DefinitionsinPhysics 10007111

DEFINITIONS IN PHYSICS
K ARL E U G E N G U TH E , PH D . .
PR OF E SSOR OF PH YS I CS I N THE E R SI TY OF M I C H IG AN
U N IV
AND D E A N OF TH E G R A DU A TE D E PA R TM ENT
mmg oth
MACMI L L AN COMPANY
1913
All ri hts r eserved

B! THE MACMILL A N COM PANY .
Published Decemba, 1 9 1 3 .
New m
an Oral
J Cashi ng Co -
Bel wi ck
. Smith Co .
Norwood , Mu a, U S A
. . . .
N AW " 3 L 5
‘
C ut ( e
“
“
PREFACE
AB OU T six years ago th e author wrote apa mp hlet

whi ch was i ntend ed
”
on D efi ni ti o ns in Phy s i cs ,
mainly f or h is o wn s tud ents i n the State U ni vers i ty
of I owa . The small ed i ti on w as ex hausted in l ess
th an two years , s i nce the p amphlet was us ed i n s everal
ot her uni versi ti es . In sp ite of th e freq uent demand s
f o r a new ed i ti o n, th e p ublica ti on o f t he b ook was
d elayed unti l it co ul d be thoroughly revi s ed .
To w ri te ab ook of this ki nd is neith er an eas y no r
a pleas ant tas k most cases th e only sati s facto ry

. In
d efini ti on o f ap hy sical quantity is th e equati on co n
meeting i t wi th o ther quantities p revi ously defined .
I ts concep t mus t be evol v ed by aback ward p roces s ,
and can b ecome cl ear only after we h av e learned all

ab out i ts measurement and appli cation to p hy s i cal
ro blems I t w i l l be f o und th at i n many uch a
p . s c s es
th e a utho r h a s no t ma d e any attemp t t o fi nd t he

d eeper meaning of s ome math emat ical rel ati on
between two or mo re physi cal quanti ties ho wev er ,
i mpo rtant the relati on might h ave become i n o ur

s ci ence.
vi PREFACE
Many writers of hav e tri ed to fi nd a

tex tbo ok s
sol uti o n o f th e d i fii cul ty by gi vi ng to a new q ua n
'
ti ty a mo re famili ar name a nd t hus ha

, v e b efo gg ed
th e mind s o f th e stud ents Fo r ex amp le the d efi

.
,
ni ti o n o f d iff erence o f p o tent ial us uall y begi ns It

i s that w o rk whi ch but we kno w th at i t i s
no t work a t a ll The main o bj ect of t his little bo o k
.
i s to co unteract th e bad i nfluence wh ich l oos e st ate

ments o f this ki nd hav e i n th e teachi ng of el emen
tary p hysics They lead to mathematical equatio ns
.
in whi ch th e d imensi o ns on the t wo si d es are no t

i d enti cal.
Frequently th e sa em terms are us ed by d iff erent

autho ri ti es wi th di fi eren t mean i ng ca
'
. In s uc h s es
a choi ce mus t be mad e whi ch wi ll aro us e th e orit i
cis m o f thos e wh o prefer to use th e term f o r some

thi ng el s e .
Ano ther matter left to th e i nd i vi d ual j ud gment

o f th e a uth or is th e s el ecti on of certa in fundamental
co ncep ts up on whi ch h e wi sh es t o b ui l d up h is sy s
tem f or o ur sci ence is n o thin g but an a

, t tempt to
e en t i n a s y s te m at ized f orm th e v ery numero us
p r s
p hy si ca l p h en o m e na T
. h e ch oi ce as t o w ha t s h o ul d
be consid ered f und amenta l remai ns more o r l ess
arbi trary . So mewh at agai ns t hi s better j ud gment
th e a ut h o r h a s f o ll o wed th e cus to ma ry meth od ex ,
cep t tha t th e d efi ni ti on of ma ss ha s b een d eferred

PREFACE v ii
un til that offorce h as been gi ven whi ch in h is

, ,
Op i n i o n , i s amore fun d amental con cep t th an that o f

mas s Th e system of el ect ro mag net ic terms may
.
be built up starti ng either with electros tatic quant i

,
t i es o r with magnetosta ti c co ncep ts . B o th meth o d s

are i n us e .It was t herefo re th o ught bes t i n d efin ,
ing such quanti ties as current r esis tance and po ten

,
t ial d ifi erence t o p res ent b oth f o rms o f d efi ni ti o n

'
.
,
Th e scope of ab ook o f thi s kind is d etermi ned by

th e p urp o se f or whi ch i t h a s b een wri t ten Since.
th e p resent v olume i s intend ed t o be used i n co n

n ecti on wi th a fi rs t co ur s e o f coll eg e o r uni v ers it y
hy i an d t h a li l ab ra t ry cours es n o d efi ni
p s cs e e r e r o o ,
ti ons of qua nti ti es whi ch a re menti o ned o nly i n mo re
adv anced co urses are incl ud ed . I t was als o tho ught

bes t to omit d efi niti o ns of phys ical ins truments .
It i s i nev i table that much will be f ound op en t o

cri tici s m a , nd d o ubtl es s ma ny o f th e d efi nit i o ns ma y
s ti ll be i mp rov ed Any help in p o in ti ng out d efect s
.
and erro rs will be highl y app reciated . I t i s hop ed

