Seven Characteristics of Organisms

1. Nutrition
• Organisms needs to obtain food from the environment for energy, growth and repair.
• Green plants with chlorophyll can produce their own food through photosynthesis.
2. Respiration
• occurs inside cells of organisms.
• Respiration is the process of breaking down food for releasing energy.
◦ respiration: O2 + C6H12O6 → CO2 + H2O (oxygen + glucose → carbon dioxide + water)
◦ photosynthesis: CO2 + H2O →O2 + C6H12O6 (carbon dioxide + water → oxygen + glucose)
3. Excretion
• removal of wastes produced during chemical reactions in organisms that harms the organisms.
4. Sensitivity
• detection of changes (stimuli) in organisms’ external environment and internal environment.
• organisms can make suitable response to them.
5. Movement
• move from place to place to find food and mates and escape predators.
• plants could show limited degrees of movement but slowly. (e.g. growing)
6. Growth
• increase of size, height and complexity throughout their life until a certain period of time.
7. Reproduction
• to prevent the extinction of the specie as organisms die due to old age, diseases or killed by
predators, by producing offspring similar to themselves.

Light Microscope
Image formed should be inverted. eyepiece Usage
1. Use the low power eyepiece.
2. Turn the nosepiece to select a
low power objective.
3. Look through the eyepiece.
lens tube
Adjust the light intensity of the
lamp.
4. Place the slide onto the stage.
Use the clip to hold the slide in
stage objective position.
5. Use the coarse adjustment to
raise the stage until objective is
clip just above the slide.
fine adjustment 6. Look through the eyepiece.
lamp Carefully adjust the coarse
adjustment to lower the stage
coarse adjustment until the object is in focus.
base 7. Use the fine adjustment to obtain
a maximum sharpness of image.
Magnification = Eyepiece * Objective
Cells
Cell membrane
• All cells are
surrounded by
a cell
membrane, a
very thin layer
composed of
phospholipid
and protein.
• Controls the
movement of
substances into
and out of the
cell.
Cytoplasm
• Made of jelly-like substances. Many chemical reactions take place here.
Nucleus
• Usually a spherical body in the centre of the cell containing chromosomes which carries genes.
• Genes controls all the activities of the cell.
Cell Wall (Plant cells only)
• Made up of cellulose molecules which forms a rigid layer that protects, supports and gives shape to
the plant cell.
Chloroplast (Green plant cells only)
• Contains a green pigment called chlorophyll that absorbs light energy for making food by
photosynthesis.
Large Vacuole (Some plant cells only)
• Plane cells usually has a large vacuole in the centre filled with fluid of a solution of chemicals
containing salts, sugar and other soluble substances.

Level of Organization
Organism → System → Organ → Tissue → Cell → Small structure in a cell → Molecule → Atom
(human being) (circulatory system) (heart) (muscular tissue) (white blood cell) (nucleus) (DNA) (carbon atom)

chromosomes
Organisms
• Some organisms are made up of only one cell → unicellular organisms
• Most organisms are made up of thousands or millions of cells → multicellular organisms
◦ Their cells are simple and identical when they are first formed, they soon become specialized.
◦ Specialized cells grow into different shapes and sizes and have different functions, often
working together to perform special functions.
◦ The cells working together will form tissues, the tissues working together will form a organ, so
on and so forth.

