minimum value for all site types is 0.25; it is stated that if precise analysis of the
structure, foundation and soil is performed. the value of R can be reduced to 0.75 of the
value read from the spectral curves, but never less than 0.25. Soil profiles are classified as
Type I (hard) if the site consists of rock, hard sandy gravel, classified as Tertiary or older,
or if the fundamental period of the site, determined by calculation or by other means, is
equivalent to a rocky site. Type 3 (soft) profiles correspond to sites which would be
classified as exceediiigly soft according to the Building Standard Law discussed
previously. Type 2 profiles are those that are not classified as Type 1 or Type 3. The
factor C 0 is the standard shear coefficient, taken to be not less than 0.2 for moderate
earthquake motions and 1,0 for sever earthquake motions; this is an interesting feature of
the Japanese code, which makes it one of the few codes that actually presents a two-level
design procedure consistent with the two-level design philosophy specified in the
objectives of the code, (Uang, 1993). Therefore, for the design of buildings in Kobe to
resist severe earthquakes, such as the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake, the elastic design
spectra would be identical to those shown in Figure A3.2, taking units of g on the vertical
scale. it is interesting to note that for structures no importance factor, based on building
occupancy or use, is included in the specification of the base shear force.

The 1981 code specifies different design procedures and criteria for different types of
structure. All buildings must meet the relevant structural requirements laid down in the
previous building regulations, and structures not taller than 31 metres shall also meet that
requirement that the stresses caused by the moderate earthquake loading do not exceed
the allowable stresses for temporary loads. For steel structures in excess of 9 metres and
reinforced concrete in excess of 20 metres in height, it is also necessary to check the
storey drift at each level, and that this does not exceed 1/200 of the storey height under

A3. 3
 the moderate earthquake loading; this can be increased to 1/120 if the increased drift will
not cause severe non-structural damage. It is then necessary to also apply either a check
on stifihess eccentricity and the lateral stiffliess at each storey, or the ultimate shear
strength. For any building over 31 metres, the check on the ultimate shear strength is
always obligatory. The ultimate shear strength of each store)’ must be greater than the
ultimate lateral shear determined from equation (A3. 1) with C 0 equal to 1.0, multiplied by
a structural coefficient D and a shape factor The shape factor depends upon the
eccentricity of stifihiess and the variation of lateral stiffliess, increasing from 1.0 for
uniform, symmetrical structures to a maximum value of 2.25. The factor D is directly and
explicitly related to the ductility of the construction material and the redundancy of the
structural system: minimum values of D 5 are specified for ductile moment frames, being
0.25 for steel and 0.3 for reinforced concrete.

1.2

‘— 0.9
0

ci)
0.6

Ca

a)
o..O.3
C’)
• Spectra Represent Hazard in Most
Seismic Region of Country
. Neutral Importance Factor -

Standard Structures

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Period (Secs)

Figure A3.2: Elastic design spectra from Japanese code for Kobe, (Luby, 1995).

Part I of the new regulations, which is the Standards for Aseismic Civil Engineering
Constructions in Japan, being a modified version of the Building Standard Law, and
covering the water supply system (1979), port and harbour constructions (1978),
petroleum pipelines, submerged tunnels (1975), highway bridges (1980); for several of
these regulations, a separate zonation map is included, and in all cases Kobe lies within the
zone of greatest hazard.

A3 .4
Together with the new seismic design procedures for structures in Part H, the regulations
for high-pressure gas manuflicturing facilities is also presented in Part ifi, which contain
their a separate zoning map in which Kobe is in Zone A. but there is an additional higher
hazard zone designated S-A, which includes Tokyo.

One interesting observation can be made about this new regulation with regard to the
maximum permitted height of buildings: even prior to the 1923 Kanto earthquake,
buildings had been limited to about 30 metres (100 feet), and this was maintained after the
earthquake. In the Building Standard Law discussed above, height limits were actually
reduced to 20 metres in residential zones and kept at 31 metres for non-residential areas.
In the 1981 regulations buildings are allowed to be up to 60 metres in height and it is
stated that permission can be obtained from the Ministry of Construction following a
review of the dynamic behaviour of the proposed structure. Although in part this must
reflect the improvements both in analytical methods for earthquake-resistant design and in
construction technology, the motivation for these changes were very probably driven by
the phenomenal increases in land prices.

A3.5
 Appendix 4

Strong-Motion Records

This Appendix includes the following data:

-Listing of strong-motion recordings from the earthquake, including peak

values of recorded ground acceleration

-Listing of strong-motion recordings of structural response to the earthquake

-Graphical presentation of the strong-motion time histories and their response

spectra at four danping levels

-Graphical presentation of the strong-motion records from the vertical array

on Port Island
 Epicentral
Source Station Name N Lat. E Lonq. Dist. (Km) PGA(G) NS(G) EW(G) UD(G) SoilType Equipment Notes

J.M.A. Kobe (Kaiyo) 34.688 135.180 18 0.8374 -0.8374 0.6321 0.3406 Hard TYPE 87
Osaka 34.678 135.522 48 0.0828 0.0828 0.0671 -0.0660 Soft TYPE 87
Maizuru 35.448 135.320 98 0.0684 -0.0684 -0.0534 -0.0404 Soft TYPE 87
Okayama 34.658 133.918 99 0.0792 0.0792 -0.0604 -0.0368 Hard TYPE 87
Tottori 35.485 134.240 120 0.0785 -0.0785 -0.0756 -0.0150 Soft TYPE 87
Hikone 35.273 136.247 135 0.1504 -0.1399 0.1504 0.0401 Soft TYPE 87
Fukui 36.053 136.227 195 0.0424 -0.0336 0.0424 -0.0104 V.Soft TYPE 87
**
CEORKA Port Island 34.670 135.208 20 0.5693 -0.3485 0.2910 -0.5693 Reclaimed CEORKA Equipment
Kobe University 34.725 135.240 25 0,4309 -0.2756 0.3072 0.4309 M.Granite CEORKA consist
Kobe (Motoyama) 34.725 135.281 29 0.7771 -0.4172 -0.7771 -0.3693 Pleist. Fan CEORKA of
Amagasaki 34.718 135.408 39 0.3268 -0.2737 0.3268 0.3137T.Holocene CEORKA VSE-11/12
Tadaoka 34.480 135.408 40 0.2924 -0.2924 -0.1923 -0.1259 Tn.Holocene CEORKA &
Sakai 34.564 135.469 43 0.1510 -0.1510 0.1242 -0.0915 Tn.Holocene CEORKA CV9O1NVR
Fukushima 34.687 135.474 44 0.2140 0.1831 0.2140 -0.1889 T.Holocene CEORKA
Abeno 34.636 135.519 47 0.2244 -0.2152 0.2244 -0.1091 Pleist. CEORKA
Morigawachi 34.680 135.572 53 0.2139 -0.2139 -0.1253 -0.1562 T.Holocene CEORKA
Yae 34680 135.612 56 0.1579 -0.1579 0.1474 0.1232 T.Holocene CEORKA
Chihaya 34.439 135.659 63 0.1087 -0.0905 -0.1087 -0.0674 M. Granite CEORKA