tha t i n sp i te o f s uch d efects th e D efi ni tio ns may
be o f as much help to th e earnes t s t ud ent o r t eacher
of el ementa ry hy s i cs a s t h f o rmer edi ti o n h a s
p e
rov ed t o be
p .
K E G U THE
. . .
U mv nns rr x or MI C H I G AN,
October, 19 13 .
CONTENTS
F U ND A M E N T A L DE F IN I T ION S
C HA PTER
I . M E C H A N IC S
A . Ki nemati cs
B . Dynami cs
SOU N D
H E AT
M A G N E T IS M AN D E L E C T R IC ITY
A . M agneto statics
B . E lectros tati cs
C . E lectro magneti sm
D . E lectro n s and Rad io activ i t y
OPT IC S
DEFINITIONS IN PH YSICS
F U NDAM ENTAL DE FINI TIONS
a
( ) P hy si cs i s t h at b ran ch o f th e n at ur al s ci ences
whi ch treats o f th e g ener a l p rop erti es o f b o d ies i n

th e o uter worl d and of th e general l aws gov erni ng
natural p h en o mena .
b
( ) F u n d am ental Conce ts
p . C ertain concepts used
i n p hys i cs are d ed ucti o ns and g eneral i zati o ns from
i nd i vi d ual ex p er i en ce and a
c nno t be s tri ctly d efi ned .
S uch are th e co ncep ts of ex tensi on ( sp ace, with i ts

su bd i vi si ons of v olume area , , leng th and d i recti on) ,
ti me f or ce warmth cold etc
, , , , .
The c oncepts of ex tensio n are closely related to such f unda

mental geo metri cal concepts as a poi nt, li ne, s urf ace, Opening
between two lines or surf aces , etc .
( ) cA h
p y si ca l qu an ti ty i s a d efi ni te co ncep t , c a
p abl e o f m eas u r e men t I t i
. s ei th er a fund a m e nt al
concep t o r d eriv ed fro m f undamental co ncep ts .
Th e use of alo gi cally developed y

s ste m of physi cal quantiti es
greatly f acili tates th e description and clas sifi catio n of physi cal
pheno mena .
2 DEFINI TIONS IN PH YSICS
d
( ) A p yh si cal law is an eq uat i o n betw een eq ui v a
lent p hysi cal quantiti es s tudi ed fro m d iff erent po ints
o f v i ew .
A physical law f requently ex presses merely aproporti onality

between d ifi erent physical quantities In th i s case the pro por.
t i o nali ty f acto r f orms a new phy si cal co ncept whi ch is o f ten

bes t defi ned by the equatio n Th e equatio n always f urni sh es
.
ameans f or the measurement o f thi s new p hysi cal quanti ty .
( ) e Fund amental Assump ti ons ( Ax io ms ) . 1

( ) Al l
p hy s i calp h en o men a t ak e p lace a n d al l b o d i es are ,
l o cated i n a three d imen s i o nal sp ace ; ( 2) all natu

,
-
ra l phenomenareq ui re t ime f or t h ei r o ccurrence .
l . Fundamental uni ts are th e uni ts o f arbi trarily

h
c os en p hy s i cal q uan t i t i es i n terms of whi ch th e
uni ts of all o th er q uan t i t i es may be ex p res s ed . Th e
latter are call ed d eri ved uni ts .
Thus all units i n mechanics are ex press ed i n ter ms of th ose

o f mas s, lengt h and ti me O th er f un damental units are the
.
degree of temperature uni t permeability (76 ) and uni t

dielectric constant
Th e uni t of mass i n th e metri c s yste m is th e
i
t h p art of th e mass of astan d ard , mad e of p l ati
n n
nu m irid ium and kept at th e i nternati onal B ureau o f
-
W eights and Measures at Sevres France The unit , .
i s called agram (g ) one millig ram (mg ) g;

o ne k il o g ram (kg) 1 000g ; one metri c to n 1 000kg .
F U NDAM E N T AL DE FINI T IONS 3
The uni t of mass i n the E nglish sys te m i s th e

mass of a pl atinum s tand ard and is called a p ound .
One p ound g . In en gineeri ng a unit o f

mass is so metimes us ed whi ch i s ti mes as la rg e
as th e mass of o ne p o und . Th e names p rop os ed f or

th is uni t, th e slug or th emy dron , hav e not been gen
erally accepted . For a co mp arison of th e d iff erent
ystems of units
s , d eri ved from th e d ifi erent units o f
mass s ee Table I art
, , . 36 .
The standards are called th e i nternati onal kilogram and

th e imp eria po und
avo irdupo is Two copies o f the i nter ”
l .
nati onal ki lo gram are kept at the B ureau of Sta ndards i n
Washi ngton, D C They are called the Ameri can prototyp es

. .
V3 . The uni t o f length in th e metric system is th e

Th th p art of th e d i s tance, at th e temp erature o f melt
i ng i ce, between t wo certain li nes o n th e surface of a
p l atin um i ri d i-
um bar p r eser v ed at th e i n t er n at i o nal
B ureau of Weights and Mea s ures a t Sé v res Fra nce , .
The unit is called acentimeter ( cm) One meter (m) .
1 00 cm o ne kil o meter (km)

, 1 000 In one milli ,
meter (mm) cm o ne mi cron (u) , mm .
Two Ameri can co pies of th e meter (American prototyp es)

are kept at the B ureau of Standards i n Washington , DC .
The unit of length in the s o -c

alled E nglis h sys tem
i s t he f oot and is e u q al to o ne thi rd of ay ar d The .
U ni ted States yard 1s m .