Urinary System
Homeostasis
• Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable or relatively constant internal environment in a
continually changing external environment.
• Major parameters of the internal environment:
◦ A stable body temperature for chemical reactions to carry out properly.
▪ Skin is involved in keeping the body temperature at 36.5 – 37°C for humans.
 ◦ A stable oxygen content in blood to provide sufficient oxygen to cells for respiration, and
a stable carbon dioxide content in blood to maintain a stable pH in blood.
▪ Regulated by the lung through breathing (breathing system) and the heart (circulatory
system).
◦ A stable glucose level in blood to provide sufficient glucose for respiration.
▪ Mainly regulated by the liver and the pancreas.
◦ A stable water content in blood to maintain a stable amount of water content of the tissue
fluid.
▪ A stable water content in cells is essential for carrying metabolic activities properly.
▪ If too much water is gained or lost, the cells will not function properly and may die.
▪ Regulated by the kidney of the urinary system.
Structure of the Urinary System
vein artery Kidneys
• dark red, bean-shaped.
• Just below the ribs, one on each
kidney side of the backbone, but not
protected by the bones.
ureter Ureters
• Narrow tubes passing urine from
the kidneys to the urinary
sphincter bladder, with valves to prevent
urinary bladder
muscles backflow.
urethra Urinary bladder
Urethra • A muscular bag that stores urine.
• A muscular tube which passes urine from the urinary bladder to the outside with two sets of circular
muscles – sphincter muscles.
• When the urinary bladder is full, the sphincter muscles relax. The wall of the bladder contracts to force
the urine out of the body through the urethra. The process is called urination.
Structure of the Kidney nephon
Nephrons are the basic
units of the kidney.
cortex
renal artery