JAPAN RAIL Nishi-Akashi 34.664 134.964 7 0.4905 0.4905 -0.3967 0.2427 Gravel/Sand NEWS Il
Takatori 34.649 135.139 13 0.6475 0.6475 0.5639 0.1785 Alluvium SM-bA
Shin-Kobe 34.704 135.200 21 0.5721 -0.5404 -0.2723 -0.3508 Granite NEWS II
Kakogawa 34.764 134.843 23 0.2672 0.1683 0.2672 0.0999 Gravel/Sand SM-bA
Himeji 34.821 134.875 27 0.1275 0.0836 0.1275 0.0489 Gravel/Sand NEWS II
Takarazuka 34.809 135.344 38 0.6067 0.6067 0.5404 0.3844 Gravel/Sand SM-bOA
Higashi- Kishiwada 34.445 135.388 39 0.1519 -0.1122 -0.1468 0.0500 Alluvium NEWSR84
 Epicentral
Source Station Name N Lat. E Long. 01st. (Km) PGA(G) NS(G) EW(G) UD(G) SoilType Equipment Notes
Wakayama N/A N/A — 45 0.1458 0.1458 0.0857 0.0337 N/A NEWSR89
Shin-Osaka (ST) N/A N/A — 48 0.2172 0.2039 0.2172 0.1581 ANuvium SM-bA
Shin-Osaka (SS) 34.737 135.516 49 0.2498 -0.2223 -0.2213 0.0571 Alluvium NEWS II
Aioi N/A N/A 53 0.0816 -0.0632 0.0530 0.0286 N/A NEWS I!
Sasayamaguchi 35.053 135.180 52 0.1988 0.1417 -0.1805 0.0398 Tuff NEWSR84
lkuno 35.160 134.792 64 0.0602 -0.0367 0.0540 0.0204 N/A NEWSR84
Shin Takatsuki (SS) 34.859 135.654 66 0.3294 N/A N/A N/A N/A NEWS N
Sonobe 35.100 135.487 70 0.1662 -0.1040 0.1662 -0.0479 N/A NEWSR84
In 34.750 134.227 73 0.1030 -0.0367 0.0540 0.0204 N/A NEWS II
Nara 34.677 135.821 75 0.1152 0.1142 0.1061 -0.0367 N/A NEWSR84
Fukuchiyama 35.293 135.121 77 0.1122 0.0734 0.1091 0.0214 N/A NEWSR84
Gobo 33.904 135,162 79 0.1734 -0.1132 0.1346 0.0265 N/A NEWSR89
Nijo 35.007 135.744 81 0.0857 N/A N/A N/A N/A SM-1OA
Higashiyama 34.978 135.797 83 0.1152 N/A N/A N/A N/A NEWS II
Nishi Maizuru 35.438 135.333 97 0.0887 -0.0612 0.0806 -0.0204 N/A NEWSR84
Okayama N/A N/A 99 0.0867 -0.0867 0.0591 0.0306 N/A NEWS II
Ritto 35.028 135.996 102 0.0683 N/A N/A N/A N/A NEWS II
Toyooka 35.541 134.800 105 0.1264 0.1050 -0.0918 -0.0275 N/A NEWSR84
Shinjo N/A N/A — 109 0.0673 -0.0673 -0.0469 -0.0204 N/A NEWS II
Tsuge 34.843 136.259 118 0.0989 0.0785 -0.0683 0.0337 N/A NEWSR84
Kasumi N/A N/A 119 0.0602 -0.0387 -0.0520 -0.0214 N/A NEWSR84
Obama 35.488 135.749 119 0.0755 0.0714 -0.0581 -0.0245 N/A NEWSR84
Gokaso 35.139 136.184 123 0.1305 -0.1275 0.1213 -0.0449 N/A NEWS II
Susami N/A N/A — 126 0.0347 -0.0235 0.0296 -0.0122 N/A NEWSR89
Kumanoshi 33.889 136.106 129 0.0530 NIA N/A N/A N/A NEWSR84
-
Ku Nagashima 34.205 136.342 131 0.0469 N/A N/A N/A N/A NEWSR84
Shin- Kamogata N/A N/A 133 0.0184 0.0143 -0.0163 -0.0184 N/A NEWS II
Kii-Katsuura N/A N/A 139 0.0387 0.0387 0.0387 -0.0133 N/A NEWSR89
Matsuzaka 34.573 136.538 140 0.0500 N/A N/A N/A N/A NEWSR84
 Epicentral
Source Station Name N Lat. E Long. Dist. (Km) PGA(G) NS(G) EW(G) UD(G) SoilType Equipment Notes
Shin Maibara (SS) 35.316 136.293 141 0.2315 0.2213 0.1377 -0.0255 N/A NEWS II
Kinomoto N/A N/A 50 0.0540 -0.0510 0.0540 0.0133 N/A NEWSR84
Tsuruga N/A N/A 52 0.0459 -0.0459 0.0408 0.0122 N/A NEWSR84
Yokkaichi 34.960 136.633 154 0.0663 N/A N/A N/A N/A NEWSR84
Sekigahara 35.360 136.472 158 0.0969 N/A N/A N/A N/A NEWSR84
-
Shin Sekigahara 35.354 136.483 158 0.1081 0.1081 -0.0734 -0,0296 N/A NEWS II
Hashima 35.326 136.675 172 0.0581 0.0581 -0.0316 0.0102 N/A NEWS II
Mihara N/A N/A — 177 0.0306 N/A N/A N/A N/A HGA-2
Takefu N/A N/A — 180 0.0184 0.0163 0.0153 0.0122 N/A NEWSR84
Shin- Mihara N/A N/A 181 0.0214 0.01 63 0.0163 0.0071 N/A NEWS II
Kisogawa 35.343 136.783 181 0.0683 N/A N/A N/A N/A NEWSR84
Shin-Biwajima (SS) 35.195 136.867 182 0.0214 -0.0214 0.0184 -0.0071 N/A NEWS II
Odaka (SS) 35.066 136.953 185 0.0184 -0.0173 -0.0143 -0.0071 N/A NEWS II
cJ
Anjo (SS) 34.929 137.099 195 0.0265 -0.0224 -0.0194 -0.0071 N/A NEWS II
Fukui N/A N/A — 197 0.0347 -0.0347 0.0235 -0.0082 N/A NEWSR84
Miyoshi N/A N/A 197 0.0092 N/A N/A N/A N/A HGA-2
Okazaki 34.920 137.160 200 0.0092 N/A N/A N/A N/A NEWSR84
Shin-Saijo N/A N/A 205 0.0224 0.0224 0.0143 0.0051 N/A NEWS II
Echizen-Ono N/A N/A 205 0.0214 0.0173 -0.0194 0.01 22 N/A NEWSR84
Mino-Ota 35.443 137.022 206 0.0510 N/A N/A N/A N/A SM-40
Tajimi 35.330 137.122 209 0.0153 N/A N/A N/A N/A NEWSR84
Toyohashi 34.760 137.386 218 0.0122 N/A N/A N/A N/A NEWSR84
Daishoji N/A N/A 223 0.0571 0.0551 0.0571 -0.0204 N/A NEWSR84
Hiroshima N/A N/A 233 0.0122 N/A N/A N/A N/A HGA-2
Gero 35.802 137.242 243 0.01 02 N/A N/A N/A N/A NEWSR84
Shin- Hatsukaichi N/A N/A 248 0.01 73 0.0163 0.0163 0.0051 N/A NEWS II
Mikawa N/A N/A 248 0.0428 -0.0398 -0.0265 0.0092 N/A NEWSR84
Nakatsugawa 35.495 137.505 248 0.0143 N/A N/A N/A N/A NEWSR84
Iwakuni N/A N/A — 259 0.0102 0.0102 0.0102 N/A N/A HGA-2
 Epicentral
Source Station Name N Lat. E Long. Dist. (Km) PGA(G) NS(G) EW(G) UD(G) SoilType Equipment Notes
Nagiso 35.596 137.612 261 0.0194 N/A N/A N/A N/A NEWSR84
Shin-Iwata (SS) 34.723 137.901 265 0.0143 0.0102 0.0133 -0.0041 N/A NEWS II
Takayama 36.138 137.254 265 0.0071 N/A N/A N/A N/A NEWSR84
Hiraoka 35.271 137.857 270 0.0082 N/A N/A N/A N/A NEWSR84
Ida 35.517 137.825 276 0.0184 N/A N/A N/A N/A NEWSR84
Kiso-Fulcushima N/A N/A 281 0.0061 N/A N/A N/A N/A NEWSR84
Isurugi N/A N/A 285 0.0275 -0.0265 0.0235 0.0112 N/A NEWSR84
Tokuyama N/A N/A 300 0.0102 0.0071 0.0102 N/A N/A HGA-2
Hakui N/A N/A 302 0.0112 0.0112 -0.0102 -0.0061 N/A NEWSR84
Kosugi N/A N/A 302 0.0204 0.0194 -0.0133 0.0051 N/A NEWSR84
Yaidu (SS) N/A N/A 305 0.0133 -0.0112 -0.0112 -0.0041 N/A NEWS II
Nanao N/A N/A 324 0.0143 0.0133 -0.0102 -0.0031 N/A NEWSR89
Iwabuchi N/A N/A 336 0.0286 0.0286 0.0224 0.0061 N/A NEWS II
Ogori N/A N/A - 336 0.0020 0.0020 0.0010 N/A N/A HGA-2
Nagato N/A N/A 351 0.0031 0.0020 0.0031 N/A N/A HGA-2
Kinki Jiken Kakogawa N/A N/A 24 0.2692 0.1468 0.2152 0.2692 N/A SM-10A
Amagasaki El. Hwy N/A N/A 41 0.3304 0.2998 0.2702 0.3304 N/A SMAC-Q
Kinogawa N/A N/A 44 0.1315 0.1315 0.1071 0.0663 N/A SMAC-MD
Kinogawa Ohashi N/A N/A 45 0.1020 0.1010 0.1020 0.0275 N/A SMAC-B2
Yodogawa I N/A N/A ,
46 0.2488 0.2029 0.2284 0.2488 N/A SMAC-Q
YodoGawa 2 N/A N/A 49 0.1407 0.1407 0,1213 0.1030 N/A SM-bA
Yamatogawa N/A N/A 54 0.2029 0.1591 0.2029 0.0571 N/A SMAC-Q
Hanshin Kodan Higashi-Kobe Ohashi N/A N/A 30 0.4028 0.2865 0.3334 0.4028 N/A SAMTAC
Matsunohama Bridge I N/A N/A 39 0.1723 0.1723 0.1091 0.1081 N/A SAMTAC
Matsunohama Bridge 2 N/A N/A 39 0.1479 0.1479 0.1377 0.1183 N/A SAMTAC
Yotsubashi Bridge N/A N/A 47 0.3365 0.2570 0.3365 0.2274 N/A SAMTAC
Ikeda N/A N/A 47 0.4303 0.4303 0.4252 0.3681 N/A SAMTAC
 Epicentral
Source Station Name N Lat. E Long. Dist. (1(m) PGA(G) NS(G) EW(G) UD(G) SoilType Equipment Notes
PHRI Kobe Port Office N/A N/A 21 0.5218 0.5218 0.2334 0.4570 Reclaimed ERS-G N43W,E43N
Kobe Stn #8 N/A N/A 21 0.6996 0.6996 0.4004 0.3467 Reclaimed N43WE43N
ERS-G
Amagasaki Port N/A N/A 39 0.5047 0.3152 0.5047 0.3172 Alluvial NO6W,O6N
ERS-G
Osaka Port Office N/A N/A 43 0.1815 0.1815 0.1275 0.1050 N/A ERS-G S24E24N
Wakayama Port N/A N/A 44 0.1601 0.1601 0.1111 0.0683 N/A ERS-G NI2E.E12S
Matsushima N/A N/A 72 0.0979 0.0908 0.0979 0.0326 N/A ERS-G
Kochi N/A N/A 179 0.0286 0.0286 0.0265 0.0102 N/A ERS-G
Matsuyama N/A N/A 226 0.0408 0.0408 0.0357 0,0102 N/A ERS-G
Hiroshima N/A N/A 234 0.0204 0.0204 0.0122 0.0071 N/A ERSG
Shiga Prefecture Otsu City N/A N/A * 91 0.0067 0.0067 0.0041 0.0036 N/A VSE-11/12
Kusatsu N/A N/A 99 0.0118 0.0118 0.0080 0.0050 N/A VSE-11/12
Mizuguchi N/A N/A 115 0.0042 0.0042 0.0031 0.0025 N/A VSE-11/12
Agric.Univ Hino Machi N/A N/A — 129 0.1397 0.1020 0.1397 0.0714 N/A SDA2O4G
MOC Ono Dam N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.1224 N/A N/A N/A
Amagase Dam N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.1754 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Shirokawa Dam N/A N/A — N/A N/A 0.1723 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Yodogawa N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.7138 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Ichigo Dam N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.4874 N/A N/A NIA N/A
Kakogawa Bridge N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.1 530 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Doboku Kenkyu Kakogawa City 1 N/A N/A — 24 0.2692 0.1468 0.2152 0.2692 N/A SM-bA
Kakogawa City 2 N/A N/A 24 0,2243 0.2152 0.2243 0.1489 N/A SM-bA
Amagasaki El. Hwy. N/A N/A 41 0.3304 0.2998 0.2702 0.3304 N/A SM-bOA
Wakayama N/A N/A 44 0.1315 0.1315 0.1071 0.0663 N/A SMAC-MD
Osaka N/A N/A 49 0.1407 0.1407 0.1213 0.1030 N/A SM-bA
 Epicentral
Source Station Name N Lat. E Long. Dist. (Km) PGA(G) NS(G) EW(G) UD(G) SoilType Equipment Notes
Tokushima City N/A N/A 70 0.1122 0.1122 0.1122 0.0265 N/A SMAC-Q
Ishi-Cho N/A N/A 75 0.1366 0.1366 0.1122 0.0969 N/A SMAC-Q
Sarutani Dam N/A N/A 83 0.0398 0.0398 0.0184 0.0122 N/A SM-bA

JRA Himeji N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.1387 N/A N/A N/A N/A
-
Fukuzaki N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.3579 N/A N/A N/A
Fukuchiyama N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.0867 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Ebinosaka N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.2784 N/A N/A N/A
Kyoshi BP N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.2539 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Minami Osaka N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.2060 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Wakayama N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.1111 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Amagasaki El. Hwy. N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.5914 N/A N/A N/A N/A
> Wangan Expressway N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.3029 N/A N/A N/A N/A
3..

KANSAI AIPORT Station 1 N/A N/A N/A 0.2519 0.1713 0,1050 0.2519 Reclaimed N/A
-
Station 2 N/A N/A N/A 0,2080 0.1499 0.1203 0.2080 Reclaimed N/A
Station 3 N/A N/A N/A 0.1570 0.0989 0.1071 0.1570 Reclaimed N/A
Station 4 N/A N/A - N/A 0.1448 0.0897 0.0714 0.1448 Reclaimed N/A

OSAKA GAS Kobe (Central Ward) N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.8494 N/A N/A N/A N/A
-
Nishinomiya Imazu N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.8076 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Osaka N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.2712 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Sakai City N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.1764 NIA N/A N/A N/A
Sakai (line 1) N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.1815 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Fujidera N/A N/A - N/A N/A 0.1519 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Suita City N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.3182 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Wakayama N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.1835 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Himeji (Shirohama) N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.1927 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Himeji N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.2580 N/A N/A N/A N/A
 Epicentral
Source Station Name N Lat. E Lonj. Dist, (Km) PGA(G) NS(G) EW(G) UD(G) SoilType Equipment Notes
Line 2 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.2447 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Iwasaki N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.1886 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Onshi N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.1723 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Nara N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.1448 N/A N/A N/A N/A
-
Shicho Nawate N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.2284 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Kawauchi N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.1805 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Kyoto N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.2101 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Kyoto N/A N/A - N/A N/A 0.2682 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Takatsuki N/A N/A N/A N/A 0,2559 N/A N/A N/A N/A
KANSAI ELEC. Shin Kobe Substation N/A N/A — N/A 0.5578 0.5578 N/A 0.4874 N/A N/A
Amagasaki #3 Plant N/A N/A N/A 0.3375 0.2845 N/A 0.3375 N/A
4. N/A
Nanko N/A N/A N/A 0.2029 0.1285 N/A 0.2029 N/A N/A
Nishi Kyoto N/A N/A N/A 0.1326 0.1326 N/A 0.0857 N/A N/A
So-Ken N/A N/A N/A 0.5170 0.3049 0.5170 0.2090 N/A N/A
Takasago N/A N/A — N/A 0.2019 0.1948 0.2019 0.1856 N/A N/A
—
Yamazaki Gijitsu Centre N/A N/A N/A 0.1336 0.1336 0.0938 0.0928 N/A N/A
Yao Stnl N/A N/A N/A 0.1438 0.1356 0.1438 0.0897 N/A N/A
Yao Stn2 N/A N/A N/A 0.1509 0.1509 0.1417 0.0836 N/A N/A
Yao Stn3 N/A N/A — N/A 0.1428 0.1254 0.1428 0.0683 N/A N/A
—
Shigi Power Stn. N/A N/A N/A 0.0255 0.0255 0.0204 0.0102 N/A N/A
—
Minami Osaka Stnl N/A N/A N/A 0.1244 0.1244 0.0857 0:0918 N/A N/A
Minami Osaka Stn2 N/A N/A N/A 0.1479 0.1468 0.1479 0.0948 N/A N/A
Minami Osaka Stn3 N/A N/A N/A 0.1489 0.1489 0.1071 0.0938 N/A N/A
Kainan Harbour N/A N/A N/A 0.1305 0.0999 0.1305 0.0938 N/A N/A
Yuzaki N/A N/A N/A 0.0194 0.0163 0.0194 0.0082 N/A N/A
 Source City Station Name Structure Location Dist. PEAK NS EW UD Equipment Notes
(Km) (G) (G) (G) (G)
Hanshin Kobe Higashi Kobe Bridge Ground 30 0.4028 0.2865 0.3334 0.4028 SAMTAC
Exp. Co. Ohashi
UG-33m 30 0.4548 0.3100 0.4548 N/A SAMTAC
Foundation 30 0.4058 0.3406 0.4058 N/A SAMTAC
Main 30 0.8382 0.6190 0.8382 0.8362 SAMTAC
Tower 1
Main 30 0.9014 0.3457 0.9014 N/A SAMTAC
Tower 2
Main 30 1.1655 1.1645 1.1655 N/A SAMTAC
Tower 3
Osaka Matsu no Hama El. Exp. Ground 39 0. 1723 0.1723 0.1091 0.1081 SAMTAC
Pier 23
Foundation 39 0.1397 0.1397 0.1050 0.0714 SAMTAC
Pier 39 0.4589 0.2284 0.4589 0.1560 SAMTAC
MatsunoFlama E1.Exp. Ground 39 0.1479 0.1479 0,1377 0.1183 SAMTAC
Pier 32
Foundation 39 0.1285 0.1061 0.1285 0.0704 SAMTAC
Pier 39 0.3640 0.2050 0.3640 0.0775 SAMTAC

Tokyo Osaka Shin-Asahi Bldg. Building 8 F 47 0.2784 0.2 192 0.2784 0.1785 SMAC-A
University
“H
P1 F 47 0.5486 0.5486 0.4517 0.2141 SMAC-A
Osaka Kandenryokyu Building 5 F 47 0.2243 0.1988 0.2243 0.1509 SMAC-B
Bldg.
12F 47 0.4436 0.4436 0.3365 0.2498 SMAC-B
Osaka Shin Sumitomo Building, B4 F 47 0.0663 0.06 12 0.0663 0.056 1 SMAC-B
 Source City Station Name Structure Location Dist. PEAK NS EW UD Equipment Notes
(Km) (G) (G) (G) (G)
Bldg.
7F 47 0.2804 0.2376 0.2804 0.1835 SMAC-B
Roof 47 04691 0.4691 03161 0.2600 SMAC-B
Osaka Dal-Hanshin Building B5F 47 0.1 111 0.1 1 1 1 0.1050 0.0816 SMAC-B2
Bldg.
4F 47 0.2039 0.1662 0.2039 0.1254 SMAC-B
PIF 47 0.5099 0.4181 0.5099 0.1958 SMAC-B
Osaka Hanshin Building 15.5F 47 0.4946 0.4640 0.4946 0.1764 SMAC-C

