MICROWAVE

1) limitations of vacuum tube in microwave frequency

Conventional low frequency tubes like triodes fail to operate at microwave
frequencies (MF) because the electron transit time from cathode to grid
becomes do large that it cannot produce microwave oscillations.

Two-cavity Klystron Amplifier

Definition: Klystrons are a special type of vacuum tubes that find
applications as amplifiers and oscillators at microwave frequencies. Its
principle of operation is velocity modulation. Thus the device used for
amplifying microwave signals is known as Two-cavity Klystron.

Principle of Two-cavity Klystron

As we have already discussed in the introduction that Klystron is based on

the principle of velocity modulation. Thus two-cavity klystron amplifier
utilizes the kinetic energy of moving electron beam for signal amplification.

The variation in the velocity of electrons while moving inside the tube is
known as velocity modulation. This velocity modulation permits bunching of
electrons while propagation. So, the combined energy of bunched electrons
is transferred at the output thereby providing an amplified signal.

Applications

The two-cavity Klystron finds application in satellite communication, UHF TV

transmitters as well as radar systems, wideband high power communication
and troposphere scatter transmitters etc.
Construction

The figure below represents the structure of a two-cavity klystron:

As we can see that the above figure consists of 2 cavities namely

the buncher cavity and catcher cavity. The RF signal to be amplified is
provided at the buncher cavity. The electron gun comprises
cathode, heating element and anode. The electron beam is
produced by the cathode by making use of a heating element and
the high positive potential at the anode provides the required
acceleration to the electron beam initially. The region between two
cavities is known as drift space.

To allow focussed propagation of electron beam inside the tube an

external electromagnetic winding is used that generates a
longitudinal magnetic field. This is done in order to prevent the
spreading of the beam inside the tube. The amplified RF signal is
achieved at the catcher cavity. Also, a collector is present near the
second cavity that collects the electron bunch.
Reflex Klystron consists of an electron gun, a cathode filament, an
anode cavity, and an electrode at the cathode potential. It provides low
power and has low efficiency.

Construction of Reflex Klystron

The electron gun emits the electron beam, which passes through the gap in
the anode cavity. These electrons travel towards the Repelled electrode,
which is at high negative potential. Due to the high negative field, the
electrons repel back to the anode cavity. In their return journey, the electrons
give more energy to the gap and these oscillations are sustained. The
constructional details of this reflex klystron is as shown in the following figure.

It is assumed that oscillations already exist in the tube and they are sustained
by its operation. The electrons while passing through the anode cavity, gain
some velocity.

Characteristic principle of Reflex Klystron

This microwave generator, is a Klystron that works on reflections and
oscillations in a single cavity, which has a variable frequency. Reflex
Klystron consists of an electron gun, a cathode filament, an anode cavity,
and an electrode at the cathode potential. It provides low power and has low
efficiency.
Applications of Reflex Klystron
 Radio receivers
 Portable microwave links
 Parametric amplifiers
 Local oscillators of microwave receivers
 As a signal source where variable frequency is desirable in
microwave generators.

Magnetron
A magnetron is a device that generates high power electromagnetic
wave. It is basically considered as a self-excited microwave
oscillator. And is also known as a crossed-field device.
Operating Principle

A magnetron is basically a vacuum tube of high power having

multiple cavities. It is also known as cavity magnetron because of
the presence of anode in the resonant cavity of the tube.
The operating principle of a magnetron is such that when electrons
interact with electric and magnetic field in the cavity then high
power oscillations get generated.

Applications of Magnetron

 A major application of magnetron is present in a pulsed radar

system in order to produce a high-power microwave signal.
 Magnetrons are also used in heating appliances like microwave
ovens so as to produce fixed frequency oscillations.
 Tunable magnetrons find their applications in sweep oscillators.
Construction of Magnetrons

The figure here shows a magnetron with 8 cavities:

A cylindrical magnetron has a cylindrical cathode of a certain length

and radius present at the centre around which a cylindrical anode is
present. The cavities are present at the circumference of the anode
at equal spacing.

Also, the area existing between anode and cathode of the tube is
known as interaction space/region.

It is to be noted here that there exists a phase difference of 180⁰

between adjacent cavities. Therefore, cavities will transfer their
excitation from one cavity to another with a phase shift of
180⁰.Thus we can say that if one plate is positive then automatically
its adjacent plate will be negative.
 Advantages of Magnetron

 Magnetrons are a highly efficient device used for generation of

the high power microwave signal.
 The use of magnetrons in radar can produce radar system of
better quality for tracking purpose.
 It is usually small in size thus less bulky.

Disadvantages of Magnetron

 It is quite expensive.
 Despite producing a wide range of frequency, there exists a
drawback in controllability of the generated frequency.
 It offers average power of around 1 to 2 kilowatts.
 Magnetrons are quite noisy.

A Gunn diode, also known as a transferred electron device

(TED), is a form of diode, a two-terminal semiconductor electronic
component, with negative resistance, used in high-frequency
electronics.