4 DE FINI TIONS IN PH YSICS
One fo o t 1 2 inch es . One mil e feet .
One i nch m c . One f o ot m .
One mile km .
Strictly speaki ng, the U n ited States yard c m)

diff ers in length f ro m the B ri tish yard cm) .
The uni t of timein Phy si cs i s th e n i n th p art

of amean s olar day . I t i s called asecond .
6 0 seco nd s o ne mi nute .
6 0 mi nutes o ne h o ur .
24 hours o ne d ay .
One si d eri al d ay 2 3 hr 5 6 min sec .
One s olar year 36 5 d 5 h r 48 min 46 s ec .
One sid eri al year 36 5 d 6 h r 9 min 9 sec .
5 Th e dimensi onal f ormula o f aphysi ca l qua ntit y

L .
i s an ex p ress io n s h o wi ng w hi ch o f the fund ament al

units enter into i ts o wn uni t a n d thei r d i mens i o n s a
, s ,
g i v en by th e i nd i ces wi t h wh i ch t h e a
y pp ea r .
The symbols of the quanti ti es used are i nclosed i n brackets .
Thus th e dimensional ex press i on f or mass i s [M] f o r len gth ,
L
[ ] ; f or ti me T
[ ] ,A n ex am
. p le f o r th e d i mens i o nal f ormula
of aderi ved q ua ntity (art 28 ) i s .
F
[ ] [M L T ]
-fl
.
6 Th e units of area A and volume V or r are

.
, , , ,
generally d eri v ed fro m th e uni ts of l ength ; thus a

s quar e centi meter a cubic cent i meter (cc) a ,
s quare f oot a nd a cub i c foo t One are = 1 0 cm ;

“ ”
.
F U ND AMEN T AL DEFINI T IONS 5
o ne hectar e 1 00 ares . Th e ci r cular mil is th e area

of a ci rcl e, o ne mil i n) i n d i ameter . An
acre s quare yard s ab o ut h ectare .
Fo r li q ui d meas ures ind ep end ent uni ts are us ed

as a r ule . Th e uni t o f v ol ume i n th e metri c s y s
t em i s th e v ol ume of o ne k i l og ram of water at
4 C
°
un d er atmo sp h eric p r ess ure I t is cal led th e .
li ter , and e quals cc . One li ter

mi lliliters .
I n th e E nglis h s ystem o ne g allon 2 31 ,

cu in
li ters . Th e U ni ted States uni t f o r d ry meas ure
is th e bus hel cu in .
Th e B ri tis h uni ts diff er cons i derably f ro m th e American ;

t hus o ne B ri tis h gallo n cu in B
and th e ri tis h ushel b
cu in .
[ area
] [L ’
] [ v ol u me] D
[ ]
7 . Th e d en si ty , d , of a s ubs tance is i ts mass p er
uni t v o l u me .
d m/ V .
It is nu meri cally equal to t he mass in unit volu me .
[ ]
d [MI
-
8
]
Uni t d ensi ty i s th e gramp er cc .
Th e sp ecific gr avi ty o f a s ub st ance is th e rati o

i ts d ensity t o th e d ens i ty of water . I n th e case
gases air is o ften us ed as th e stand ard .

6 DEFINI T IONS IN PH YSICS
I t is a pure nu mber ; i n the metric s ystem th e p

s eci fi c
gr viat y of a b
su st nce a is nu meri cally q
e ual to i ts den sity .
T h is is ex act o nl y i f th e milliliter is c ho sen as the uni t of
vo l u me .
Th e sp ecific volume , v, o f a s ub s tance i s its v ol u me

p er uni t mass .
M [ P M
(f ) T h e
p osi ti on f
o abody wi t h ref eren ce t o an o t h er
is d etermi ned by l eng th and d i recti o n A di r ection .
is d etermined by an angl e .
8 . An ang le, 0, is th e op eni ng i n clud ed bet ween

t wo i ntersecti ng s traight lines I t i s measured by .
the r atio of th e su b tend ed arc , s, o f a ci rcle, ab o ut

th e p o i nt of i ntersecti o n as cent er, t o i ts rad i us, R .
Uni t angle i n th e ci rcul ar measure i s th e angl e

whos e arc equals th e rad i us ; i t is called a r ad i an .
U ni t angl e i n th e d egr ee s y stem i s th e 360th p art of
2 7r rad i ans One rad ian . d eg rees .
1
°
( d eg ree = 6 0
)
'
( mi n ut es ) ; 1
'
60 ”
( s eco nd s
) .
0
[ ] L
[ ] L
[ ] . An angle h as no d i mens i o ns .
A soli d btend ed by as urface at ap oint

ang le, a) , su ,
lyi ng o uts i d e t h e surface i s th e O peni ng fo rmed by ,
t he bun dl e o f s tra igh t l ines d rawn from th e giv en ,

F U ND AMEN T AL DEFINI T IONS 7
p o i nt to ev er y b o un d ary of the s urface

p o i nt o f the .
A s oli d angle is measured by t he rati o of th e areaA ,
cut out by th e bun dl e o f s traigh t li nes from as p here

ab out th e gi v en p oint as center to th e s q uare of th e ,
rad ius R o f th e sph ere .
A
w=
R
“
The s o li d angle su btend ed by aclosed s ur face s ur

round i ng ap oi nt i s 4 7r .
Uni t ang le i s a s ol i d angle

s oli d cutt i n g o ut uni t
areaf rom th e s urface of asp h ere o f uni t rad ius .
[ ]
on
[L ’
] D
[ ] . A s oli d angle has no d i mensi ons .
I . ME C H AN ICS
(g) M echa n i cs i s th at p ar t o f p hy s i cs whi ch t reat s
o f t h e mot i o ns a nd equil i b ri um o f b od ies a nd th e
g eneral laws rel ati ng to them .
A . K IN E M A TICS
h
( ) E mati cs i s that p art o f mechani cs whi ch
ne
t reats o f th e moti ons o f b o d i es with o ut reference to

the na ture o f the b o d ies o r t o th e caus es p rod uci ng
th e mo tions .
9 . A mater i al p arti cle is a geometri cal p o in t

end o wed wi th mass .
-
10 . A s calar q uanti ty is a quanti ty having o nl y
mag ni tude , but no d i recti o n .
Some scalar as mas s, v olume and dens i ty are

quantities ,
alway s po siti ve ; oth ers , as temperature, po tential and quanti ty

of electri ci ty, ma y be p o si ti ve o r neg ati ve .
A vector
quanti ty i s a quantity having magnitud e ,
d irecti o n and s ense .
It may be po siti ve or ne gati ve