NTT Kobe NTT Kobe Eki Building B3F 21 0.3375 0.3375 0.1560 0.1723 SMAC-B2
Mae
8F 21 0.8545 0.8545 0.5099 0.4211 SMAC-B
Himeji NTT Himeji Building IF 39 0.0897 0.0897 0.05 10 0.0387 SMAC-B2
Branch
Roof (7) 39 0,2294 0.1530 0.2294 0.0765 SMAC-B
Wakayama NTT Wakayama Building B2F 44 0.057 1 0.0449 0.057 1 0.0 194 SMAC-B2
Br.
7F 44 0.1020 0.1020 0.0897 0.0387 SMAC-B
Osaka NTT Service Building B1F 48 0.1846 0.1662 0.1846 0.0826 SMAC-B2
Centre
2F 48 0.2294 0.2294 0.2172 0.1662 SMAC-B
4F 48 0.3059 0.3059 0.2549 0.1662 SMAC-B
7F 48 0.3956 0.3956 0.2804 0.2172 SMAC-B
Osaka NTT Data Building B3F 48 0.0959 0.0897 0.0897 0.0959 SMAC-B2
Doshima
iF 48 0.1275 0.1275 0.1275 0.1152 SMAC-B
 Source City Station Name Structure Location Dist. PEAK NS EW lID Equipment Notes
(Km) (G) (G) (G) (G)
9F 48 0.2427 0.1785 0.2172 0.2427 SMAC-B
19F 48 0.3447 0.1662 0.1407 0.3447 SMAC-B
24F 48 04211 0.2039 0.1785 0.4211 SMAC-B
Saita NTTToyonaka Building iF 51 0.2712 0.2712 0.1275 0.1050 SMAC-B2
Br.
2F 51 0.3956 0.3956 0.2172 0.0897 SMAC-B
Roof(3) 51 0.7138 0.7138 0.4976 0.1020 SMAC-B

Fujita Izumisano Izumisano Building P60 36 0.1020 0.1020 0.0897 0.0551 SMAC
Centre MD
B2F 36 0.1448 0.1448 0.0806 0.0714 SMAC
MD
C Roof 36 0.3997 0.3997 0.2009 0.2804 SMAC
MD

Doboku Amagasaki Amagasaki El. Bridge Pier 41 0,7964 0.7964 0.2916 0.2325 SMAC-Q
Kenkyu Hy.
Wakayama KinoKawaDai Bridge Pier 45 0.1530 01530 0.0602 0.0337 SMAC-B2
HashI
Osaka YodoGawa Levee Top 46 0.6220 0.0469 0.2978 0.6220 SMAC-Q
River

Maeda Osaka Shin Ishihara Building iF 47 0.2437 0.2386 0.1428 0.2437 DATOL-i00
Const. Bldg.
Co.
19F 47 0.5415 0.5109 0.3416 0.5415 DATOL-l00
 Source City Station Name Structure Location Dist. PEAK NS EW UD Equipment Notes
(Km) (G) (G) (G) (G)

BR.I. Osaka Daisan Building B3F 49 0.1 109 0.0920 0.0841 0.1109 SMAC
Godochosha MD
18F 49 04201 0,4201 0.3222 0.2131 SMAC
MD
 Hyogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time)

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 0,1HZ SOURCE: JMA
DURATION OF RECORD USED 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 11/7/95
FIJKIiI STATION: H1170546.FUK EAST-WEST COMPONENT
LONG: 136.227 LAT: 36.0533
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:54
ACCELERATION
0.05 I I
I
Z . MAX0.0424G (35.88sec
0.025 - I -

0 I —

0,025 . .
. —

LI
I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIIvIIZ (seconds)
VELOCITY
10 I I I
j\Lx5.4o4CM S (42.76sec)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
C)
I I I I I
-
. MAXl.4794CNI (32.30sec) —

_0— ••-

LI . ., .•. .,• ..

I I I’ I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

0.8
I

DAMPING
I-.
C)
0
OPERCENT
I 2PERCENT
5 PERCENT
04 -
10 PERCENT

o
02

0.5 I 1.5 2.5

Period (Seconds)
ESEE - IMPERIAL COLLEGE

A4.12
 Hvogo-Xen Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time)

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 0.1HZ SOURCE: JMA
DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 11/7/95
FUKUI STATION: H1170546.FUK NORTH-SOUTH COMPONENT
LONG: 136.227 LAT: 36.0533
TRIGGER TLME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:54
ACC LERATIO
0.05 I
I
N 0 0336G (32.42s )
0.025
I- /
j
0-—— ... ..., .. .—

‘-0025 :
s1
— --fl ft I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
5 I I
2.5
>-
-
I4065 (33.04se) -

— 0———— —

D
I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
E DISPLACEMENT
2 I I I I I I I
1 -
IN130461(3242)
_0 --
-

I I I I
— 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

0.6 I I

DAMPING
C)
C)
0 PERCENT
0.4
C) -
2 PERCENT

I 0.2 —
5 PERCENT
10 PERCENT

0
0.5 1 1.5
Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A413
 HyogoKen Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time)

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN=0.1HZ SOURCE: JMA
DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE:11/7/95
FUKUI STATION: H1170546.FUK VERTICAL COMPONENT
LONG: 136.227 LAT: 360533
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:54
ACCELER TIO\
0,02

0.0I
00104G(30.52s >
I -

L)
02
.
0
U I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
2

[iAx 146 CMS(30.58 )

I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
Qos
I
j\14.X 04873CM(31.04s ) I—
0

05-
I I I I I
10 0 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

015 — I I I

DAMPING

OPERCENT
0.1
2 PERCENT
5PERCENT
10 PERCENT

0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4.14
 Fivogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time)

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 0.1HZ SOURCE: JMA
DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE: 11/7/95
HIKONE STATION: H1170546.HIK EAST-WEST COMPONENT
LONG: 136.247 LAT: 35.2733
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:46
5 ACCELERATION
0.2 I I I I I I I
L\X0.1504G(2I.2Osec)
0.I

0 — ‘“- - — —
-,- -S —.

0-I

-0. 2 I I I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
. VELOCITY
-22 I I I I I I
E
.I0 -

. I4914Cs(2134)I_
>-

- -Ic
> —.,
I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
I I I
- 2.5 —
I225641 (29.42sec -

o----_-:- .

-.

- I I I
- 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

2

DAMPING
C.)
G) 1.5 —

0 PERCENT
C.) 2 PERCENT
0 5 PERCENT
10 PERCENT

0.5

F ‘— -

.—.

0.5 1 15 2.5 3
Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4.15
 Hyogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05 :46 (Local Time)

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN 0.1HZ SOURCE: JMA
DURATION OF RECORD USED 100 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE: 11/7/95
IHKONE STATION: H1170546.HIK NORTH-SOUTH COMPONENT
LONG: 136,247 LAT: 35,2733
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:46
ACCELERATION
0.2 I 1
Z
1—
M.AX=’0.1399G(21.O4sec)
I
0

0.i -

I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
20 I I I
io —
15.142CM S(20.46see) -

>-
0 — —“-‘ -,- ---,-—,‘,--— -,. , -,,,

> l I
26
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
I I I I
25 - : ,
. I27129CM(2106se1_

— 0 —

2.5

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (.sonds.)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

0.5 I

DAMPING
-

0 PERCENT
2PERCENT
-1 5PERCENT
1OPERCENT
0.2
I..

- 0.1
1
4..
‘

- -- -

--

0
0.5 1 1.5 2.5 3
Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4. 16
 Hogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time)

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION SOURCE: JMA FMIN= 0.1HZ
DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. DATE: 11/7/95FMAX=25HZ
HIKONE STATION: 11h170546.HIK VERTICAL COMPONENT
LONG: 136.247 LAT: 352733
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:46
ACCELERATIOS
005 I I
\1AXO.040IG (22.62sec)
0.025 -
-

0 - :. -..- .—--

O.025 -

I I I
<
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
.. 5 I I
-2.5 —
IAX3157CM S (22.80sec)
>-
0 -

) ,..: -

2.5
I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
I I I I
0.5 - I\x09038 (2628sec)
— —

- -

I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TiME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

0.5 1.5 2.5

Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4.17
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time)

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 0,1HZ SOURCE: IMA
DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX=25H2 DATE: 11/7/95
KOBE STATION: H1170546.KOB EAST-WEST COMPONENT
LONG: 135.180 LAT: 346883
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95, 05:46:27
ACCELERATION
I I I I
I
SIAX’Ai.6321G(8.S6sec)
I
0:
z -_____ -

c)
C.) — I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
1oo I I I
50 -
I’s75.217CMS(832s) J_
0 -. - —,-.-.

I
I I I
—10c
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
E DISPLACEMENT
...
20 I I
I200409CM(852) I
< 20

I I I I I I I I
— 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TLME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

8

DAMPING

0 PERCENT
2 PERCENT
5 PERCENT
4 - IOPERCENT
—

2
A u*\ —.

0.5 1 1.5 2.5 3

Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4.18
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time)

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMTN= 0.1HZ SOURCE: HvIA
DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 11/7/95
KOBE STATION: H1170546.KOB NORTH-SOUTH COMPONENT
LONG: 135.180 LAT: 34.6883
TRIGGER TiME: 17 JAN 95, 05:46:27
ct’ ACCELERATION
1 I
0.5 - MAX=O.8374G(8.64sec)

—1 I I I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
-—

I I I I I I
IJ,
‘—50 .
N1AX9O.8CMS (8Msec)
0
H
L) —- I —
—

[b

I I I I I I I I
-I 00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
40 I I I I I
z jVEX20.8775C’M (8.64sec)
20 —
-

0 — --. ,—,----- --,-—-——--

--

CfD
,( I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TiME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

DAMPING
:2
0 PERCENT
2 PERCENT
C 5 PERCENT
10 PERCENT

C
1
-

4 /
:2

0.5 1 1.5 2 25 3
Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4. 19
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE * KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time)

FILTER (ELLWTIC) CORRECTION FMIN 0.1HZ SOURCE: JMA
DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 11/7195
KOBE STATION: Hi 170546.KOB VERTICAL COMPONENT
LONG: 135.180 LAT: 34.6883
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:27
ACCELERATION
0.5

0.25

0
F
I

34060 (7,S4sec)

-_____
*
0.25- —

I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
5O I
25 —
Ix40 I 39CcI S (8.O6sec) -

— 0 — ,.—————-.-—-—- ——

—Sc I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
20 I I I

I; 10 20 30
I
40
I
50

TIME (seconds)
60 70 80 90 100

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

DAMPING
4— —

0 PERCENT
2 PERCENT
5PERCENT
10 PERCENT

-
- -

11522.5
Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4,20
 Hogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time)

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN 0,1HZ SOURCE: JMA
DURATION OF RECORD USED 100 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE: 11/7/95
MAIZARU STATION: H1170546.MZH EAST-WEST COMPONENT
LONG: 135.320 LAT: 35.3483

TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:40

ACCELERATION
0.1 I I
M.VX’0.O534G (1 8.9sec)

0 —
-

0.O5 —

I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY

>-
-

:. IN! -4790CM S (18.72sec) —

0 * - — —

- ‘
—

I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
2 I I I I
— .
I1889CM(2874e) I
_o-— -—-

I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TTME (seconis)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

0.8

DAMPING
06
0 PERCENT
2 PERCENT
5 PERCENT
0.4 - A 10 PERCENT
—

02

- -

0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4.2 1
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time)
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 01HZ SOURCE: JMA
DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 11/7/95
MAIZARU STATION: Hh170546.MZH NORTH-SOUTH COMPONENT
LONG: 135.320 LAT: 35.4483
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:40
C ACCELERATION
0.1 p I I I I I I
(MAx0,o684G(17.36sec)J
:
-

0
•

-
—

1 I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
10 I I I

IMAX5b09CMS(I7,285) I
c_) ..

D 0 — —. —.-.-

I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
2 I
1 MAX=I.1579CM(19.28sec)

-
I I I I I I
* 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

0.8 I

DAMPING
06
0 PERCENT
2 PERCENT
I 5 PERCENT
04 -
IOPERCENT

02

0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

Period (Seconds)
ESEE - IMPERIAL COLLEGE

A4.22
 Hyogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HY000-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time)
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 0.1HZ SOURCE: JMA
DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE: 11/7/95
MAIZARU STATION: Hh170546.MZH VERTICAL COMPONENT
LONG: 135.320 LAT: 35.4483
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95, 05:46:40
ACCELERATION
0.05 I
I
z I I 1

0.025
N[AX=0.0404G(17.50sec) j

I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
I I I I
S
2.5 IN126071 CMS(3 1. l4sec)
.-.. -
-
—.% —.--.,-.-. —.
t . ...— —. ..-. — —.—-----.---.
— —-. — .-.—-.----. —
—

‘1

> I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
0
S DISPLACEMENT
2
I I I I I
z -
.
I\t\16594(3012s) I
0 .-.—— —---

L)
—,-.- — —--—

I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

0.5

DAMPING
0.4

0 PERCENT
0.3
2 PERCENT
C 5 PERCENT
10 PERCENT
0.2

0.1
§
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Period (Seconds)
ESEE - INWERIAL COLLEGE

A4. 23
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17Th. 1995 05:46 (Local Time)
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN 0.1HZ SOURCE: JMA
DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE: 11/7/95
OKAYAMA STATION: H1170546.OKA EAST-WEST COMPONENT
LONG: 133.918 LAT: 34.6583
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05 :46:40
ACCELERATION
0.1
I I I
MAX=0.06040(21.38sec)
0.05

0 ii 4 —.——— -

-
-

I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
I I I I
NIAX3.735CM S (21.O0sec) —

,:
0 — x
—-,-

I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
L
I I I I I I I
- ,. . )5o5 1CM (26.82sec) —

- .
.
- ..- —
. . —

I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
I .L..iL ..