renal vein medulla

ureter
Function of Kidney
• Excretion of Metabolic Waste
②
◦ removes metabolic waste
(e.g. urea), excess salts and
water from the blood and
① produce urine.
• Keeping the Water Content and
Salt Content of the Blood
constant
◦ the production of urine
urine
depends on the amount of
Ultrafiltration and reabsorption water in the blood.
are two main processes involved
in urine production.
Breathing System
nasal cavity
Air Flowing In
trachea nostrils→nasal cavity→
pharynx→larynx→bronchus
nostrils mouth cavity →lung
Nose
bronchi pharynx • hair
larynx
(plural bronchus)
◦ filters the dust in air
rib Air must be:
1. warn • mucus
2. moist ◦ traps dust and germs
air sac
3. warm ◦ moisten the air
lung • blood capillary
◦ warms the air
diaphragm Trachea
(muscle) heart • tubes supported by C-shaped cartilage.
• the cilia on the surface beat in an
upward direction that moves the mucus that traps dust and germs.
• The mucus are either swallowed or coughed out.
Lung
• made up of millions of air sac
surrounded by many blood
capillaries.
• spongy in nature and pink in colour,
protected by ribs and diaphragm
• Gas exchange occurs at the air sac,
the oxygen will pass through the
wall of the air sac and blood
capillary.
• Red blood cells carries oxygen to
and carbon dioxide is collected from
all parts of the body and passes into
the air sac.
Respiration, Breathing and Gas
Exchange
• Respiration is a chemical reaction that
occurs in all living cells to break
Breathed Air
down food to release energy.
CO2 + H2O ↑
• Breathing is a muscular activity that draws fresh air
into the breathing system and forces the used air out. O2↓
• Gas exchange is the passage of oxygen and carbon Temperature ↑
dioxide from the air sacs into and out of the blood capillaries.
Breathing Mechanism
Parts of the Inspiration (Inhalation) Expiration (Exhalation)
Breathing system
Diaphragm Contracts (moves downwards) and Relaxes (moves upwards) and
becomes flattened becomes dome-shaped – During breathing, the lung
Intercostal muscles
continuously expand and return
Contract Relax
to its normal size.
Ribs Move upwards and outwards Move downwards and inwards – Breathing is brought about
Volume of chest Increases Decreases by the action of the diaphragm
and the intercostal muscles.
Pressure in lung Decreases and lower than the Increases and higher than the
– This changes the volume and
the pressure of the chest.
 pressure of air pressure of air
Air moves... into the lungs out of the lungs
Volume of the Lung
• During normal breathing, the volume of air
inhaled and exhaled is called tidal volume,
about 500 cm3.
• A greater volume of air can be exhaled with
force after the deepest possible inhalation, this
is called the vital capacity, about 3000 – 5000
cm3. This could be increased through training.
• There is still 1500 cm3 of air left inside the lungs after maximum exhalation and cannot be driven
out, this is called residual volume.
• Total lung capacity = vital capacity + residual volume
Effect of Exercise on Breathing
• Both the rate and depth of breathing increases during exercise to increase the oxygen supply so that
more oxygen can be supplied to the muscles cells for respiration to release energy.
• Data when looking at graph:
◦ Breathing rate (times / minute) = breathing rate * (60 / seconds)
◦ Volume of air passing into the lung in a minute (cm3) = Breathing rate (times / minute) * Depth
of breathing
Smoking and Health
Component of Health Hazard – Harmful substances in
tobacco smoke tobacco smoke will
enter the bodies during
nicotine • cause dependence smoking.
• reduce the growth of the foetus – Passive smoking refers
• increases the chance of heart diseases to situations where non-
tar • increases the chance of cancer (e.g. lung cancer) smokers breathe in
• causes yellowing of the fingers and teeth other people’s smoke in
the air, it may lead to
carbon monoxide • combines with haemoglobin which prevents it smoking-related diseases
from carrying oxygen and increase the chance
• therefore decreases physical fitness of cancer.
other irritants • causes chronic bronchitis, emphysema, gastric,
(s. P.33a, 33b)
duodenal ulcers and cataract
• decreases the resistance to diseases
Circulatory System (5 litres of blood in man)
Blood
Plasma (55%)
• consists of water (90%) and many different dissolved substances. (e.g. sugar, salt and urea)
Blood cells (45%)
Red Blood Cells White Blood Cells Blood Platelet
Shape biconcave disc shape irregular small plates inactivated
Size smaller larger very small
Structure • without nucleus • with nucleus • pieces of cell
• with haemoglobin • without haemoglobin fragments
Function • carries oxygen to all • used for body defence • to start blood clotting
parts of the body • kills the invading • prevents bleeding and
pathogen the invading of
pathogens
Production •
Life span: ~120 days • produced in the red • produced in the red
Site •
produced in the red bone marrow and bone marrow
bone marrow spleen
Human Blood Transfusion
• may die if a person loses more than 40% of blood.
• the red blood cells of the donor and the plasma of the recipient must be able to mix without
clumping, or else it will cause death due to the blocking of the blood vessels.
Blood group of Blood group of recipient – Blood group O: universal
donor A B AB O donors
– Blood group AB: universal
A ✓ X ✓ X recipients
B X ✓ ✓ X
(s. P.35c)
AB X X ✓ X
O ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Blood Vessels
• Blood is pumped by the heart to all parts of the body through the blood vessels.
• Types of blood vessels: artery, vein and capillary.
Blood Vessels Artery Vein Capillary
Direction of away from the heart towards the heart from arteries to veins
blood flow (towards the heart)
Wall of blood • thicker • thinner • one cell thick
vessels • with elastic fibre • without any elastic fibre
Lumen smaller larger very small
Blood pressure higher lower lower
Pulse ✓ X X
Valve X ✓ X
Position Deep in tissue Near the skin surface penetrate among tissue cells
• The exchange of materials takes place at the capillaries.
• The wall of the capillary is very thin to provide a short distance for the substances to move across it.
(oxygen and food→cells, metabolic wastes→blood)
Heart
• located inside the chest surrounded by two lungs, made up of cardiac muscles and weighs about
300g. The cardiac muscles contract and relax continuously throughout the whole life.
• consists of four chambers (the upper left and right atrium and the lower left and right ventricle)
separated by a thick septum.
• The thicker wall of the ventricles can produced a higher pressure for pumping the blood out of the
heart. The wall of the atria are thinner.
• Blood flows in only one direction. The valves can prevent the backflow of the blood.
◦ Tricuspid valve (R)
▪ present between RA and RV, prevents the backflow of blood from RV to RA.
◦ Bicuspid valve (L)
▪ present between LA and LV, prevents the backflow of blood from LV to LA.
◦ Semi-lunar valve
▪ present between artery and the ventricle, prevents the backflow of blood from the artery into
the ventricle.
 • maintains a continuous circulation of blood throughout the body via contraction and relaxation, each
cycles lasts for 0.8s.
◦ The normal heart rate for an adult at rest is ~75 bpm, it can be affected by age, exercise and
emotion.
lung
• Mammals have double circulation,
blood flows through the heart twice. vena
right left
atrium atrium pulmonary
◦ pulmonary circulation (lung) cava vein
▪ The deoxygenated blood right left
tricuspid bicuspid
collected from all parts of the valve ventricle ventricle valve
body is pumped to the lungs pulmonary aorta
artery
for gas exchange, then pumped
back to the heart through
all parts of the body
pulmonary veins.
◦ systemic circulation (all parts of the body) (LV) (s p. 38a) lung
▪ Contraction of LV pumps the oxygenated pulmonary pulmonary
blood to all parts of the body through the artery vein
aorta and arteries. Right heart Left
• Functions of the Circulatory System:
vena cava aorta
◦ For transporting food substances, oxygen,
body
metabolic wastes (e.g. urea and carbon dioxide) and heat.
parts
◦ Body defence (White Blood Cells and Blood platelets)
◦ For regulating the body temperature
Carbohydrates
Nutrition and Health
• Food provides energy to keep out body warm Lipids Primary food
and support daily activities. Substances that are
• Food provides raw materials for growth and Proteins essential to life
repair of body tissues. Water
• Food provides substances Food substances
that keep us healthy.
Vitamins Protective food
Carbohydrate
• are organic substances made up of Substances that keep
Minerals us healthy and help
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. A general prevent diseases
formula of Cx(H2O)y with a hydrogen atoms to Dietary fibre
oxygen atoms ratio of 2:1. (e.g. Glucose molecule C6H12O6)
• Types of Carbohydrate
monosaccharides disaccharides polysaccharides
• simplest forms of • formed when two • large molecules formed by
carbohydrates monosaccharides combine condensation of a large
• building blocks to build number of monosaccharides
other larger molecules molecules.
soluble in water soluble in water insoluble or only slightly soluble in water