, according to its sense .
A vector is a s traight line repres entin g a v ector

quantity .
M E CHA NICS 9
The length of the li ne p

re resents th e magnitude , its o ri enta
ti on i n th e di agram the directio n and an arrowhead th e sen se
of the vector quanti ty .
A rotor i s av ect o r whi ch must be d r awn thro ugh

ad efini te p oi nt . It i s al o cal ized v ect o r .
The di stance bet ween t wo p oints is

11 . th e lengt h
o f th e s traig ht line co nnecti ng them .
Th e distance f rom o ne p oi nt to ano ther i s av ecto r

quantity .
12 . A disp lacement is a ch ange of p osi tion .
It i s av ecto r quantity and may be measured either i n linear ,
or angular uni ts , or both .
An angul a r dis placement i s represented by av ecto r, p erp en
d icular to th e plane of th e angle, and o f len gth , numeri cal ly

equa l to the a g e
n l Th n
e se se i n.whi ch a g h h anded screw
ri t-
will a d vance, if gi ven atwi st, is taken a s th e posi tiv e sense of th e
angular di splacement of the screw .
r 13 . Moti on is th e ( cont inuous ) p roces s o f change
of p o s i t i o n .
a . Recti linear moti on is motion i n an un varying
d irecti on .
6 . Curvi li near
'
motion is moti on wi th varyi ng
d i rection .
Curvature, C, is the rate of ’

c h ange of d i recti on wit h
resp ect to th e distance, or th e sp ace rate o f chan ge
of d i recti o n .
C hange of di rection of acurve is meas ured by t he

gl e th rough whi ch th e tang ent t o th e curv e turns .
do 1
0
a
,
“
!
l
]
-
The average rate of hange of aphysical

c quantity ,y w i t
,h
res pect to another, z, i s the ratio of the d i fi erence i n va lue o f
th e fi r stquantity to the corresponding ch ange of th e o ther .
Th e f ormer quantity i s called t he dependent the seco nd th e ,
i ndepen d en t vari able In general this rati o is not a co ns tant

.
,
.
In o rder to rende the ex pr es s io n ex act f or a gi ven po i nt or

r
i nstant the change of th e i ndependent v ari a ble must be taken

ver y small , or, i n th e lan ua e of g g calcul us, th e ratio z
£a 1
:
mus t
be f o und f or th e limi t A z 0, which is ex pres sed by z f or a
fi ni te ch a ge of y we h ave y,
I The average value o f
’
n y, zd x .
the ati o in the

r no tatio n o f calculus is : z
f zd x
Id s:
14 Translati on of ab ody
. is a mo ti o n in whi ch the
d is placements o f all p oi nts of the bod y ar e li near,
p aral l el an d e qual .
Th e mo tio n o f a body i n translati on i s co mpletely defi ned

when the moti on of one point o f th e body is gi ven .
Rotation of ab o dy i s amoti on in whi ch th e d isp lace

ments o f all p oints o f th e b o d y are angul ar and equal .
Th e ax i s of rotati on i s th e s traight line formed by

t h e center s o f t h e ci rcul a r paths d es cri bed by th e
p o i nt s o f t h e ro t at i ng b o d y .
The motio n of aro tati ng body i s co mpletely defin ed by the

directi on of the ax is of ro t ati o n and the motio n of any one
po int of th e body .
M E CHANICS 11
y 15 . Velocity at agi v en i ns tant is th e time rate of
moti on .
It may be ei th er vari able or co nstant . I t is avector quanti t y .
a L inear,
. or r ectili near, veloci ty , v, i s th e ti me
rate of moti on res ulti n g in rectil i ne r a d is placement .
v = §3
, and 8
dt
It is nu meri cally equal to th e dis tance passed over i n the

nex t seco n d if t he veloci t y remai ns co nstant .
I ts uni t i s avelocity of one centi

pmeter er s econd , o r
si mply , th e centi meter p er second ( metri c s ys tem) , or
one f oot
p er s econd E
( gn l is h s ys tem) .
The average linear veloci t

y d uri ng the time , t, i s
b. Angular veloci ty , s, i s th e ti me
a r ate of moti on
resul tin g in angular d i spl acement .
It is avector quantity and p

re resente d si milarly to angular
displacement (art .
[ 1 7
[ ]
w
Its uni t is an angular v el oci t y of one r adi an p er

s econd , o r o f o ne d egree p er s eco nd .
DEFINI TIONS IN PH YSICS
Sp eed , 5, i s the time ra

c. t e wi th whi ch a b od y
moves al o ng i ts path , wi thout reference to d irecti on .
da
v av erage s peed, v
dt
I t i s th e magni tude of th e velocit y .
I ts uni t is o ne centi meter p er s eco n d .
16 . m recti linear motion

U nif or i s a motio n o f co n
stan t li near v el o ci ty .
vt s
o
.
Unif orm ang ular moti on is a motion of co nsta

“
nt
gul ar v el001ty
'
0 at 00 .
If amateri al p article mo ves uniformly al o ng acircul ar

p ath , t hi s motio n is called unif or m cir cular moti on
( ar t .
17 . Accelerated moti on is a moti on of vari a l e

b
vel oci t y .
Acceler ati on i s th e time rate o f c hange o f v el o ci ty .
It i s avecto r quantity and may be ei ther variable or cons tant .
a L inear accelerati on, a, is th e t ime rate of

. ch an eg
of li near velo ci t y dv
.
does not need to be in the same di rection as the motion o f