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

0.8

DAMPING
0.6 -
0 PERCENT
2 PERCENT
5PERCENT
04 - )__
I 1OPERCENT

02 — ..

C)

C)
C) , . .

0.5 1 25
Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4.24
 Hyogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time)
FiLTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 01HZ SOURCE: JMA
DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 11/7/95
OKAYAMA STATION: H1170546.OKA NORTH-SOUTH COMPONENT
LONG: 133.918 LAT: 346583
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05 :46:30
S1 ACCELERATION
0,1 I
MAX0.0792O(I9.92sec)
0.05

. .••
0
—

0.05 -

U
I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY

19 c)
0 —‘

>
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
EC) DISPLACEMENT
2 I I
1 MAX 16750CM (2894sec) —

C/) I I ‘ I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TilviE (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

1.5
II 1
ct
DAMPING
C)
C)
0 PERCENT
C) 2 PERCENT
5 PERCENT
10 PERCENT

C 0.5 —

C)
C)
C)
C)

0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4.25
 ________
_____

Hyogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-EU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE. JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time)
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 0.1HZ SOURCE: JMA
DURATION OF RECORD USED 100 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE: 11/7/95
OKAYAMA STATION: H1170546.OKA VERTICAL COMPONENT
LONG: 133.918 LAT: 34.6583
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:36:40
ACCELERATION
0.05
1 .1
MAXO.0368G (20.46sec)
0.025 —

I L
0 —-
.—_ —

.025- L
c.) -

I I I I
(1 10 20 30 30 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
5
I I I I
2.5 jNIANT2.297CM S (26.76sec) —

>-
0 -——
—

—; I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
I
I

IMAXI4423CN1 (28.30sec)
L 0 .. ‘. \Z

I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME iseconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

0.6
I I

DAMPING

0 PERCENT
0.4
-
2 PERCENT
5 PERCENT
10 PERCENT

Period (Seconds)
ESEE - IMPERIAL COLLEGE

A4.26
 Hyogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17Th, 1995 05:46 (Local Time)

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN 0.1HZ SOURCE: JMA
DURATION OF RECORD USED = 10() SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE: 11/7/95
OSAKA STATION: 111170546.OSA EAST-WEST COMPONENT
LONG: 135.522 LAT: 34.6783
TRIGGER TIME: 17JAN95. 05:46:31
ACCELERATION
0.1 I I I I I
V 1...X0.0671G (14.l4sec)
005
— 4 . . —

0 I — ——. —

V. -.

0.05 - -

U
I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

TIME (seconds)
VEI,OCITY

I I I I I I I
10 IMAX13.782CMS(1454sec)I_
>- V

2C
I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
I . I I I I I
—

FiN8.3127CM(15.36sec)

/
— V.V.. .
V.,.V:
V —

I I I I I I I I
1G
— 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1Th4 (s3C0P/(L

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

0.8 I

DAMPING
06
- 0 PERCENT
2 PERCENT
5 PERCENT
04 - 10 PERCENT

02 -

- --- -z —
z:;-z
I I
0
:.
Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4.27
 Hvogo-Ken NanBu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time)
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMThJ 0. 1HZ SOURCE: JMA
DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 11/7/95
OSA STATION: Hh170546.OSA NORTH-SOUTH COMPONENT
LONG: 135522 LAT: 346783
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:31
ACCELERATION
0.1 I I

0O5 -
l00828G (15O2sec) j
•

0 I -

-0.05 -

-)
:__i I I I I I
< 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
20 I I

10 7IICMS(15 34s]
>-
0

10
> I I I I I
Lu
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
C)

IMAS.8354CM (1226)

I I I I
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
T.I1:...E (sec..o.nd:

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

DAMPING
C)
C)
0 PERCENT
C) 2 PERCENT
0 5 PERCENT
0.5
C) 10 PERCENT

C)
C)
C)
C) -—---—.:-
- ..-

0
0.5 1 1.5 2.5
Period (Seconds)
ESEE - IMPERIAL COLLEGE

A428
 _____________
___

Hyogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time)
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMTN 0.1HZ SOURCE: JMA
DURATION OF RECORD USED 100 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE: 11/7/95
OSA STATION: H1170546.OSA VERTICAL COMPONENT
LONG: 135.522 LAT: 33.6783
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95, 05:46:31
ACCELERATION
0.1
I I
0.05 -
\L4X—0.0660G(12.90sec)
I —

/
0 k 1øl — — - - —S —

c.o I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
10 I I I I I
5
a - .,,
7.225C\t S (24.52sec)
>-

—5

I I I I I I
1G
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
- I I I I
2.3353CM (24,O6sec) -

0 .. -
f.

- I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPOiSE SPECTRA

1.5

. 0.5

0.5 1.5 2 2.5

Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4.29
 ____________

Hyogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time)
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 0.1HZ SOURCE: JMA
DURATION OF RECORD USED 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 11/7/95
TOTTORI STATION: H1170546.TOT EAST-WEST COMPONENT
LONG: 134.240 LAT: 35,4850
TRIGGER TIME: 17JAN95, 05:46:43
ACCELERATION
I I I I
MAXO.07560 (26.76sec)
0.05 —

0 /
—
1,
-o.05

—V. I I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY

I I I I
-
jx9881C1s(290e)J_

0 ::
•.

•*:‘

—10 I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
,. 5
I I
25 -‘
1M=313 11CM (30.32sec) J —

0 ‘—- :;•‘,‘- ‘/

25 . .
-

I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (scconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

1.5

DAMPING

0 PERCENT
1
2 PERCENT
5 PERCENT
10 PERCENT

0
11.5 2 3
Period (Seconds)

ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE

-

A4.30
 ______________

Hogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time)
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN 0.1HZ SOURCE: JMA
DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE: 11/7/95
TOTTORI STATION: H1170546.TOT NORTH-SOUTH COMPONENT
LONG: 134.240 LAT: 35.4850
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:43
0 ACCELERATION
01 I I
(!Ax=o.o785G(28.44secJ
0.05 —
—

:1II,
— I
0 —

0.05 —

1 I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
20
I I.
10.390CM S(28.62sec)I
>667 - . :.

2
0-6.667
—4

I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
I I I I I I I
2.5
-
X2.7823CM (30.46sec) -

0 --- . . . ,.—--

,— 5 I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME sceond

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

1.5
I
DAMPING

0 PERCENT
1
2PERCENT
5PERCENT
10 PERCENT

.;
0
: :H -

I
0.5 1 1.5 2.5 3
Period (Seconds)

ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE

-

A4.31
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time)
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN 0.1HZ SOURCE: JMA
DURATION OF RECORD USED 100 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE: 11/7/95
TOTTORI STATION: Hh170546.TOT VERTICAL COMPONENT
LONG: 134,240 LAT: 35.4850
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95, 05:46:43
ACCELERATION
0.02 I I I I I
MAX0.015G(26.76sec)
0,01 — j -

0 ‘
-

V - , ,

-0.01- -

I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY

I I , I , I I

- __/ ---

—
I I I I I
= 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
I I I I I I I
—
,
I1Ax085921 (33.58sec) -

0 ---—----“- .:

I I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

0.3 I I

DAMPING
-H
HI
0 PERCENT
I 2 PERCENT
H- 5 PERCENT
1OPERCENT
—

Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4. 32
 H’vogo-Ken Nan-Eu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMHJ= 0.1HZ SOURCE:CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 22/7/95

TADAOKA STATION TDOI 1705.461 NORTH-SOUTH COMPONENT
LONG: 135.408 LAT: 34.480
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:29.79
ACCELERATION
0.5 I I
jMAX0.29242G (37.9lsec)
0.25

.25
U
I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY

I I I
1N1A24154C 4235s)j
20

c: .

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
— 10 I I I I I I I
:. —

—
MAX-7.61 830CM (88. l9sec)

— 0- —- —

-1c
I I I
— 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

6 I

DAMPING

0 PERCENT
2 PERCENT
5 PERCENT
10 PERCENT

07

c) 1- —
c)
< 11 -—— /

0.5 1 1.5 2.5

Period (Seconds)
ESEE - IMPERIAL COLLEGE

A4. 33
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17Th. 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 0.1HZ SOURCE:CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 22/7/95

TADAOKA STATION TDO117OS.461 EAST-WEST COMPONENT
LONG: 135,408 LAT: 34,480
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:29,79
ACCELERATION
I I I I I
z
00.1 -
(M0I923b0(4176se
I
:
—

0.1
U I I I I
0.2
‘“ 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TUvIE (seconds)
VELOCITY
2’ I I I

14.774CM S(48,I0sec)
,.10 - MA j . .. —

0 1 L I 11 / 2

-10 . ,. -

>,ki I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
,,
10 I I I I I
\=8.2556CM (48.77sec) . —
. —

)
0
.
: I’’
< I. II) I —

—,,. I I I I I I I
10 20 30 30 50 60 70 10 90 100
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

5

DAMPING
4

0 PERCENT
3
2 PERCENT
0 5 PERCENT
10 PERCENT

0.5 1 1.5 2.5

Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4. 34
 Hyogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 0.1HZ SOURCE:CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE: 22/7/95

SAKAI STATION SKII 1705.461 VERTICAL COMPONENT
LONG: 135.469 [.AT 34 564
TRIGGER TIME 17 JAN 95, 05:46:30,37
ACCELERATION
0.1 I I
I\i.\\
—L
‘01 IG (39

:“ “•“ ‘‘ S ‘‘

I I ‘I
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
‘7’ 10 I I
U
— I 6.643CMS (48.28see) -

I
0 ( F L. F I F F F F F

-5- -

> I I I
—it,
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
S I I I I
, 2.5 —
5
J1 X3.0902CM (53.3 7sec) —

- L
2.5

— I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

8
U

I
0

0.5

0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4. 35
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 0,1HZ SOURCE:CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 22/7/95

SAXAI STATION SK111705.461 NORTH-SOUTH COMPONENT
LONG: 135.369 LAT: 34.564
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:30,37
ACCELERATION

- [MAX0. 151 02G (39.95sec)

0.1

- V
S

0.1
L)
I I I I I I I
-0. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
r LV
.-

io - MAX1 5.766CMS4.40sec)
-, , . -

> :-‘

:: .

,
-.. —

2(, I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
‘
DISPLACEMENT
,20
I
—

!
:_)
o
‘.
r/.
: ,
:‘

‘
f
10- . -

. .—,( I I I
— 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIIvIE (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

Period (Seconds)
ESEE - IMPERIAL COLLEGE

A4.36
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 0.1HZ SOURCE:CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 22/7/95

SAKAI STATION SK111705.461 EAST-WEST COMPONENT
LONG: 135.469 LAT: 34.564
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95, 05:46:30.37
ACCELERATION
\-
“‘0.2
Z 1MA0. I 24240 (40.62sec)
C o.i — —

o 4b.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY

io _XI5.869CMS(50.41sec)j .

0 — —‘‘

> 20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACE
,_ 10 I I I I
I172873CM(5160c) —

1’ ‘
,.,
I
— 0 —‘-————‘‘ -, ‘

V .f —

-4

1G
I I I
0 10 20 3•0 40 90 .90 50 90 .200
TTh1E (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

Period (Seconds)

ESEE IMPERJAL COLLEGE

-

A4. 37
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE KOBE. JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 0.1HZ SOURCE: CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 22/7/95

MORIGAWACHI STATION MRG117O5.461 VERTICAL COMPONENT
LONG: 135.572 LAT: 34.680
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:32,02
ACCELERATION
0.2
‘ t I I I I I I
jMA.\0.15622G( i1s
0.1
I
0 - :•l i’
— -C-...-- ‘

(-3
I I I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
10 I I I I I I
()
— IN 6 01 591 S(3780)
,
. , —

0 — —‘———-——-
—

..-5— .. . —

> ..,, I I I I
0 10 20 30 30 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
.—
I I I I I
25 - I25634C5174) .

0 . .
-

2.5

—5
I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 50 90 100
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

DAMPING
0
0 PERCENT
0 2 PERCENT
C 5 PERCENT
C
10 PERCENT

01

0
0

*
0
0.5 1 1.5 2.5 3
Period (Seconds)
ESEE - IMPERIAL COLLEGE

A4. 38
 Hvogo-Ken NanBu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 0.1HZ SOURCE:CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 22/7/95

MORIGAWACIH STATION MRG117O5.461 NORTH-SOUTH COMPONENT
LONG: 135.572 LAT: 34.680
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95, 05:46:32.02
ACCELERATION
0.2 I I

0
NL\)O.2 13870 (40.86sec)
J
IIi •: •

I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY

: 5° I I I I I
‘\1\X 27 827C\I S(3923ei

25 ,,. ..

>_50 I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TTvIL ( seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
C) 10 I.
\1..’\—I0 1864C’\1(4599sec)j
0———- i
/
10

CID I I I I I

TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

DAMPING
1
C)
C)
0 PERCENT
2
C) 2 PERCENT
0 5 PERCENT
C)
1OPERCENT

C)

0 1
0.5 1 1.5 2.5
Period (Seconds)
ESEE iMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4. 39
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMTN= 0.1HZ SOURCE: CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED

100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 22/7/95=

MORIGAWACHI STATION MRG117O5.461 EAST-WEST COMPONENT

LONG: 135.572 LAT: 34.680
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95, 05:46:32,02
S ACCELERATION

I I I I
12525G (39 S4sec)

0 •. -

- ,.

