 The earth is 4.6 billion (4.

543 b to be exact) years old

 Is also known as the planet of life
 The sun is the primary source of energy which is essential for most of the cell’s functions
 The earth orbit in the “GOLDILOCKS ZONE”
 The GOLDILOCKS ZONE is where planets receive enough energy to allow water to exist on
the surface
 The earth’s atmosphere is made up of 78% hydrogen 21% oxygen and 0.9% argon and 0.10%
different gases and vapor)
 The earth’s temperature ranges from –88˚C to 58˚C
 the moon is the earth’s sole satellite
 FACTORS THAT MAKE THE EARTH HABITABLE
TEMPERATURE (has something to do with how molecules or organisms move)
(GENBIO)
WATER (one of the important ingredients in different biological processes)
ENERGY(earth has available energy rich sunlight to support light)
ATMOSPHERE(the layer or set of layer of gases surrounding a planet or other
materials)
NUTRIENTS (an essential factor used to build an organism’s body structure)
(volcanism helps in nutrient cycle)

EARTH’S SUBSYSTEMS

 Atmosphere
Is composed of all gases present on earth
Comes from the Greek word “atmos” meaning gas and “sphaira” meaning globe or
ball
Composed of 78% hydrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9% argon and 0.10% of different traces
of gases and vapor
Protects us from harmful UV rays and keep our planet warm through greenhouse
gasses
It is affected by the earth’s gravity
Composed of layers; troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and
exosphere.
 Geosphere
Comes from the greek word “geos” meaning ground and “sphere” meaning round or
globe
Divided into three layers which is the crust, mantle and core
It contains all the soil, rocks and minerals or all the geologic landforms present on
earth.
 Hydrosphere
“hydro” in Greek means water
Contains all the water on earth. Includes liquid, frozen and vapor.
Also plays an important role in absorption and redistribution of solar radiation
 Biosphere
“bios” meaning life
Composed of all living things from small pathogens to large elephants and
other animals
Touches all three subsystems
 Igneous rocks
Magmatic rocks are formed through the cooling and solidification of magma
or lava
 INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS- formed from solidification of magma
below the surface
 EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS- formed through faster rate of
solidification of lava on the surface of the earth
 Sedimentary rocks
are formed by the deposition and cementation of mineral or organic particles
on the floor of oceans and other bodies of water at the Earth surface.
 CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS- is formed from the mechanical
weathering of rocks
 CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS- is formed when dissolved materials
precipitate from the solution
 ORGANIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS- formed from the build up of plant
and animal debris
 Metamorphic rocks-
Forms from existing rocks called “parent rocks” in the process called
metamorphism or change in form.
 FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS- formed through pressure due to
compression of rocks that create bands called foliate
 NONFOLIATED METAMORFIC ROCKS- has no foliation or bands.
 Geologic process causing the formation of METAMORPHIC, IGNEOUS and
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Rocks undergo a process that transform them from one type to another
 Weathering and Erosion
 Compaction and Cementation
 Metamorphism
 Melting of magma
 Crystallization of magma
IMPORTANT MINERALS IN SOCIETY

Importance of mineral in society

 Fluorite- toothpaste
 Talc- makeup
 Salt- preservatives/ flavor enhancements
 Aluminum- utensils
 Iron, chromium and carbon-metal and stainless wares
 Silicon, silver, gold and copper are used in electronics.
 Iron, carbon, limestone, chalk, quartz silica granite, marbles and aluminum-
construction
 Titanium, gypsum, iron, chromium and carbon- are used in creating tools in various
medicine industry
 Uranium, coal, nickel, copper and lithium- is used for energy production
 Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium (NPK) and lime- are used as fertilizers and other
nutrient enhancer
 Calcium, magnesium and zinc- are used mainly for medical purposes