It
the body .
a
[ ] [ L T
MECHA NICS 13
Uni t linear acceler ation is th e hange o f v elocity c
by o ne uni t (f o r ex ample : one centimeter per sec

o nd i o ne s eco nd I h e met ri c s y s tem i t is th e
) n n t .
centi m eter p er s econd p er s econd ; i n th e E ngli sh sy s
tem t h e f oot p er s econd p er second .
Gr avi ty o r accelerati on d ue to g ravity g is th e

, , ,
l inear accelerati on d ue t o th e earth s attracti on

’
.
I ts alue (g) f ound at aplace, H meters ab ove

v sealev el , may
be red uced to sealevel by means o f th e equatio n
90 g H .
H elmet t a equati on f or g at s ea level and geograph ical

’
lati tude d;
go (1 si n a s in ’
a
) .
f b Angular accelerati on , a, i s th e ti me ra
. te of c hange
of ang ul ar v el ocit y .
Unit angular acceleration i s an a ccel erat i on of one
radian, or o ne d eg ree, p er second p er second .
18 . Unif ormly accelerated moti on i s a moti on wi th

co nstant accelerati o n . If th e acceleration is in the
d i recti on of th e moti on
a= S
§ at2
+ v t
o ; v = at + v
0
.
19 . Unif orm cir cular motion of a particle is a mo

tio n a
o f co nst nt S p eed i n acircular
p at h .
8 = 5t ; a
The linear acceleration, a, while con stant i n magnitude and

sense ch anges i ts directi o n wi t h co n stant angular v eloci ty It .
g
i s at right an les to the path
general th e accelerati on of aparticle in curvi linear motio n

In
may be eso lved i nto two compo nents 1) tangenti al to the
r ,
path and equal to 2

( ) at i g ht angles to thre p ath an d equal
a
to
g where r is the radi us of curvature of th e path at the po int
d
un er co nsi era d
ti on .
Th e p erio d T of aunifor m circular moti on i s the

ti me i n wh i ch the p art icl e p ass es o nce aro un d the
ci rcle, o r, th e ti me i nterv al between two successi v e
p ass ag es of th e p arti cl e thro ugh th e s ame p oi nt i n th e
m
s a e s ens e .
77
T
u
or
[ Peri o d ] T
[ ] .
20 . Si mp le harmonic motio n is rectili ne r a mot i on

i n whi ch th e (l i n ear
) accel erati o n i s d i rect ed t o ward s
a center and i s pr o po rti o nal to th e d is tance of th e

moving par ticle f ro m i t .
i f V
‘ fl
cw ; v :t v r a “
.
MECHANICS 15
The amp li tud e r mple harmo ni c moti on is

of si
the g reatest di s t ance from t he center reached by th e

vibrati ng p arti cle .
Ci r cle of ref er ence is a ci rcle co nstructed aro und

th e center o f si mpl e h armo nic mo ti o n o ne o f th e di am ,
eters b eing th e pa th o f th e v i brati ng p article .
I ts radi us is t heref ore th e ampli tude of the s i mple h armoni c

moti on .
Ref erence p oint i s ap oint as sumed to mo ve on th e

ci rcl e o f ref erence wi th un i fo rm cir cular mo ti o n s o
th at i ts p roj ecti o n up o n th e d iameter co i nci d es at

ev ery i ns tant w ith th e parti cle in si mple h armoni c
moti o n .
I
”
P eri od f
o vi br ati on i s th e ti me i nterv al between
tw o s ucces si v e p as s ag es of th e p art i cle thr ough the
sa e m p o i nt in th e m
s a e s ense .
T= 2
I n si mple harmoni c moti on th e p eri o d is Often used

as th e uni t o f t i me .
[ Pe ri o d ] T
[ ] .
1
F requency is th e ti me rat e of v i bration n
p eri o d
It is numeri call y equal to the num
ber of vi brati ons made in
uni t ti me . f
I]n [ T ]
“
P hase is th e fracti o n o f a whol e p eri o d whi ch h as

el aps ed s ince t h e b od y l as t passed thr o ugh th e cent er
i n t h e po si ti v e sens e .
P hase angle, a t, i s th e angl e s w ept out by th e

referen ce i n t i n e i t l a t a d th u h th
p o , s c s p sse ro
g e
p o i n t corres p o nd i n g to th e cent er of si mple h ar

mo nic mo t io n .
It is f re quentl y us ed to measu e the phas e phase

r : 4 ’
5fl ‘ '
Time angle , 0, i s t h e angl e s w ep t o ut by t h e r e fe r
ence i nt i n ce zero ti me, i s , Si nce time wa s b eg un

p o s . .
t o be counted .
0 mt .
In plotting the p os i tio n o f a parti cle i n Simple

harmoni c mo tion at d iff erent ti mes th e t ime angle is
f req uently used i ns tead of th e ti me .
Ep och ang le, e, is the p has e angle at zero t i me .
e= — wt .
= a — w’r s i n — m%
z 4) ¢ .
Angular harmoni c moti on abo ut an ax is i s an

21 .
angular mo ti on i n whi ch t he ang ular accel erati on

i s Opp osit e in sense and p rop ortional to th e angular
displacement .
a=
MECHA NICS 17
22 . Damp ed harmoni c moti on harmonic motion

is
with d ecreas i ng amplitud e ( s uch t h at t h e rati o o f
s uccessi ve ampli tudes remai ns co ns tant ) .
z 2
d” d x
—O a— Xc —ct 77
2d _
+
’
bz , 8 1 11 wt , T
dt z—
Vb a
z
L og ari thmi c d ecr ement i s th e natural lo g ari thm o f
th e r atio of t wo s uccessi ve amplitud es .
7t = aT ~
.
23 . P endulum moti on is a motion und er t he in