taste sweet taste sweet NOT give a sweet taste

All are reducing sugar All are reducing sugar except sucrose NOT reducing sugar
• Glucose • Maltose • Glycogen (animal)
• Fructose • Sucrose • Starch (plant)
 • Cellulose (cell wall)
• Functions of carbohydrate
◦ Glucose, a fuel in respiration to release energy in cells
◦ Glycogen is a storage form of carbohydrate in animals, plants use Starch for energy reserves.
◦ Cellulose is the main component of cell walls in plants.
• Formation of disaccharides: condensation
glucose + glucose maltose + water
Protein hydrolysis
• are organic substances made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes sulphur, with
basic units called amino acids. condensation
peptides + peptides dipeptides + water
• Formation of dipeptides and polypeptides: hydrolysis
• The human body requires 20 different types of amino acid to synthesize proteins.
• Amino acid joins in a specific sequence and length to form a polypeptide chain, the amino acid
sequence determines the shape (conformation) of a protein molecule.
• Functions of Protein:
◦ mainly for growth and repair of body tissues as they are the components of various cellular
structures such as cytoplasm and cell membrane.
◦ Important molecules such as enzymes, antibodies and some hormones that are proteins.
◦ A temporary source of energy when the body is short of carbohydrates and lipids.
Lipid
• are organic substances made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but hydrogen atoms to oxygen
atoms ratio is greater than 2:1.
• insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents (e.g. alcohol).
• Triglycerides – fat and oil
◦ can be a source of energy.
◦ subcutaneous fat can serve as insulating layer to reduce heat loss.
◦ Adipose tissues are found around internal organs and act as shock-absorbers for protection.
• Cholesterol
◦ a raw material for producing cell membrane, lipid hormones and vitamin D.
• Phospholipids
◦ for the formation of cell membrane.
Food substance Food Test Procedure Positive Result
Glucose Glucose Dip the paper into the sample. If glucose is present,
test paper glucose test paper will have a
specific colour change.
Reducing sugar Benedict’s sample + Benedict’s solution If reducing sugar is present,
test ↓ Benedict’s solution will turn
Shake the test tube from blue to red with brick
↓ red precipitate.
Put the test tube in a boiling water
bath for 10 minutes.
Starch Iodine test sample + iodine solution If starch is present,
Iodine solution will turn from
brown to blue black
Protein Protein Dip the paper into the sample. If protein is present,
test paper protein test paper will have a
 specific colour change.
Lipid Grease sample + drop on filter paper • Translucent spot is formed on
spot test ↓ the filter paper.
dry→observe under light • If lipid is present,
↓ translucent spot will disappear
organic solvent→dry→observe after immersing into the
under light organic solvent.