ORE MINERALS

 Mineral deposits are aggregates of minerals present in high concentration

 Mineral deposit is categorized into four groups
1. Energy resources 3. Industrial resources
2. Metal resources 4. Essential resources
 Ores- are natural rocks or sediments that hold one or more valuable minerals.
 Ore genesis- is the process by which a deposit of ore is created. It has three major types;
 Internal process- include geologic activities such as volcanic eruption and happens
under the surface
 Surficial- is a process which ores can accumulate through environmental factors
happening on the surface like erosion.
 Hydrothermal process- happens when seawater circulates through cracks in Earth’s
crust and deposits minerals in the areas around hydrothermal vents.
 Rocky fragments- or debris from the solar system that fall. They aslso contain minerals that
we can use
 Ore us a non-renewable resource since it takes millions of years to form
 MINERAL EXPLORATION- the search for valuable ore
 Various exploration techniques were used to assess ore deposits prior to mining.
These techniques include remote sensing, geophysical methods and geochemical
methods.
 METHODS IOF MINING-
 Mining- is the extraction of valuable minerals from mineral deposits
 Surface mining is being used to extract ore minerals near the surface of Earth. o
There are five types of surface mining. This includes strip mining, open-pit mining,
dredging, mountaintop removal mining, and highwall mining
 Underground mining is used to extract the rocks, minerals, and other precious
stones that can be found deep beneath Earth’s surface.
ORE EXTRACTION – is the process of separating the valuable minerals from the non-useful part of
the ore

 Heap leaching- he addition of chemicals, such as cyanide or acid, to remove ore.

 Flotation- the addition of a compound that attaches to the valuable mineral and floats.
 Smelting-roasting rock, causing it to segregate into layers so the mineral can be extracted.

FACTORS AFFECTING MINERAL AVAILABILITY

 GEOLOGIC FACTORS- that affect abundance of mineral deposits are geological origin of the
area, presence or absence of volcano, and age of the geologic structure
 ECONOMIC FACTORS- include the costs in getting the supply such as engineering, mineral
extraction, and processing and costs for coping with the demand such as commodity prices,
land tenure, taxation, and other legal policies.
 Environmental factors- affect mineral resources. In ways such as deterioration of soil causing
landslides, flood and etc.

MINERAL PROCESSING

 Mineral processing- is the process of extracting minerals from the ores, refining them, and
preparing these minerals for use
 Sampling and Analysis-
*sampling is the removal of a portion which represents a whole needed for the
analysis of this material.

* Analysis is important to evaluate the valuable components in an ore. This

includes chemical, mineralogical, and particle size analysis.

 COMMINUTION- is the process where rock is crushed or broken down into smaller pieces.
 CONCENTRATION- n is the separation of the valuable minerals from the raw materials
creating an end product called concentrate
 DEWATERING- uses the concentrates to convert it to usable minerals. This involves filtration
and sedimentation of the suspension and drying of the solid material harvested from this
suspension.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

1. Topsoil replacement using uncontaminated soil;

2. Reintroduction of flora and fauna;
3. Neutralizing acidic waters;
4. Backfilling and sealing of abandoned underground mines;
5. Stabilizing the slope of impacted area to reduce erosion, etc.
FOSSIL FUEL FORMATION