I I I I I I
0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY

/-
,,
,—

C) — VEX=23.38ICM S(39.7Osec)I
>20

-
c-)
S 5,
5.

S 5 .5

>_20 ‘I

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
C) 10
1 I I
NIAN=8.8935CNI (39.99sec)
z -
—

0 .-

—11 I I I I
0 0 2.0 ..•0 .0 50 60 70 60 90 100
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

C)
C)

C)

C)

C)

0.5 1.5
Period (Seconds)
ESEE- IMPERIAL COLLEGE

A4.40
 Hyogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-EU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time> VELOCITY RECORD

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 01HZ SOURCE: CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE: 22/7/95

KOBE (B) STATION K0B11705.461 VERTICAL COMPONENT
LONG: 135,281 LAT: 34.725
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95, 05:46:27,78
,-
ACCELERATION
c;
0.5 I I
0.369280(3 96 )
25

0.25 -

I I
.;; U.—,
‘ 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
‘ 50
I
25 — I ‘355O5CMS(35.28sec)
I
25
I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
E
20 I I I I
10 -,
A.X=19 2882CM (36 95sec)
} —

0
U
10
CID I I I I I I I
‘-S

TiME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

Period (Seconds)
ESEE - IMPERIAL COLLEGE

A4.4 I
 H ogo Ken Nan-Eu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN 0.1HZ SOURCE:CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 22/7/95

KOBE (B) STATION KOBI17OS.461 NORTH-SOUTH COMPONENT
LONG: 135.281 LAT: 34.725
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95, 05:46:27.78
ACCELERATION
I 0,5 I I I
00.25
IN1 0.417]4G(35.O3sec)
I
—
‘
0

025
___________
I ___________
I I I I __
c_)._o,
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
4 VELOCITY

I I I I I I I
:5 \I\4I206CM

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
20 I I I I
.

10
— JNLY’S. 174703C\I(38.O3sec)
I —

0 - ——————-———.. -.•, —-—-

c_)
10- -

I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

3
I I

DAMPING

0 PERCENT
2
2 PERCENT
5 PERCENT
10 PERCENT

I
I .- .-

.
ç’!.

I •r

1
__-I

Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4.42
 Hyogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMJN= 0.1HZ SOURCE:CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE: 22/7/95

KOBE (B) STATION KOBI17O5.461 EAST-WEST COMPONENT
LONG: 135,281 LAT: 34,725
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95, 05:46:27.78
1
c:’ ACCELERATION
I I 1, I I I
z
fl
jiAN=0.77706G (35.57sec) —

‘-‘ 0.5

0. 5

1 — I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
I I 1 I I
U. - [MA.x54.256CM SC7.96sec.j

0 “‘‘

—‘‘ I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
E DISPLACEMENT
50 I
,,

I I I I I I I I
25
— MAX24.5672CM(37.13sec)
I

I I I I I I I
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIIVIE (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

C)
C)
z
g

C)

C)

0.5 1.5 2.5

Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4.43
 Hyogo-Ken Nan-Eu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 0.1HZ SOURCE:CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 22/7/95

KOBE UNIVERSITY 5Th KBU117O5.461 VERTICAL COMPONENT
LONG: 135.240 LAT: 34,725
TRIGGER TIME: 17JAN95, 05:46:28.68
ACCELERATION
0
0.5 I I
z00,25 — lMA>04309b0 (34.46sec) —

—
0.25
0)
I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
‘;:;‘ 20
I I I I I I I I
[Si N 19.704C\i S(32.94sec)l -

- 1c
I I I I I I
‘-Lu
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
E
MAXI 1.2557CM (32.64sec)
10-

0 /1
iD I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TII4E (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

1)

I 0.5 1.5
Period (Seconds)
2 2.5

ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE

-

A4.44
 Hyogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 0.1112 SOURCE: CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 22/7/95

KOBE UNIVERSITY STh KBU1 1705.461 NORTH-SOUTH COMPONENT
LONG: 135.240 LAT: 34.725
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95, 05 :46:28.68
ACCELERATION
0.5
- [MAXO.27555G (35.56sec)
O,25
—

O,25
I I I I I I I I
-U
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIIvW (seconds)
VELOCITY

: 50 I I I I
j55396C\IS(35.82sec)j
,

50

>_IOG I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
20
I
MAX-I 5.0629CM (32.96sec)
10 —

....,1 I I I I I I

TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

2 I I I

DAMPING
1.5
0 PERCENT
2 PERCENT
5 PERCENT
10 PERCENT

O.5

0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4. 45
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-RU EARTHQUAKE KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FM’IN= 0,1HZ SOURCE: CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE: 22/7/95

KOBE UNIVERSITY STh KBU117O5.461 EAST-WEST COMPONENT
LONG: 135,240 LAT: 34,725
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:28.68
ACCELERATION
I I
0.25
I X=030724G(35.01sec)
I —

25 -

U
I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1(X)

TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
50 I I I I
25 - X3I .689CM’S(32.82sec)j

0 — -—
J_

25
> I I I I I
—- 51)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
10 I I I I
z — . —

0 —---— -—— —-—---

—— I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

0.5 1 1.5 2.5

Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4.46
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HY000-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD

FILTER (EU IPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN 01HZ SOURCE:CEORKA

OUR TlON OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 2217/95

FUKUSHIMA STATION FKS117O5.461 VERTICAL COMPONENT
LONG 135 474 LAT: 34687

TRIGGER TIME. 17 JAN 95. 05 46 069

ACCELERATION
— 0 2 I I I I
Z
I —
IM \N 0 I55U 3 82’.

0 10 20 30 4u 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds
VELOCITY
10

-
M(9462)(M Sc c 94 —

d. -

I I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 4c 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
I I I I
* MAX4.560KM 59 25sc) -

25
-

- I I I I I I
— Ifl cii (ii 7i i(i (cii liii

ElM! (ccconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

DAMPING

0 PERCENT
2PERCENT
5 PERCENT
10 PERCENT

i.jv’c

0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL
- COLLEGE

A447
 Hyogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HY000-KEN NAN-EU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 0.1HZ SOURCE:CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 22/7/95

FUKUSHIMA STATION FKSI17O5.461 NORTH-SOUTH COMPONENT
LONG: 135474 LAT: 34687

TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95, 05:46:3069

ACCELERATION
‘-I

0.2 I
Z
p0.1 -
I018314G(3897) I -

o1 - -

c-)
0
r__) I I I I I
<0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIIvIE (seconds)
VELOCITY

I I
°
25 IMS 31 710CM S(1723sec)I -

>.
0
LI
25
I I I I
Sc
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
‘ DISPLACEMENT
20 I

*
10 — I1x149601CM(3694c) I —

/
0
D —
< —
—

—
I I I I I
* 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

C)
C)

C)

I 0.5 1 1.5
Period (Seconds)
3

ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE

-

A4.48
 Hyogo-Ken NanBu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 01HZ SOURCE:CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE: 22/7/95

FUKUSHIMA STATION FKS117O5.461 EAST-WEST COMPONENT
LONG: 135.474 LAT: 34.687
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95, 05:46:30,69
ACCELERATION
0.4 I I I I I
MAX0.2140G (38.58sec) j
p0.2

I-) I I I I
I I
—U,
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
‘‘ 50 I I I I
25 j\L\—3I 395C\S(40.42
>
0

25
>5(, I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
I I I I I

TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

‘.1

0.5 I 1.5 2 2.5

Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4.49
 Hyogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 0.1HZ SOIJRCE:CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE: 22/7/95

CHIHAYA STATION C11Y11705.461 VERTICAL COMPONENT
LONG: 135.659 LAT: 34.439
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:32.64
ACCELERATION
(:2
I I
Z
0.05
IM0067380 (40.77sec)
-__________
J

I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY

I I I
(4179sec)
- IA2401CMs j —

f V\
U
‘-S

2.5
— I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT

1-
0.5
\IY\0 87694(M(49 96see)I

L5 V

- I I

TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

Period (Seconds)

ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE

-

A4. 50
 Hyogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMTN= 0.1HZ SOURCE :CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 22/7/95

CHIHAYA STATION CHY117O5,461 NORTH-SOUTH COMPONENT
LONG: 135,659 LAT: 34,439
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95, 05:46:32,64
ACCELERATION
0.1 I I I I
z —
IMAX 0090520(43 74 I
p0.05 -

+0.05
U
I I I I I I I
0.1
- 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY

I I I
U [MAX5.3062CM S(43.67sec)

> I I l I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
E
U 2 I
z 1 I\1AX I 2543CM(39.20s c)
J —

I I I I

TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

0.5 1.5 2 2.5

Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4. 51
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 01HZ SOURCE: CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX=251-IZ DATE: 22/7/95

CHIHAYA STATION CHY117O5.461 EAST-WEST COMPONENT
LONG: 135.659 LAT: 34.439
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:32.64
ACCELERATION
0.2 I I I I I I
—
10866G(41.29sec)
01

-
0

U
I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
I
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY

I I I I I I
-2 5 - jNIAN4.23RCM S (4L32sec) —

0 —
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2.5
> I I I I
—5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

TIME ( seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
I I I I
0.5 -.

0 — —

— I I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 50 90 100
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

1.5

DAMPING
C)
C)
0 PERCENT
1
C) 2 PERCENT
0 5 PERCENT
C)
10 PERCENT

, 0.5

C)
C)
C)
C)

0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4. 52
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMJN= 0.1HZ SOURCE: CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE: 22/7/95

AMAGASAKI STATION AMA117OS.461 VERTICAL COMPONENT
LONG: 135408 LAT: 34.718
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05 :46:29.85
‘.1
ACCELERATR)N
I I I
031374G(3603s
25

,
1i

c)
() ._o)
<
.

0
-__________

10 20
I
30 40 50
I
60 70
I
80 90
I
100
TiME (seconds)
VELOCITY
50 i I
2- 25 —
L33027709CN1 S(35.94sec)I

0 — -

25 -

>5b I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
2. 10 I I I
_I 71849CM(36.35sec)
I —

— 0 -
—.

=
/
— ——

1G I I I I
.o to 10 30 40 30 30 SO 90 500
TI14E (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

I 0.5 1 1.5
Period (Seconds)
2 2.5

ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE

-

A4. 53
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMTN= 0.1HZ SOURCE: CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 22/7/95

AMAGASAKI STATION AMA117O5.461 NORTH-SOUTH COMPONENT
LONG: 135.408 LAT: 34,718
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:29.85
ACCELERATION
0.5
z j027374G (36.30sec)
Do.25

25
I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1(X)
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
50
I I
25 -
MAX33.5I5CMrS(36.06sec)
J . -.
—

0 ——-—---------—,

— -,- --

25

——ci I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
C)
I I I
M.YX25.9733CM (36.29sec)
z 25 -
—

0 ------------—------ —-
—---------—-------.-

---—--—

25

—-—cg I I I
‘-S
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

I I I I

DAMPING

0 PERCENT
2
z 2 PERCENT
C 5 PERCENT
z 10 PERCENT

C)
C)
C)
C)

0
0.5 1 1.5 2.5
Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4i4
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 01HZ SOURCE: CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED 100 SEC. FMAX’’25HZ DATE: 22/7/95

AMAGASAKI STATION AMA117O5A61 EAST-WEST COMPONENT
LONG: 135,408 LAT: 34.718
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95, 05:46:29,85
ç: ACCELERATION
0.5 I
t I I I
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0.25 — : ,
—

0 - ---

0.25 -
—

I I I I I I
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0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

TIME seconds)
VELOCITY
‘;;: 50

25 - MAX45149C\tS(38 14sec)1 I - I
>

. 25

I I I I
it?
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
I I I I I I
25 -
I A27.6737CM (39.I5se) —

:2 .

— 0 -- - - - - - —
-

-
—

— I I I I
— 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

C)
C)

C)

C)
C)
C)
C)

0.5 1.5 2 2.5

Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4. 55
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN 0,1HZ SOURCE:CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED 100 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE: 22/7/95

ABENO STATION: ABN1I7O5.461 VERTICAL COMPONENT
LONG: 135.5 19 LAT: 34.636
TRIGGER TiME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:31.10
ACCELERATION

fNiA.x 0.109080 (35.46sec)

0,1 -

2 1 I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
10 I I I
-
S (79.24sJ , . —

>-
_ 0 ———--—-—-‘——-—————

..‘

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
T1IIL (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
I I I I I I
- 1\1\261365CN1 (71.32sec)

I I
0 10 70 30 40
Tll’1E (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

DAMPING

-
0 PERCENT
2
2 PERCENT
5 PERCENT
10 PERCENT

. 1

0
11.5
Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4. 56
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 0.1HZ SOURCE: CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE: 22/7/95

ABENO STATION: ABN117O5.461 NORTH-SOUTH COMPONENT
LONG: 135.5 19 LAT: 34.636
TRIGGER TIME: 17JAN95: 05:46:31l()
ACCELERATION
0.2
z I MAX=0.21523G(4O10sec I — -

-.--

0.2

u-o I I I I I
< *0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
40
I I I I I I

20
[ST\.x-2I.278CM S(0Sssec)I —

—1
0— —
—---—--—.
I

20 I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
10 I I I
(39.58sJ
S —

0 —— — —

I -
C)

—It I I l I I
10 20 30 30 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

DAMPING

0 PERCENT
2 PERCENT
5 PERCENT
10 PERCENT

0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Period (Seconds)
ESEE - IMPERIAL COLLEGE

A4. 57
 Hyogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD

FILTER (ELLWIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 0.1HZ SOURCE: CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX=25H2 DATE: 22/7/95

ADENO STATION: AEN117O5.461 EAST-WEST COMPONENT
LONG: 135,519 LAT: 34.636
TRIGGER TIME: 17JAN95, 05:46:31.10
5’ ACCELERATION
0.4 I I I
IM022437G (39.27sec)
*

0 —

I I I
o io 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
40 I I I
c) - X=23.l27CMIS(3989se
20
1-

Co

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
10
._

I
A.X=7.4032CM (5696sec)
-

j -
— —

0 —--‘---—-
—

10 I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

CD
I.