fl uence o f aconstant accel eratio n, g, the parti cle bei ng
const rai nt to mo ve in aci rcle , o f rad ius l, wh o se plane
is p arall el to th e d irectio n of th e accel erati o n .
T= 2 7r + 1 Sin2 9 + 9 - -
s in4 f
4 2 64
24 . Wave moti on is a mod e of t rans ferri ng a d is

t urban ce t hro ug h an el as ti c med ium accompanied by
p eri o di c v ari ati ons i n th e p hy s i cal co n di ti o n o f th e
p o rti o ns o f th e med i um in volv ed .
It i s characteri zed by unif o m rectili near motion (art

r .
8 vt.
Waves are mov ing g eo met ri cal figures formed by

vi brating parti bl es .
They may ex ist i n either one, two or three d i ms nsi onal s pace .
W e speak o f th e moti on and the veloci ty of a wave in the

same way as of the moti on and velocity of amaterial parti cle .
O
18 D E FINI T IONS IN PH YSICS
The term wave is generalized so as to be applicable to any

f o rm of wave mo ti o n ev en tho ugh no defi nite geo metrica
, l fi gur e
of th e wa ve ex i sts W e speak thus o f light waves , temperature
.
waves , etc .
A si mp le wave is awav e represented by aSine cur ve .
The displacements of aparti cle i n si mple harmonic mo tio n

(art . 20) if plo tted as a f uncti o n o f th e ti me f o rm a s i mple ,
wave .
A wave f r on t i s a co ntinuo us s ur face containi n g

p o i n ts o f th e wav e that are in th e same ph ase of vi bra
ti o n .
A wave length i s th e d is tance b etween a wav e

f ro n t and th e nex t wav e fr o n t havi ng p oi nts i n the
m
sa e p h as e . It i s th e d is tance trav ers ed by awave
d uri ng o ne ri o d
p e .
A v/ n
where v i s th e v elo city o f th e wav e and n the f re

quenoy of v i bration .
The seco nd defi nitio n allo ws the mea s urement of wa ve
length , if the term wave is used i n i ts generalized meani ng .
m 13
[ ]
Amp li tud e qf a wave i s th e max imum v ariatio n at
a gi v en place fro m th e co ndi ti o n o f res t .
If th e wave moti on i s d ue to si mple harmo ni c

motio n o f p arti cles th e ampli tud e , of t h e wave be
co mes i d enti ca
l with t hat o f th e si mple harmo ni c
motion .
MECHANICS 19
25 . A longi tudinal vi brati on i s av ib rati on in wh ich

th e p art icl es vi brate i n th e d i rection in wh ich th e
wav e i s p ro pagated , o r, in general, i n which th e p eri
o d ic d i sturb an ce i s t hat o f av ector l yi ng in th e d irec
ti o n of th e p r o p ag at i o n of th e wav e .
A trans verse vi brati on i s a v ibrati on in whi ch th e
p arti cl es vi brate at ri ght angl es t o th e d irecti o n i n

whi ch th e wave i s p p
ro ag ated , o r,general i n
in ,
whi ch th e varyi ng vecto r is at ri gh t angles t o th e

d i recti on of th e p ropag ati o n of th e wav e .
A torsi onal vi br ation i s a v i b rati on i n whi ch th e

p art i cl es vi brate in ci rcles wh ose p lanes are p erpen
d i cul ar to th e d irecti on o f p rop ag at i o n o f th e w av e .
26 . I n terf er ence is th e d es tructi ve o r reé nf or ci ng
actio n of d ifi erent sys tems o f wav es up o n eah er

c h ot .
D ifl r acti on i s of th e line o f p r o p aga

'
th e bend i ng
ti o n of moti o n aro und
wav e th e edg e o f an ob s tacle .
It i s an i nte rf erence ph eno menon .
B . DYN AM ICS
() y
i D n am i cs i s th at p art o f mech ani cs wh i ch t r eats
o f the fo rces a cti ng up on b o di es a nd of th e mot i ons
or e quili b riap rod uced by fo rces .
(j) A x i om 8 A ll b
. o d i es r el ati v ely at res t re mai n
at res t , and bo di es in mo ti on cont i nue in moti on ,
whi ch will be f m rectilinear moti on

uni o r , unl ess d is
t urbed by o uts i de infl uences .
27 . I nerti a of a b o d y is i ts p ersistence i n its con

d iti on o f res t o r uni form rectil inea r mo ti o n I t is .
meas ured by th e mass of th e bo d y .
28 . Force is the caus e o f a change o r of a ten

d ency to h ange i n th e s tate of res t o f a bod y
c or of
i ts d evi ati o n fro m uni fo rm rectilinear mo tio n .
The i deaof f orce is bas ed upo n th e f undamen tal concept of

the eff o rt necess a ry to ch a nge t h e posit io n o r the unif o m r
recti li near moti o n o f abo dy I t i s ass umed to be t he cause o f

.
s uch ach a nge to be pro po rti o na

, l t o the acceleratio n prod uced and ,
to be i n the di recti on of the accelera ti on I t is avecto r quantity . .
A fo rce is measured by th e e uaq

t ion
F ma ,
which may s erv e as ad efinit ion .
[ ]
F [ M M
Uni t f or ce ( ab s ol ut e s y
s te m) i s th at fo rce wh ich
g i v es un i t mass uni t accelerati on . In the met ri c
s ystem i t i s th e force whi ch giv es on e g ram an accel
erati o n o f o ne centi meter p er s econ d p er seco nd . It
is called adyne . I n th e E nglish s ystem uni t force
is called ap ound al .
Th e weight, w, o f ab o dy is th e fo rce of attractio n of
the eart h f o r th e bo d y , res is ti n g an efi o rt t o lift i t .
10 mg .
Thi s giv es anew d efinition o f mass : Th e mass of a