Advantages:
 Size is smaller
 Manufacturing cost is low
 It reliable and stable at higher frequencies
 Noise to signal ratio is better
 Operates at high bandwidth
 Disadvantages:
 Efficiency is low
 Operating current is high, so the power dissipation is also
high
 High turn ON voltage
 Temperature stability is low

Application of GUNN Diode:

 Used in microwave instruments and receiver circuits
 Used in automatic door openers , traffic signal
 Used in radio communications
 Used in military systems
 Used in tachometers
Construction of Gunn Diode
As mentioned earlier the GUNN diode is made up of only N type
material. Lightly doped material which is called active layer is
placed in between two heavily doped N type material. The heavily
doped material provides conductivity to the diode. It is placed over
the conducting base which acts as the heat sink.
Mostly GUNN diode material are poor conductors, so it produces
lot of heat during the operation and thus the heat sink is used.
Anode is formed by placing a gold film at the top of the surface.

Principle of Gunn Diode

Gunn diode's principle of operation is based on the Gunn effect.
In some materials (such as GaAs and InP), after reaching a
threshold level by an electric field in the material, the electrons
mobility decreases simultaneously, while electric field increases
producing negative resistance

IMPATT DIODE
An IMPATT diode (impact ionization avalanche transit-time diode) is a form
of high-power semiconductor diode used in high-frequency
microwave electronics devices. They have negative resistance and are
used as oscillators and amplifiers at microwave frequencies.

Construction

The figure here represents the structure of the IMPATT diode:

As we can see that it consists of 4 regions namely P+-N-I-N+
The structure of the IMPATT diode is somewhat similar to the PIN
diode. However, it operates on a very high voltage gradient of
around 400KV/cm, so as to produce avalanche current.
Generally, materials like GaAs, Si, Ge or InP are used for its
construction. However, GaAs is preferred because of its low noise
behavior.
Basically, it uses a slightly different structure from a normal diode.
Because we know that a normal PN junction diode breaks down
under avalanche condition. As the generation of a large amount of
current causes the generation of heat inside it.

So variation in construction is adopted to produce RF signals at

microwave frequencies.

Advantages of IMPATT Diode

 It provides high operating range.

 It shows compactness in size.
 IMPATT diodes are economical.
 It provides reliable operation at high temperature.
Disadvantages IMPATT Diode

 The rate of generation of electron-hole pair in the avalanche

region causes the generation of high noise. Thus makes the
system noisy.
 It offers a low tuning range.
 It offers high sensitivity to different operating conditions.

Applications

IMPATT diodes find applications in microwave oscillators,

parametric amplifiers and microwave generators. Along with these,
other uses involve presence in intruder alarm systems,
telecommunication transmitters and receivers etc.

IMPATT diode operating principles

As soon as the bias voltage applied in reverse exceeds the

breakdown point, the diode starts conducting in reverse direction
due to the avalanche breakdown phenomenon. For the purpose
of microwave signal generation, there are different types of
IMPATT diode structures that can be used.

A travelling wave tube is a high power amplifier used for

the amplification of microwave signals up to a wide range. It is a
special type of vacuum tube that offers an operating frequency
ranging between 300 MHz to 50 GHz.

Travelling wave tubes are non-resonant structures that offer

continuous interaction of applied RF field with the electron beam
over the entire length of the tube. Due to this reason, it provides
wider operating bandwidth.
Construction of Travelling Wave Tube

As we can see that the helical travelling wave tube consists of an electron
gun and a slow-wave structure. The electron gun produces a narrow beam of
the electron. A focusing plate is used that focuses the electron beam inside
the tube.
A positive potential is provided to the coil (helix) with respect to the cathode
terminal. While the collector is more positive than the coil (helix). In order to
restrict beam spreading inside the tube. A dc magnetic field is applied
between the travelling paths by the help of magnets.

The signal which is needed to be amplified is provided at one of the ends of

the helix, present adjacent to the electron gun. While the amplified signal is
achieved at the opposite end of the helix.

In the figure, we can clearly see that attenuator is present along both the
sides of the travelling wave tube. This is so because travelling wave
amplifiers are high gain devices, so in case of poor load matching conditions,
oscillations get build up inside the tube due to reflection.

Attenuators are basically formed by providing a metallic coating over the

surface of the glass tube. Aquadag or Kanthal are majorly used for this.
Principle of TWT
The operation of a TWT is as follows: Electrons emitted from the
cathode are accelerated by a potential difference between the cathode
and the anode. An electron beam is formed and focused in the electron
gun region to be injected into the slow-wave circuit where it interacts with
the propagating RF wave.

Applications of TWT

1. Travelling wave tubes are highly used in continuous wave radar

systems.
2. These amplifying tubes also find application in broadband
receivers for RF amplification.
3. TWT’s are also used to get high power output in satellite
transponders.