0
C)

0.5 1.5
Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4.58
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN’ 01HZ SOURCE: CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED = 10() SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 22/7/95

TADAOKA STATION TD011705.461 VERTICAL COMPONENT
LONG: 135.408 LAT: 34.480
TRIGGER TIME: 17JAN95. 05:46:29.79
ACCELERATION
I I I I I
jMAXO,12592G(36,SIsec)
o.1 - I
6

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10(1
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
in
I I I I I
S JMAX=5.875CN11S (53,l4sec)
>-
0

10 I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
I
[MAX2.6531CN1(53.68sec)
2.5
—

I
. . . .
.-. —.. i

.1 ...._-.-.
I. I I I I
10 20 30 30 50 60 70 50 90 100
TIrvIE. (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

DAMPING

O PERCENT
2 PERCENT
5 PERCENT
10 PERCENT

c)

0.5 1.5 2 2.5

Period (Seconds>
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4. 59
 Hogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FM1N= 0.1HZ SOURCE:CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 22/7/95

YAE STATION YAE117O5.461 EAST-WEST COMPONENT
LONG: 135.612 LAT: 34.680
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:32,59
ACCELERATION

Ix=.1474o(3.67s
-

0 /

r ‘

I I I I
0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
40 I
,. “2O.861CM S(50.l7sec)
>20

9 0 — ———‘ -————,--,-- ,/ .

I I I’ ‘ ‘I’ I ‘ I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
,, 10 I I
7I14C\I(50 S3sec)
j —

_)
< —
L.’ i ; 1 —

2
‘S

I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50

TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

DAMPING
15
0 PERCENT
2PERCENT
I 5PERCENT
1OPERCENT
I -

05 — —

I — -, -- —-

,—.

Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4. 60
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 0.1HZ SOURCE: CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE: 22/7/95

YAE STATION YAE1 1705.461 NORTH-SOUTH COMPONENT
LONG: 135612 LAT: 34.680
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:32.59
(:2 ACCELERATION
I I I
01
-
I 0.15793G(37.96sec>
I
0 —-———————-------
—
-—-—————-

,.

I I I
—--o I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VElOCITY
° I I I
25 21602CM S S5sec -

25 .
-

5C I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
C) 10 I
:
z - \lAX.8 31 0C I (76 440sec -

0 -. . - . .

: —

00 —11 I I
- 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

2.5

DAMPING
2
-

00 0 PERCENT
15 2 PERCENT -

5 PERCENT
10 PERCENT
1
= ..—

Q 05_ —- — — —
—

C)
z-: •—

0
0.5 1.5 2.5
Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4. 61
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time) VELOCITY RECORD

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 01HZ SOURCE:CEORKA

DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 22/7/95

YAE STATION YAE117O5.461 VERTICAL COMPONENT
LONG: 135,612 LAT: 34.68()
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:32.59
ACCELERATION
I I
z - [L.X=0.0424G (35.S8sec)
0.1

-.

I I I I I I I
-.0. 0 10 20 30 30 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
j io I I I

“I’ ‘ ‘ ‘I’ - -

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
I I I I
H — j\1..Xss1.4794CNl (32.3Osec)
2.5 —

2.5

I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 30 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

I I

DAMPING

0 PERCENT
z 2 PERCENT
5 PERCENT
10 PERCENT

51

‘5—

$
0.5 1 1.5 2.5
Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4.62
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HY000-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time)
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FNflN OJHZ SOURCE: PHRI
DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 03/8/95
AMAGASAKI -G STATION NO6W COMPONENT
LONG: N/A LAT: N/A
TRIGGER TiME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46
ACCELERATION
0.5 I I I I I
Z 031520 (477Osec)
325 —
r—
0 . —

O25 —
—

L)
I I I I I
O5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY

I I I I
50 -
fMAx=9640ICM S(3395sec) -

>-
—- — -
—

,— 50
> I I
100 I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
,
DISPLACEMENT
300 I I I I
, 50 —
I7695l1(4780s]_
— -
L) -

50- -:

—
,,-‘, I I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

DAMPING

0 PERCENT
2
2 PERCENT
0 5 PERCENT
10 PERCENT

0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Period (Seconds)
- IMPERIAL COLLEGE

A4.63
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time)

FThTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 0.1HZ SOURCE: PHRI
DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 03/8/95
AMAGASAKI-G STATION EO6N COMPONENT
LONG: N/A LAT: N/A
TRIGGER TJME: 17 JAN 95, 05:46
ACCELERATION
0. 5 I I I I I I
, MAXO5O47G(3682sec)
0
‘‘ - -

—I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY

I I I I I

,100 —
INx 19,23CMS(3639sec)
IO _,
-/_
______7 — - ----

-100
> I I I I I I
200
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
lIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
100 I I
fIAx81.2585CM(37.oTj
50

- —--

— 50
I I I I I I
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Penod (Seconds)
ESEE - IMPERIAL COLLEGE

A4.64
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Eu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time)
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMTh 0,1HZ SOURCE: PHRI
DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE: 03/8/95
AMAGASAKI-G STATION VERTICAL COMPONENT
LONG: N/A LAT: N/A
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46
ACCELERATION
I
z
—

/iix=o372G(327secj

0.25
I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY

I I I
C) [MAX50.95 1CM/S(326Isee) —

>- 50

U ,
:
0 — — — N

> I I I I I
50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
50 I I I
H
z 25
—
NIAX26.5926CM(75.37sec)

0 —
— / — - —

U
25
I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

4

DAMPING
o
C) -

0 PERCENT
2 PERCENT
0 5 PERCENT
10 PERCENT

C)
C)
0
C)

0
0.5 1.5 2i 3
Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERiAL COLLEGE
-

A4.65
 ________

Hyogo-Xen Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time)
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN 0.1HZ SOURCE: PHRI
DURATION OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 03/8/95
KOBE NUMBER 8-G STATION N43W COMPONENT
LONG: N/A LAT: N/A
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46
ACCELERATION
I I I I
jMAX06996G (33.62sec)
0.5 —

0 —
:/ )j:
—
I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCiTY

I I I
50 .

i35182C\1fS1l4sec)I_
>-.
0 —
•-.-

L)
‘250

I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
.500 I I I I I I I I
MAX23 1.356CM (30.O3sec)
250 —
-—__.--——
—-....:
I -
-

250
I I I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

6

DAMPING - -

-
0 PERCENT -

2PERCENT -
/ 5PER?ENT
-
/ --—..
—_ lLLPERCENT
I -
-
-

2 - - - -

0.5 1 1.5 2 25
Period (Seconds)
ESEE - IMPERIAL COLLEGE

A4,66
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HY000-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time)
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTiON SOURCE: PHRI
FMFN= 0.1HZ
DURATJON OF RECORD USED = 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZDATE: 03/8/95
KOBE NUMBER 8-G STATiON E43N COMPONENT
LONG: N/A LAT: N/A
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46
ACCELERATION
0.5
z [=0.4004G (37,O4sec)
,25
S
— —.

• 5

O.25

I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TiME (seconds)
VELOCITY
200 I I I
.-I00 -
jMAN-124.3ICM S(32.9osec)J_
?-
— -S.—.-.—— —

;2100
> I I I I I I
206
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
.,100 I I I I I
-
AX70.617CM(40.63sec)
1
50 ..

I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

C
C

1 1

_-
___

ZzZZ

0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

Period (Seconds)

ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE

-

A4. 67
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time)
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 0.1HZ SOURCE: PHRI
DURATION OF RECORD USED 100 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 03/8/95
KOBE NUMBER 8-G STATION VERTICAL COMPONENT
LONG: N/A LAT: N/A
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95, 05:46
F

ACCELERATION
05
I I
z I
i25 MAX—0.3467G(3370sec)
L
;I
I ‘‘: •. - — —
- -‘‘:

025
1)
I I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
100 I I
50 - l166647c (34. I3sec)j
—-
—
-
--

50
> I
100 I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
I I I I
25 I433265cM (34,73sec) —

L)

00 I I
I.-’
I I
— 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

4

DAMPING
0
C)
00
-
OPERCENT
2PERCENT
0
0
5PERCENT
2
IOPERCENT
C)
I ‘

I- --
C) —

C)
C)
C)

I I
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4. 68
 Hyogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HOGO KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time)

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMThJ’’ 0.1HZ SOURCE: PHRI
DURATION OF RECORD USED = 50 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 03/8/95
KOBE JI-S STATION N43W COMPONENT
LONG: N/A LAT: N/A
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46
ACCELERATION
___0. 5 I I I I I
z -. :. LX0.52I8G(10.56sec)
0 .:-,

0.5
C-)
C) ..—1 I I I I
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
TIME (seconds’)
VELOCITY
20o I I I I I
;...
00 MAXI 90.32CM S( 0.74sec)
—
-

>-

—100 -

> I I I I I I
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
.200 I I I I I I
100 IX—I25933CM(10.26sec)

100
I I I I I I I I I
— 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

c 2.5

lD 2

1.5

. 1
I

30.5

0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4.69
 Hyogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time)
FILThR (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN= 0.1HZ SOURCE: PHRI
DURATION OF RECORD USED 50 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATh: 03/8/95
KOBE JI-S STATION E43N COMPONENT
LONG: N/A LAT: N/A
TRiGGER TIME: 17JAN95. 05:46
ACCELERATION
0.5 I I I I
MAX=0,23340 (I0.24sec) -
.25 -

0.25 -

I I I I I
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
::io0 I
so —

I68735Cs(b064)I_

[ loti
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
., 50 I I I I
r
IMAX49.8355CM (12.O4sec)
25 — ..
A -.... L —

! ..; ‘..,..
— / —

25 -

531)
.—. I I I
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
TIME (scconds’

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

1,5

‘1
DAMPING

PERCENT
2 PERCENT
5
0 PERCENT
10 PERCE).J

0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4.70
 Hyogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time)
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN 0. 1HZ SOURCE: PNRI
DURATION OF RECORD USED = 50 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE: 03/8/95
KOBE JI-S STATION VERTICAL COMPONENT
LONG: N/A LAT: N/A
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95, 05:46
‘—, ACCELERATION
0.5
Z ‘I
\I\ ‘4570G(1262sec)
).25 — I

:
.

0.25
0 —

—
. : -,

.
•:-. — .-,.—.

—
L)
—0 5 I
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
I I I I I
-5o -
I1A705241 S(14.24sec)_
i
—
.
/ —.

- 5C
> I I I
I04. I
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
50 I I
H
25
— [390839CM (13.34sec)

U
\f/•
25
C

— 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

15

DAMPING

0 PERCENT
10
2 PERCENT
5 PERCENT
Q 10 PERCENT

0.5 I 1.5 2 2.5

Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4.71
 HyogoKen Nan-Bu Earthquake

HY000-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time)

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION
DURATION OF RECORD USED =50 SEC.
PORT ISLAND ARRAY: KP111705.461
LONG: 135208 LAT: 34.670
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:46.74
0.5
.25
——-
FMIN= 01HZ SOURCE:CEORKA
FMAX25HZ DATE: 18/7/95
EAST WEST COMPONENT
ELEVATION = 0:00 METRES
ACCELERATION
I I I
MAXO2910G (14I2sec)

0 25
I I I I I
0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
2 100 I I I I
0
50 NIAX=50,977C.1 S( 13.87sec) —

-— .

V --

> I I I
i01
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
5o I I I I I
jMAX30.5668CM (I 5.21sec)c) —

25

\/

25

‘I-)
0 5 1.0 1,5 20 25 30 35 40 4.5 50
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

DAtvIPING
0 1.5
0 —

0 PERCENT
‘F)
2 PERCENT
5 PERCENT
10 PERCENT

0 ‘I

0.5

0 I I
1.5 2 2.5
Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4.72
 Hogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time)

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMINO. 1HZ SOURCE:CEORKA
DURATION OF RECORD USED =50 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 18/7/95
PORT ISLAND ARRAY: KP111705.461 EAST WEST COMPONENT
LONG: 135.208 LAT: 34.670
TRIGGER TIME: 17JAN95. 05:46:46,74 ELEVATION = -12:00 METRES “b

ACCELERATION
I I I
MAXO.5552G(I4.78sec)
I
1, .
0 -

--

U
I I I I I
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
TIIvIE (seconds)
VET .OCITY

I I- — I
j\I\S3227CMS(I4S’7sec)I

10J I I
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Tll\4E (seconds)
‘ DISPLACEME\1
-50 I I I I
25 —
‘
I252551cN1(148)I_

— 0
U
-

(ID I I I
50 I I I I
,—,
0 5 30 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

DAMPING
c) —

A, OPERCENT -

2PERCENT
5PERCENT
2 - 1OPERCENT -

J
I ——--
-

---

0 I I I
0.5 1 1.5 2.5 3
Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4. 73
 Hogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 171]-!. 1995 05:46 (Local Time)
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN0. 1HZ SOURCE:CEORKA
DURATION OF RECORD USED =50 SEC. FMAX=25F1Z DATE: 18/7/95
PORT ISLAND ARRAY: KP111705.461 EAST WEST COMPONENT
LONG: 135.208 LAT: 34.670
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:46.74 ELEVATION = -28:00 METRES **

ACCELERATION
0.5 —
I
tM04711G(1458sec) I
—
—-.--——-—_—..#, — . —

0.25 -

c-) I I I I I I
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
:
I
... . .. ,. - . i. IMAX58.585CM S(14.39sec)I
0 / — -

I5o
‘l I I
‘100 -

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
TIME (seconds)
‘
DISPLACEMENT
I I ,

0
,/“_
-.
-
-..
...- E,,,_ ,,,;
-.,

:---“
LN21.6192CNI(I4.68scc)
—.--—-‘—‘—--.———-.
I

:- 4U
0 5
I
10
“I
15 20
I I
25 30 55
I I -

40 45 50
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

0.5 1.5 2,5

Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4.74
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time)
FILTER (ELLiPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN0, 1HZ SOURCE:CEORKA
DURATION OF RECORD USED =50 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE: 18/7/95
PORT ISLAND ARRAY: KP111705.461 EAST WEST COMPONENT
LONG: 135.208 LAT: 34.670
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95, 05:46:46.74 ELEVATION -79:00 METRES
1 ACCELERATIO
0.5 r i I

?
I103098G(1790) I—
0 t .