 Fossil fuels- are basically remains of plants and animals that died millions of years ago. They
are the world’s primary energy source that provide most of the energy support in
transportation, electricity, and industries. They are natural and finite resources that are very
abundant and has a cheaper cost production compare to other resources present on Earth.
They are considered as nonrenewable energy source as they take millions of years to form.
 Coal- It is an important and primary fossil fuel present on Earth. Coal resources are found
predominantly where forest trees, plants and marshes existed before being buried and
compressed millions of years ago
o Anthracite- highest rank of coal
o Bituminous coal- second in rank and has high heating value. It is the most common
type of coal used in electric generation
o Subbituminous coal- is black in color and dull
o Lignite- also known as brown coal and is the lowest rank coal
 OIL- Most of the oil that we are using today started forming millions of years ago. Oil is an
organic material, mostly algae, which was buried in mud at the bottom of the sea and lakes.
It is used mainly for the production of transportation fuels and petroleum-based products.
 NATURAL GAS- It is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas with the mixture of methane. It is
the Earth’s cleanest fossil fuel and is odorless and colorless in its natural state. Natural gas is
produced from sedimentary rock formation by forcing chemicals, water, and sand down a
well under high pressure.
 Formation of fossil fuels-
o Organisms millions of years ago died
o The remains were covered by mud
o The mud sediments get covered by more mud overtime and so it started to change
into a rock as pressure and heat increases
o Fossil fuels are then formed in a low oxygen environment making it rich in carbon
o It is then mined and excavated by humans

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

 As you descend deeper into the Earth's crust, underground rock and water become hotter.
This heat can be recovered using different geothermal technologies depending on the
temperature. But the heat resources in geothermal reservoirs are not inexhaustible.
 Thermal Gradient- The adjective geothermal comes from the Greek words geo (earth) and
thermos (heat). It covers all techniques used to recover the heat that is naturally present in
the Earth’s subsurface, particularly in aquifers, the rock reservoirs that contain groundwater.
About half this thermal (or “heat”) energy comes from the residual heat produced when the
planet was formed 4.5 billion years ago and about half from natural radioactivity.
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
o Low temperature geothermal energy-( 20°C to 90°C)- is used for geothermal heating
o Medium temperature geothermal energy- (90°C to 160°C) drives a turbine to
generate power
 o High temperature geothermal energy- (above 160°C) drives a turbine to generate
power
 Geothermal reservoirs tend to deplete with use with some faster than others. Their
replenishment capacity depends on many variables such as.
o Heat sources within the Earth’s crust
o Energy from outside the reservoir (solar heat) for very low-temperature applications
using heat pumps.
o The circulation of groundwater that is reheated on contact with heat sources
located away from the reservoir before returning to the reservoir.
 HOW DOES GEOTHERMAL POWERPLANT WORK?

WATER RESOURCES ON EARTH

 Water is present either solid liquid or gas(water vapor)

 The earth’s SURFACE is covered with 71 percent water
o 97.5% of the earth’s water is in the ocean
o 2.5% is fresh water (but not all is drinkable)
 68% is found in glaciers
 30.1% in ground water
 0.8% is in permafrost
 And 0.4% of surface and atmospheric water
o 67% is freshwater lakes
o 12% is soil moisture
o 9.5 % in the atmosphere
o Wetlands is 8.5%
o Rivers 1.6%
o And 0.6% in plants and animals
 BLUE WATER- water in lakes, river and aquifers- (drinkable)
GREEN WATER- feeds the plants and is subsequently released to the air
About 60% of the water that’s taken from the bottom is employed for farming in arid and
semi-arid climates, and between 25% and 40% of the world’s drinking water comes from
underground
Much of the water underground is replenished either very slowly or not at all and is thus
termed ―non-renewable‖.
Ninety-six percent of liquid fresh water can be found underground. Groundwater feeds
springs and streams, supports wetlands, helps keep land surfaces stable, and may be a
critical water resource.

ACTIVITIES THAT AFFECT THE QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY OF WATER

2 categories of water use:

o direct - use of actual water in activities like hand washing, drinking, cooking, bathing,
cleaning and many more.
o indirect - virtual water used to produce or process a commodity, commercial goods
or service.
Human Impacts on Freshwater
o direct drivers are physical and biological factors that include climate change, land
conversion, plant nutrient use, and the onset of diseases and invasive species.
o indirect drivers are demographic; economic; socio-political; cultural and religious;
and scientific and technological factors.
Effects of Human Activities on the Interaction of Ground Water and Surface Water
o agricultural Development- Two activities related to agriculture that are particularly
relevant to the interaction of ground water and surface water are irrigation and
application of chemicals to cropland.
o Urban and Industrial Development Point sources of contamination to surface water
bodies are an expected side effect of urban development.
o Drainage of the Land Surface- Drainage can be accomplished by constructing open
ditches or by burying tile drains beneath the land surface.
o Modifications to River Valleys-
 Construction of Levees- are built along riverbanks to protect adjacent lands
from flooding. however, sometimes overtop or breach the levees, resulting
in widespread flooding.
 Construction of Reservoirs- Human-controlled reservoir releases and
accumulation of water in storage may cause high flows and low flows to
differ considerably in magnitude and timing compared to natural flow
 Removal of Natural Vegetation- Some of the important functions of riparian
vegetation and riparian wetlands include preservation of aquatic habitat,
protection of the land from erosion, flood mitigation, and maintenance of
water quality. Destruction of riparian vegetation and wetlands removes the
benefits of erosion control and flood mitigation, while altering aquatic
habitat and chemical processes that maintain water quality.

]
Human Activities that Affect the Quality and Quantity of Soil

 Soil -can be defined as the organic and inorganic materials on the

surface of the earth that provide the medium for plant growth
 FARMING- is one of the traditional sources of income in our country
done by planting crops or raising livestock. Listed below are some
positive and negative effects of farming.
 Tillage in farming -is the preparation of soil for planting and the
cultivation of soil after planting. It can cause direct damage to soil
microorganisms and potentially expose those to new predators
 Construction of Structure Construction activities- such as grading
and filling, reduce soil quality on construction sites.
 Waste Disposals -Soil quality is adversely affected by improper waste
disposal. Soil pollution happens when hazardous chemicals from
human and industrial sewage are carelessly disposed of, altering soil’s
natural health and quality.

WAYS TO PROTECT THE SOIL

 Forest Protection. Trees as well as other plants and vegetation in
the forest are important in the creation of new soil as leaves and
other vegetation rot and decompose. Hence, soil qualities are
ensured when forest are protected and conserved
 Buffer Strips. Buffers are strips or corridors of permanent
vegetation used to reduce water and wind erosion. They provide
protection where stream banks exist. They can be created with
grass, trees and shrubs
 No-Till Farming No-till farming is an approach that allows crops to
remain in place for a season. This keeps the soil from being left
bare and unprotected
 Fewer Concrete Surfaces -Soil requires an adequate amount of
water in order to function properly. Lots of concrete surfaces,
especially in residential areas make it difficult for water to get to
the soil. Using paving stones for patios and gardens work to protect
the soil.
 Plant Windbreak Areas Windbreaks are composed of shrubs,
plants and trees. They work in combination and serve a
conservation purpose. These will work together to slow the force of
wind over ground areas.
 Terrace Planting. This type of planting is done by maximizing the
topography of the land. It benefits from the way the rain water
flows naturally.
 Plant Trees. Simply planting trees is a good conservation method.
As the tree grows, its roots become even more secure in the soil
 Crop Rotation. Crop rotation is a process that works to conserve
soil. It is accomplished by planting and growing a serious of
different crops in the same soil. This process prevents overgrowth
of pathogens and a lack of fertility in the soil, overall.
 Water the Soil. -This helps to not only nourish the soil but to
protect it. Moist soil is not in danger of erosion due to wind activity.
 Maintain Soil pH- A pH range of approximately 6 to 7 promotes
the readiest availability of plant nutrients. The pH levels in the soil
can be affected by a number of pollutants and acid.
 Indigenous Crops Planting these is a way to ensure conservation
efforts. They should be planted even when diverse crops are being
planted, as well.
 Afforestation. This is usually done by planting foliage in forest
undergrowth areas
 Monitor Grazing- Monitoring the areas where cows and other
animals graze is important. This helps to prevent depletion of the
soil. It also addresses the issue of hoof damage, which can occur to
the soil.
 Dams. This is especially important in areas where rivers exist.
Flooding of rivers has been the cause for many instances of soil
erosion.
 Fertilizers- The use of organic fertilizer improves the quality of soil
because it is composed of readily biodegradable materials make
better nutrient sources.
 No Soil Compacting- You can do this by creating dedicated paths
in your garden. This helps you to not walk on wet soil causing it to
be compacted
 Control Storm Water- Storm water can easily cause flooding or
problems in these areas. Setting up large container to hold excess
water in problem locations is helpful. This water can be reused for
watering gardens and yards.
 Monitor Growth. When crops or plants grow normally, they have a
healthy appearance. It there is a problem with the growth, often
the soil is the issue. Checking the salient composition and fertility
is important. This is done through regular monitoring of the soil
and overall plant growth.