M E CHANICS 21
bod y is a chara cteristi c p rop erty of th e body , p ro
p o rt i o n al , at agi v en pl ace, t o i ts wei gh t .
It is co mmonly meas ured by aco mpari son of the wei ght of

th e body with that of astan dard (art .
a !
“
Uni t weight (g ravit ati o nal s ys tem) i s th e fo rce
wh i ch gi v es uni t mass a n accel era ti on eq ual to g rav
ity In th e metri c sy s tem i t is called ag ram weig ht ;
.
i n th e E nglish system uni t weight is cal led a pound

weight, or Si mply, ap ound .
One gram weigh t 9 8 1 dy nes , nearl

y .
If af orce i s applied to abo dy and no change of moti on re

sults f ro m i t i f t he b ody i s i n equilibrium wi th r es pect to
t he f orce) , areacting f orce q al to the appli ed
o r resi st ance e u
f orce and i n the oppo site d irection is pro duced a cco mpanied ,
by so me change i n the interacti ng bodies ; f or ex ample compres ,
si o n or elon gation .
«
r ’
29 . Momentum, or q uantity o f motio n, N , of amov
i ng bo d y, i s th e p rod uct of i ts mass and v eloci ty
N mv .
N
[ ] [ MI T
I t is avector quantity .
Th e f mo m
unit o
en tum i s th e mo ment um o f agr am
mov ing wi th avelo city of one centi meter per second .
Th e name bole h as b een propos ed f or this unit .
Im
30 p.u l se, 1; i s th e eff ect of aforce up o n th e s tate
o f moti o n o f abod y I t is mea

. s ured b
y th e p ro d uct
of th e force and the time d uring which i t act s .

It e uaq
ls th e change of mo mentum produced .
I F t, where F is th e av erag e fo rce

ti me t .
31 . A gravi tati onal f or ce is a f orce measuring th e

attracti on bet ween t wo materi al parti cl es ml and mg , ,
adis tance, r , apart, acco rdi ng to the law of g rav itatio n .
ml m2
f G
’
r
The const nta o f gr avi tati on i s th e facto r G in th e

law of gravi tati on , need ed to red uce th e force to
co mmon uni ts . I n th e metri c s ys tem i ts n umeri cal
v alue is G
32 . A cen tri
p al f
et or ce is afo rce changi ng the d i
recti o n o f mo tion of a material p arti cle, no r mal to
th e p ath of th e p arti cl e .
It i s magnitude
cons tant in f o r a mass mo ving in
uni form ci rcular mo ti o n
E, = m
33 .
f A f ri cti onal g
or ceth e i s a fo rce
f ree resi s ti n
motio n o f ab o d y und er th e i nfl uence o f o ther fo rces .
The term is us ually ap plied to the gli d ing moti o n o f

o ne s ur face upo n ano ther .
MECHANICS 23
Th e coe fiici en t f
o stati c f ri cti on, u, i s t h e r ati o of a
fo rce F j ust able to mo ve abo dy al ong as urface to
, , ,
th e fo rce F ex erted by th e b o dy no rma

’
ll y t o the
s urface .
The coe fli ci ent o f kineti c f r i cti on, u , i s th e rati o o f

’
th e fo rce , F 1, able to mai nta in unifo rm mo ti o n o f a

b o dy along asurface to th e fo rce Fl ,
'
, ex erted by the
bo dy normally to th e surface .
Fl '
w 34 . P ressure, at ap o int, is the force per unit area

p res s ed u p o n
dF
.
dA
f "
The uni t of p r essure is th e dyne p er s quare centi meter .
One atmosp her e d y nes p er cm ”

Si mi lar .
d efini ti o n f or tens i on .
35 . Work
i s th e p ro duct o f a force and th e d is
p l acement p ro d uced by o r a g ai n st t hi s f o r ce i n t h e
di recti on of th e force
W
wh ere a i s th e angle bet ween th e d irecti on of th e
fo rce and the d isplacement .
24 D E FINI T IONS IN PH YSI CS
If F is co ns tant, W= Fs cos a .
W
[ 1 [ M M
T hough wo k i s r pro duct of two vector quantities i t i s a
th e ,
sca lar qua n ti ty I n general th e pro duct o f two v ector quant ities
.
,
parallel to each other i s called the scalar pro duct or dot p o duct r
o f th e two vect or qua nti ti es If wo rk i s do ne upo n asystem it

.
,
i s us ua lly co ns i dered pos i ti ve ; i f done by th e sys tem negative , .
Uni t work, i n th e ab solute s ys tem, i s th e wo rk d one

if uni t cons t ant force prod uces unit d i splacement i n
th e d i recti on of th e force In t h e metric sy stemit is
.
th e wo rk d on e by a d yne in p ro d ucing a d isplace

ment o f o ne centi meter I t i s cal led an erg
. One .
j ou le 1 07 e rg s I n th e. E n g l i s h s y s t em th e un i t i s
ca lled af oot p ound al .
Uni t work i n t h e g ra
, v i tati o na l sys tem is th e wo rk ,
d one i f uni t weight pr od uces un it d isplacement i n

th e di recti o n o f th e fo rce In th e met ri c s yst em i t
.
i s t he gram weigh t centi meter

- - Th e ki logrammeter .
s uch uni ts .
In th e E ngli sh sy stem th e unit i s ca lled af oot

ound
p .
36 . P ower is th e time rate of d oing work .
dW
9 '
dt
I t is nu merically equal to the wor k done i n uni t ti me, if
th e power is co nstant .
9
[ ] [ MU T
M E CHANICS 25
Uni t p ower i s the cons tant p o wer by whi ch uni t

work is d o ne in unit time .
In the absol ute metri c system it i s the erg p er -
s econd . The watt equals 1 0 s uch uni ts o r o ne j o ule

7
,
p e r seco n d .I n th e g ra v i ta t i o nal m et ri c s y s tem i t i s
th e ki logra mmeter p er second and i n th e E ngli sh