0.25
I I I I I I I
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
TIME (seconds)
I
,-.
VELOCITY
I I I

I29279c’M S(14.18see)J-
—

I I I
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
TIME (seconds)
(.)
DISPLACEMENT
20 I I I I
10 - JMANi 1.2945CM(24.9lsec)j

0 . ,,. .

:.j : .
-
10
c/D I I I I I I I
5 10 15 20 25 3° 35 40 45 50
TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

DAMPING

0 PERCENT
2 PERCENT
5 PERCENT
10 PERCENT

0
0,5 1.5 2 2.5
Period (Seconds)
ESEE - IMPERIAL COLLEGE

A4. 75
 Hyogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time)
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN=0. 1HZ SOURCE:CEORKA
DURATION OF RECORD USED =50 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 18/7/95
PORT ISLAND ARRAY: KP111705.461 NORTH SOUTH COMPONENT
LONG: 135.208 LAT: 34.670
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:36:46.74 ELEVATION = 0:00 METRES **

ACCELERATION
0.5 I I
z I I

i25
LX-0.3485G(15.26sec)
I
0 —

0.25

I I I I I
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
TIME (seconds)
\I.ITY
100
I I
— . .

‘.

0 -. —..

:10G I I I I
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
TIME (seconds)
DISPLACEMENT
5 I I I
25 -
I. fiX=39.68l8CM(I5.29se

— 0 .-
U
25
-

..

DO
I I I I I I
— 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 $fl

TIME (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

1.5 I I I I

DAMPING
C) II I. —••••••

CF2I
0 PERCENT
C) 2 PERCENT
5 PERCENT
/ iPERCENT

0.5 1 N —

C)

C)

0 I I .
I I
0.5 1 1.5 2.5
Period (Seconds)
ESEE - IMPERIAL COLLEGE

A4. 76
 ______

Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time)
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMINO, 1HZ SOURCE: CEORKA
DURATION OF RECORD USED =50 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 18/7/95
PORT ISLAND ARRAY: KP111705.461 NORTH SOUTH COMPONENT
LONG: 135.208 LAT: 34.670
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:46.74 ELEVATiON = -12:00 METRES **

‘1 ACCELERATION
1 I I I J— I
—
jO5768G(15.91sec
05

0
C.)
I I I I
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
TIME (seconds)
VELOCITY
100 I I
C)
50 ;
I. I71976cN1s(15465)I
>
H —.——
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100
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
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---———-—-

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ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

DAMPING
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5 PERCENT
2
10 PERCENT

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0.5 1.5 2 2.5
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ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4. 77
 _______________
___________
_

Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time)
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN=0.IHZ SOURCE:CEORKA
DURATION OF RECORD USED 50 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE: 18/7/95
PORT ISLAND ARRAY: KP111705.461 NORTH SOUTH COMPONENT
LONG: 135.208 LAT: 34.670
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:46,74 ELEVATION = -28:00 METRES **

ACCELERATION
0.5
M\X”0.5556G (14.58sec)
0 —— I -

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TIME (seconds)
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ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

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DAMPING
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7 10 PERCENT
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ESEE - IMPERIAL COLLEGE

A4. 78
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time)

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMTN=0. 1HZ SOURCE:CEORKA
DURATION OF RECORD USED =50 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 18/7/95
PORT ISLAND ARRAY: KP111705.461 NORTH SOUTH COMPONENT
LONG: 135.208 LAT: 34.670
TRIGGER TIME: 17JAN95. 05:46:46.74 ELEVATION -79:00 METRES **

ACCELERATION
I
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0.5 -

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ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
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A4. 79
 Hyogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time)
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMINO. 1HZ SOURCE:CEORKA
DURATION OF RECORD USED =50 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE: 18/7/95
PORT ISLAND ARRAY: KP111705.461 VERTICAL COMPONENT
LONG: 135.208 LAT: 34.670
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:46,74 ELEVATION = 0:00 METRES **

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ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
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A4. 80
 ______-

Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:36 (Local Time)
FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN=0. 1HZ SOURCE:CEORIKA
DURATION OF RECORD USED =50 SEC. FMAX=25HZ DATE: 18/7/95
PORT ISLAND ARRAY: KP111705.461 VERTICAL COMPONENT
LONG: 135.208 LAT: 34.670
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:46.74 ELEVATION = -12:00 METRES **

‘-I ACCELERATION
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A4. 81
 Hvogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH, 1995 05:46 (Local Time)

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN=0, 1HZ SOURCE:CEORKA
DURATION OF RECORD USED =50 SEC. FMAX25HZ DATE: 18/7/95
PORT ISLAND ARRAY: KP111705.461 VERTICAL COMPONENT
LONG: 135.208 LAT: 34.670
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95, 05:46:46.74 ELEVATION -28:00 METRES **

ACCELERATION
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Period (Seconds)
ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
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A4,82
 ___________
___________
________________
_______

Hyogo-Ken Nan-Bu Earthquake

HYOGO-KEN NAN-BU EARTHQUAKE - KOBE, JAPAN

JANUARY 17TH. 1995 05:46 (Local Time)

FILTER (ELLIPTIC) CORRECTION FMIN=0, 1HZ SOURCE:CEORKA
DURATION OF RECORD USED =50 SEC. F1vIAX=25HZ DATE: 18/7/95
PORT ISLAND ARRAY: KPII 1705.461 VERTICAL COMPONENT
LONG: 135208 LAT: 34670
TRIGGER TIME: 17 JAN 95. 05:46:4674 ELEVATION = -79:00 METRES **

ACCELERATION
0.2 1 F I
1
—

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MAX=01896G(1326sec)
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TIME (seconds)
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Til (seconds)

ACCELERATION RESPONSE SPECTRA

DAMPING
0

0 PERCENT
2 PERCENT
C 5 PERCENT
2
0 10 PERCENT

0
0
0
0

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05 1.5 2 2.5
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ESEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE
-

A4.83
 APPENDiX 5

Case Studies of Repaired Structures

The EFTU team was able to study a few repair techniques applied by contracting
firms. Also. It was possible to visit some construction sites where repair work was
underway. Some other structures were already rehabilitated, hence it was possible to
observe and comment on the finished repair and/or upgrading schemes employed. in
the following, cases of repair which were deemed interesting and for which information
was available are outlined. Comments on the likely effect of the intervention scheme on
future seismic performance are offered.

A5.1 Repair of damaged pile foundation

In a three storey building founded on reclaimed land, pile foundations were designed to
carry vertical column loads down to the bearing strata below the liquefiable soil. Due
to liquefaction, the ground subsided by l.40m, thus eliminating the lateral support to
piles and pile caps. Piles were subjected to high base shear resisted by cantilever
action, leading to higher bending moment than those allowed for in the design. This is
turn lead to fiexural failure of the piles.

The applied repair scheme consisted of driving two micro-piles with a minimum
carrying capacity equal to that of the failed pile. These have the advantage of being
driven by means of a relath’ely small size pile driver that can operate within the
available 3.OOm height clearance. Heavy steel brackets were welded to the original
column and designed to carry the service load of the failed column. Hydraulic jacks
were placed between the new piles and the steel brackets. The steel columns were
jacked up, hence column load was transmitted safely to the new piles. A new pile cap
was then cast coun cting the additional piles and the old pile cap as depicted in Figure
A5. 1. Refilling of the l.40m gap with sandy soil was then undertaken.

The applied repair scheme has indeed re-established the serviceability limit state of
settlement as well as the ultimate strength limit state for the building foundation. It did
not alter the structural configuration of the super-structure and did not introduce any
irregularity to the building. It is anticipated that the building would exhibit reasonable
seismic performance in case of a future event.

This is a reliable and cost effective repair technique for buildings that sustain local
damage due to failure of pile foundations. However, it cannot be assumed that the soil
which liquefied during this earthquake will not be liquefied again under sustained
shaking; it has been previously observed that the same deposits may liquefi in
consecutive earthquakes, even though it might be expected that the consolidation after
the earthquake would increase the density of the soil.

A5. I
 A5.2 Re-instatement of vertical plumb

For a single storey hinged base structural steel frame that was severely affected by the
earthquake, a permanent horizontal set was observed. The building consisted of a steel
frame supporting a reinforced concrete slab. Non-structural damage to various building
components such as walls, false ceiling and doors was inflicted by the earthquake. In
order to satisfy the serviceability limit state of deflection (horizontal drift), the
following repair scheme shown in Fig. A5.2 was applied:

— Removal of reinforced concrete roof slab. This reduced the building weight.
— Unfastening of bolts at quarter points of beams to render the structure more
flexible.
— Re-instatement of vertical plumb by jacking inwards the longer diagonal as
depicted in Figure A5.2. This reduced the longer diagonal dimension.
— An eccentric braced frame was then added to ensure enhanced future seismic
performance.
— Existing bolts were replaced with high strength grip friction bolts.
— The above was applied in both orthogonal directions.

This is a scheme that utilises ideally the advantages of steel structures. By changing the
structural system to that of a braced frame, higher drift control is achieved. It is not
known if capacity design principles were applied, to concentrate yielding in link-beams.
It is, though, a rather expensive strengthening procedure. It is also likely to lead to
significantly higher seismic forces being exerted on the structure. If capacity design
was not employed, then brittle failure of the braces may result.

A5.3 Repair of fractured and buckled square hollow columns

In a number of steel residential apartment buildings, various levels of damage were

observed, especially in columns. These were buckling of flange and web and complete
fractures in some cases. Various repair schemes were applied as detailed hereafter.

A new steel section was installed to replace the damaged member. This was achieved

by cutting above and below the line,

fracture jacking after up of the entire building.

The added section was shop-manufactured with top and end plates, thus facilitating

site welding. This would have facilitated the welding conditions on site. In some other

cases, the section was cut to the exact length required and was directly welded to the

origmal column section as shown m Figure A5 3 In cases of buckled flanges

strengthening plates were externally welded to the damaged column as shown in Figure
A5.4.

A5.2
 Full re-instatement of vertical load carrying capacity was achieved. It is worth noting
that no seismic upgrade was applied hence no improvement in the earthquake-
resistance of the structure is expected With tegard to axial capacit fill anah sis of
the structure would have given utilisation factors for various vertical members, leading
to decisions on enhancing the axial capacity of the most stressed members. Moreover,
changing the lateral load resisting system to that of a braced frame (as above) or a
frame-wall system would have been preferable. The conclusion in this case is that the
applied repair scheme is inadequate.

A5..4 Repair of steel beams and beam-column connections

Various failure modes were observed on beams and beam-column connections.

Different repair techniques were applied as shown in Figure A5.5 and are reported in
the following:

— Fracture of bottom flange andlor failure of lower weld. Additional haunches

were welded to existing beam and column as shown in Figure A5.5a.

— Web crippling in the shear-critical zone. This was repaired by welding of

vertical stiffeners to the affected area, as shown in FigureA5.5b.

— Local buckling of web due to excessive compressive stresses. This was

repaired by the addition of two external plates covering the damaged area of
the web, following propping of the floor beam. This is depicted in Figure
A5 5c.
.

— Various repairs of damaged beam-column connections are shown in Figure

A5.6. These comprised mainly replacing the damaged plates.

The general approach adopted in the cases outlined above is to apply a local
repair/strengthening procedure. The techniques applied to damaged steel structures,
described above, focus on local failure. In this respect, the objectives of the
intervention were achieved. However, in most cases, it was clear that no due
consideration was given to the overall performance of the structure.

A5.5 Enhancement of deformation capacity of bridge piers

As described in earlier parts of this study, extensive damage was inflicted on bridge
and elevated road structures. Damage to steel and reinforced concrete structures was
equally severe, with cases of weld rupture and local buckling m steel, and mixed mode
flexural/shear/axial failure of reimforced concrete members. In many cases. it was clear
that inadequate deformation capability, as opposed to strength. was the cause of
damage or collapse. Hence, the schemes described below were aimed at increased
deformatioi supply to meet the demand imposed by the earthquake.

A5 .3
 Many piers were retrofitted by a complete steel encasement of the fill column length.
as shown in Figure A5.7a. which was not connected to the foundation beam. This
scheme was applied to all columns regardless of the state of damage. An alternative
scheme, comprising confining helical reinforcement, was also observed by the IC
group. The additional reinforcement was covered by a layer of shotcrete, shown in
Figure A5.7b.

The effect of such schemes is to increase the local ductility capacity. Since the repair
mechanism does not extend to the top and bottom beams, it has little effect on the
strength, since the critical section in bending remains the same.