\
Soil Protection and Conservation
 Mining operations: are major contributors to erosion, especially on a local level. Many
mining techniques involve shifting large amounts of earth, such as strip mining or
mountaintop removal. These operations leave large amounts of loose soil exposed to the
elements, and they often require large amounts of water, which can exacerbate the erosion
process
 Development and Expansion: Urban and suburban development can also exacerbate
erosion, especially if the developers ignore the natural state of the land. Construction of a
building often begins by clearing the area of any plants or other natural defenses against soil
erosion.
 Recreational activities: Humans also cause erosion through recreational activities, like hiking
and riding off-road vehicles. An even greater amount of erosion occurs when people drive
off-road vehicles over an area. The area eventually develops bare spots where no plants can
grow.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF WASTE

 Solid wastes – unwanted substances that are discarded by human society. These include
urban wastes, industrial wastes, agricultural wastes, biomedical wastes and radioactive
wastes.
 Liquid wastes – wastes generated from washing, flushing or manufacturing processes of
industries
 Leachate- is the fluid percolating through the landfills and is generated from liquid
present in the waste from the outside water including rainwater, percolating through
the waste.
 Euthrophication characterized by excessive plant and algal growth.
 Siltation – is a process by which water of fine mineral particles settle in the water.
 Acid mine drainage- he runoff produced when water comes in contact with exposed
rocks containing sulfur- bearing minerals that react with water and air to form sulfuric
acid and dissolved iron.
 Biodegradable means a material that is able to degrade or break down
 Non-biodegradable refers to materials that are not broken down by organisms
 Industrial waste - waste released from manufacturing plants
 Agricultural waste - excess use of fertilizer and pesticides
 Mining waste - waste generated from the exploitation of mineral resources
o Overburden material - ground substance(soil and rock) that is removed to
extract mineral deposit.
o Acid mine drainage - water that has come to contact with oxidized rock or
overburden hat contains sulfide material ( coal, zinc, copper, and lead).
 Biomedical waste - waste generated by hospitals and other health care institutions
 Electronic waste - The DVD and music players, TV, Telephones, computers, vacuumcleaners
and all the other electrical stuff at your home, which are of no more use, areelectronic
wastes
 -Impacts of Waste to Human Health and the Environment
 Communicable Disease- Houseflies may be important in the transmission of enteric
infections, particularly those responsible for infantile diarrhea and dysentery.
 Non-Communicable Disease Once collected in poorly operated disposal sites, rubbish may
contaminate groundwater with nitrates, heavy metals and other chemicals.
 Disposal of hospital and other medical waste Requires special attention since this can create
major health hazards.
 Methane – a big factor of Climate Change A major environmental concern is gas release by
decomposing garbage. Methane is a byproduct of the anaerobic respiration of bacteria, and
these bacteria thrive on landfills with high amounts of moisture
 Loss of Biodiversity Demands for new landfill sites results in the clearing of large amounts of
vegetation and alterations to the natural environment
 Pollution If a landfill site is not properly managed, a toxic pollutant known as leachate can
escape into the surrounding groundwater, causing environmental problems for plants and
animal living nearby