A5.6 Retrofitting for strength of piers

Several observed repair schemes seemed to be targeting the strength of the pier. It is
not clear what premise was used to determine the weakness of individual piers or the
hierarchy of strength levels, Below is a brief description of strength enhancement
methods applied in the wake of the recent earthquake.

The scheme consists of encasing the concrete columns in a steel jacket connected to
the foundation beam as depicted in Figure A5.8. Full interaction between the concrete
member and the steel jacket is ensured by injecting epoxy resin between the two
surfaces.

The scheme described above affects afl response parameters; stiffuess, strength and
ductility. It has also an effect on flexural, shear and axial capacities. As such, the
repaired member has dynamic response characteristics distinct from the original
member, in terms of response periods and damping. The increase in stiffliess and
strength is likely to lead to the imposition of higher seismic forces m future e ents
These may be adequately resisted by the enhanced strength and ductility, but a full
assessment of the increase in both supply and demand should be undertaken. It was
evident to the IC group that this was not the case in many inspected structures, since
the repair procedure was started very soon after the earthquake and little time would
have been available for a full appraisal of the global effect of the repair method. In
discussions with engineers of the assessment and design section of the Hanshin
Expressway Public Corporation, it was clear that in the case of the Hanshin
Expressway, due consideration was indeed given in many instances to the global
response characteristics.

A5.7 General remarks on repair

In common with engineers operating following earthquakes in other parts of the world.
Japanese earthquake engineers have responded rapidly to the immediate demand of
reassuring the population by securing the maximum number of structures. Whilst the
retrofitting schemes described above, and others not discussed herein, have
successfully reinstated the characteristics of the system to, at least, its original state,
the overall response has not been by-and-large investigated. It is highly unlikely that
the effect of the shortened period of piers on the response has been adequately

A5.4
assessed Also, by virtue of the enhancement of strength of particular members the
hierarchy of strength distribution, to avail of a ductile global collapse mechanism, must
have been disturbed Such effects should be urgently mvestigated once the immediate
task of secunng mam artenal structures has been completed It is, however evident
that one main weakness in piers, that of a sudden reduction of reinforcement at mid
height (described in Chapter 9 of this study) has been remedied by the jacketing
process applied commonly in the Kobe area.

A5.5
 a

\i

Figure A5.1 Repair of the settlement due to failure of piles

ORCE COE.

Figure A5.2 Repair of the building with residual drift

A5,6
 2

H
I I s: C

Figure A5.3 RepaTr of fractured square tube columns

Figure A5.4 Repair of square tube columns with local buckling

A5,7
 ‘1

c
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Figure A56 Repair of fraciured beam to column connections

A59
I

Figure A5.7 Ductility enhancement scheme

r -
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2OO

Figure A5.8 Strength enhancement scheme

AS 10
 ESEE RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS

The Engineering Seismology and Earthquake Engineering Section at Imperial College publishes
reports on research work undertaken by members of the Section and the Department; a list of
currently available reports is given below. Copies may be obtained from the ESEE Section
Secretary, Civil Engineering Department, Imperial College, London SW7 2BU (Prices on
application. Reports marked N are not for sale and some are out-of-print. The reports are sent
free to selected libraries in Universities and Research Centres).

Shake Table Facility Time History Matching and Exploratory Analysis, A.C. Hargreaves,
A.H. Al- Sheikh and S.H. Perry, ESEE-86/1, April 1986.

Regional Seismicity Studies, Eastern Mediterranean and West Africa, N.N. Ambraseys, C.
Melville, R. Adams and C. Finkel, ESEE-86/2, May 1986.

Regional Seismicity Studies, Northwest Europe and U.K., N.N. Ambraseys and J. Jackson,
ESEE-86/3, May 1986.

UNESCO Earthquake Reconnaissance Missions, 1983-1981, N.N. Ambraseys, ESEE-86/4,

June 1986.

Shake Table Facility Strong Motion Database, A.C. Hargreaves, ESEE-86/5, July 1986.

Composite SteellConcrete Connections: Analytical Studies and a Design Equation, A.S.

Elnashai and P.J. Dowling, ESEE-86/6, August 1986.

Review of International Shake Table Facilities, A.C. Hargreaves and N.N. Ambraseys, ESEE
86/7, August 1986.

Corpus of Isoseismal Maps of the Eastern Mediterranean Region, N.N. Ambraseys and C.
Finkei, ESEE-86/8, November 1986.

The Kalamata (Greece) Earthquake of 13 September 1986, A.S. Elnashai and K. Pilakoutas,
ESEE-86/9, December 1986.

IC Shake Table Facility Quality Assurance Plan for Seismic Qualification, B. Hillary, A.C.
Hargreaves and J.G. Wardrop, ESEE-87/1, June 1987.

The State-of-the-Art in Infihled Frames, H.A. Moghaddam and P.J. Dowling, ESEE-87/2,
August 1987.

Karameh Dam Dynamic Behaviour of Foundation Materials, A.C. I-{argreaves and N.N.
Ambraseys, ESEE-87/3, August 1987.

An Energy Absorption Device for Steel Braced Frames, G. Anagnostides, T.A. Wyatt and
A.C. Hargreaves, ESEE-88/l, February 1988.

ESEE-88/2 missing.
-
 Dynamic Material Behaviour of Earth and Rockfill dam, S.K. Sarma and M. Haeri, ESEE
88/3, February 1988.

Large Displacement Elasto-plastic Analysis of Steel Frames, A.S. Elnashai, B.A. Izzuddin
and P J Dowhng, ESEE-88/4, May 1988 (jointly with The Steel Construction Institute) (N)

Equipment Qualification for Sizev eli ‘B’ and other Nuclear Facilities, A C Hargrea es,
ESEE-88/5, March 1988 (N)

Imperial College Shake Table SofPare User’s Guide, A C Hargreaves, ESEE-88/7

November 1988 (N)

Repair and Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Structures Damaged by Earthquakes,

P. Pitsillides, ESEE-88/8, November 1988.

The Spitak (Armenia, USSR) Earthquake of 7 December 1988, A Prelimmary Engineering

Seismology Report, 3 J Bommer and N N Ambraseys, ESEE-89/1, March 1989

Transient Fluid-Structure Interaction Procedures, AEK Chelghoum, A S Elnashai and P J

Do’vJing ESEE-89/2 March 1989

Earthquake Strong-motion Database User’s Guide, J J Bommer, ESEE-89/3, May 1989 (N)

Imperial College Shaketable Software User’s Guide: Supplement No. 1, A.C. Hargreaves,
ESEE-89/4, July 1989.

Nonlinear Transient Dynamic Analysis of Steel Frames, B.A. Izzuddin, A.S. Elnashai and P.J.
Dowling, ESEE-89/5, July 1989. (N)

The Killini (Elias, Greece) Earthquake of October and November 1988, MSC/EFTU Group
ESEE-89/6, September 1989

‘ADAPT’, A Program for Adaptive Large Displacement Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis of

Space Frames, User’s Manual, B.A. Izzuddin and A.S. Elnashai, ESEE-89/7, September 1989.

Effect of Random Material Variability on the Structural Response of Steel Frames, P.

Alexopoulou, A.S. Elnashai and M. Chryssanthopoulos, ESEE-89/8, September 1989.

Transient Dynamic 3D Analysis of a Damaged Two Storey Reinforced Concrete Building,

P. Makris and A.S. Elnashai, ESEE-89/9, September 1989. (N)

A Theoretical Model for Composite Beam-Columns under Cyclic Loading, P. Madas and
A.S. Elnashai, ESEE-89/1O, September 1989.

The Loma Pneta (Santa Cruz, California) Earthquake of 17 October 1989, A.S. Elnashai,
J.J. Bommer and A.Y. Elghazouli, ESEE-89/1 1, December 1989.
 Materlaux Relatifs a Ia Sismicite de l’Algerie Occidentale au Cours de Ia Deuxieme Moitie
du XIXe et du Premier Tiers du Xxe Siede, J. Vogt and N.N. Ambraseys, ESEE-90/1, January
1991.

Time History Matching, A.C. Hargreaves, ESEE-90/2, May 1990.

Friction Load Control Devices for Steel Braced Frames, G. Anagnostides, A.C. Hargreaves
and T.A. Wyatt, ESEE-90/3, June 1990.

The Chenoua (Algeria) Earthquake of 29 October 1989, N.N. Ambraseys, A.S. Elnashai, J.J.
Bommer, F. 1-laddar, P. Madas, A.Y. Elghazouli and J. Vogt, ESEE-90/4, July 1990.

Mixed Eulerian-Lagrangian Finite Element Solution for Transient Fluid-Structure

Interaction Problems, AEK Cheighoum, A.S. Elnashai and P.J. Dowling, ESEE-91/1, February
1991. (N)

A New Passive Confinement Model for Concrete Subjected to Variable Amplitude Cyclic
Loading, P. Madas and A.S. Elnashai, ESEE-91/2, March 1991.

An Analytical Approach to Seismic Energy Absorption of Steel Frames with Random

Material Characteristics, K. Koh. A.S. Elnashai and M. Chryssanthopoulos. ESEE-91/3, April
1991.

Earthquake Resistant Design of RC Walls, K. Pilakoutas, supervised by A.S. Elnashai and

N.N. Ambraseys, ESEE-91/4, April 1991.

Database of European Strong Ground Motion, N.N. Ambraseys and J.J. Bommer, ESEE-91/5,
April 1991.

Attenuation of Peak Ground Acceleration for Europe, N.N. Ambraseys and J.J. Bommer,
ESEE-9l/6, May 1991.

Seismicity of Algeria; Cheliff Valley Earthquake, N.N. Ambraseys and D. Benouar, ESEE
91/7, June 1991.

Long-term Seismicity of Istanbul, N.N. Ambraseys and C. Finkel, ESEE-91/8, July 1991.

ESEE-92/1 - missing.

Selective Repair and Retrofitting Techniques for RC Structures in Seismic Regions, A.S.
Elnashai and A.I. Salama, ESEE-92/2, April 1992.

Performance of SteellConcrete Composite Members under Earthquake Loading, A.Y.

Elghazouli and A.S. Elnashai, ESEE-92/3, June 1992.

Effect of Building Configuration on Seismic Response Parameters, M.M. Soliman, ESEE

92/4, July 1992.
A Component-Based Model for Cyclic Analysis of Steel and Composite Beam-Column
Connections, P J Madas and A S Elnashai ESEE-9215, July 1992

Testing and Analysis of Partially-Encased Beam-Columns under Combined Earthquake

and Axial Loading, B M Broderick and A S Elnashai, ESEE-92/6, August 1992

Statistical Analysis of Steel Tensile Test Data and Implications on Seismic Design Criteria,
G M E Manzocchi, M Chryssanthopoulos and A S Elnashai, ESEE-92/7, September 1992

Review of UK Seismic Design Parameters, N N Ambraseys, S K Sarma, J J Bommer and M

Free, ESEE- 92/8, November 1992

The Seismicity of Cyprus, N N Ambrasey s and R Adams, ESEE-92/9, November 1992

Experimental Behaviour of Steel and Composite Frames under Cyclic and Dynamic
Loading, K. Takanashi, A.S. Elnashai, AX. Elghazouli and K. Ohi, ESEE-92/1O, November
1992.

The Erzincan (Turkey) Earthquake of 13 March 1992, N.N. Ambraseys, AS. Elnashai, B.M.
Broderick, Al Salama, M.M. Soliman, ESEE-92/1 1, December 1992.

Review of Repair Methods for Reinforced Concrete Structures, A I Salama and A S

Elnashai, ESEE-93/1, July 1993.

Re-Evaluation of Strong-Motion Data from Turkey, N.N. Ambraseys, E. Durukal and M.

Free, ESEE-93/2, December 1993.

Re-Evaluation of Strong-Motion Data from Greece, N.N. Ambraseys, A. Stavrakakis and K.

Simpson, ESEE-93/3, December 1993.

Reliability-Based Limits on Member Ductility, M Manzocchi, M. Chryssanthopoulos and

A.S. Elnashai, ESEE-94/1, January 1994.

A Review of the Radiating Boundary Conditions for Earth Structures, S.G. Mahabadi and
S.K. Sarma, ESEE-94/2, February 1994.

On-Line Hybrid Testing of Steel Frames with High Strength Bracing Member, K.
Takanashi, A.S. Elnashai, B.M. Broderick and K. Ohi, ESEE-94/3, March 1994.

The Northridge (California) Earthquake of 17 January 1994: Observations and Correlative

Response Analyses, B.M. Broderick, A.S. Elnashai, N.N. Ambraseys, J. Barr, R. Goodfellow
and M. Higazy, ESEE-94/4, June 1994.

Seismic Risk and Mitigation Planning in Egypt, A.S. Elnashai and M.M. Soliman, ESEE
94/5, July 1994.

Attenuation of Spectral Ordinates in Europe, N.N. Ambraseys, K. Simpson and J.J.

Bommer, ESEE-95/1, July 1995.
Selected Engineering Seismology and Stnictural Engineering Studies of the Hyogo-Ken
Nanbu (Kobe, Japan) Earthquake of 17 January 1995, AS. flnsshai, JJ. Bommer, I. Baron,
Al. Salaina and D. Lee, ESEE-9512, September 1995.

Effect of Modelling Assumptions and Input Motion Characteristics on Seismic Design

Parameters of RC Bridge Piers, A.S. Elnasbai and D. McClure, ESEE-9513, September 1995.

Surface Wave Magnitude Calibration for European Regions Earthquakes, N.N. Ambraseys
and M. Free, ESEE-9514, October 1995.