- -
g ra v i t ati o n al s ys t em th e f o o t p ound p e r-
s ec o n d A- -
.
hor se ower equals 550 f o t

o -
p o und s -
p er -
s eco n d
p
k ilo watt watts .
A metri c
hor se p ower 7 36 watts 75 kilogr am
meter p er s econd
- -
.
A uni t o f work, freq uently us ed , i s th e ki lowatt

hour . One kil owatt h o ur j oules .
TA B L E I
Mam e BYSTI M E NG LISH SYSTE M
Absolute Gra ti o na
vi ta l Absolute G ra a
vi t ti ona
l
Force D yne Gram weigh t Pound al Pound
Kilogrammeter Foot pound al Foot pound
Horse p ower
37 . Th e energy , W , of a bo d y or s ystem of bodies

is ap hysi cal quantity o f th e nat ure o f wo rk by v i rt ue
o f whi ch th e b o d y o r s y st em of b od i es i s able to pro
d uce ex t ernal efi ects . It is cap acit y f o r d oi ng work
and may be meas ured by the work n ecessary to chang e
26 D E FINI TIONS IN PH YSI CS
th e ate o f th e
st bod y ystem o f bodies to another
or s
state s elected as rep res en ting zero energy f or th e

giv en p ro blem .
I t i s t heref ore alwa s y ati ve

rel . The ener a system
gy of
decreases if th e work is done by i nternal f orces ; i t i ncreases

if th e work i s done aga in st th ese f orces .
E nergy may appear i n many diff erent a spects a cco rdi ng a s ,
we are co n si d ering pheno mena i n mech anics h eat electri ci ty , , ,
etc a
. n d i t i s i n t h ese ca
,
s es u sually ex pressed i n terms of diff er
ent uni ts I t h as a
. lways the di men si o ns of work .
E nergy is a ph ysi cal quanti ty wh ich remains co n

s tant i n a g i v en i s olated s ys tem irresp ecti ve o f any
cha ng es wh i ch ma y occu r i n th e s y stem .
W
[ ] [ML T ]
2 ‘
Th e uni t o f energy, w hen measured in mechani cal

uni t s , i s th e uni t o f w o rk ( s ee
P otenti al en ergy is energy o f p o si ti o n . I t is meas

ured by th e wo rk re quired to p ro d uce th e gi v en co n
fig urati on .
P otenti al en ergy
I F co s 0: ds .
Ki netic energy i s gy o f mo tion

ener . It i s p ex r essed
in terms of th e mas s o f th e b o dy and its v el o ci ty .
Kinetic ener gy m ’
v .
It i s equal t o th e work re qui red to p ro duce th e

moment um mv , .
MECHANICS 27
38 . A conser v ati ve f orce i s a fo rce wh ose acti on

leaves th e total mechani cal energy (potential and
k i neti c) o f a sys tem o f b o d i es unchanged Th e .
wo rk d o ne i n b ri nging a sy s t em whi ch i s und er th e

acti on o f conserv ati v e forces fro m o ne configuratio n
t o ano th er I s I nd ep en d ent o f th e manner i n whi ch
th e change o f configurati o n tak es pl a ce .
Gravi tati onal or elasti c f orces are conservati ve f orces .
A n oncons ervati ve o r d i ssip ative f or ce is a force

und er whose acti o n th e mechani cal ener gy of as ys tem
changes .
Fri cti onal f orces are no n con serv ati ve f orces .
39 . Th e torque o r moment of af orce about astraight

li ne i s th e caus e of r o t ati o n o r tend ency to p ro d uce
r otati on abo ut thi s line as ax i s measured by . It is ,
th e p ro d uct o f th e p erp end i cular di s tance l fro m th e , ,
ax is to th e lin e of acti on o f th e force and the comp o

nent F o f th e f orce no rma
, , l t o the ax is .
3 : lF = r F si n a
.
I t is avector quanti ty .
A to rque may also be f

re erre d to ap oint as cent er
o f ro t atl o n
M D T
.
[ J ] [ ] 2
-
40 . The moment of a mas s of a material particle

with resp ect to a p o int, li ne or pl ane i s t h e p r o d uct
of th e mas s into i ts d is tance from th e p oi nt , li ne or
pl ane .
Center of i nerti a, center Qf mass o r cen troi d of as ys

tem of p a rt i cl es o r o f a b o d y i s a o i nt s o s i tua
p te d
t hat atrans lati on of th e b od y wo ul d no t be cha nged
i f the to tal mas s were concentr at ed at thi s p oint and

th e res ul t nt o fa al l p arallel fo rces acti ng on th e sepa
rate p arti cles were appli ed at thi s p oi nt .
It is l ocated by making use of th e f act th at i ts moment wi th

res pect to any plane is equal to that of the wh ole system wi th
res pect to the same plane .
Ema ,
_ Emz
3’
M M
Th is property may also be used as the defi niti on of the center o f
i nertia .
Center f o ga
r ab
viotd
y y
o f
i s a p o i nt s o S i tua t ed
that i f th e to tal mas s w ere con cent ra t ed a t t hi s p o i nt ,
t he trans latio n of th e b o dy d ue to its weight wo ul d
no t be changed .
The center of gravi ty of a s mall bo dy coi nci des wi th i ts

center o f i nerti a, s i nce th e f orces acti ng on th e diff erent parti
cles are p arallel .
41 . The moment of i ner ti a, I , o f asystemo f p arti cl es

o r of ab o dy wi th res pect t o ali ne i s i ts p ers is t ence
to re main i n uni fo rm ro t ati o n abo ut thi s l i ne, unl ess

acted up on by a t orque It is the p rop o rt ioil ality
.
factor between to rq ue and angul ar acceleratio n .

MECH ANICS 29
It is measured by th e sum o f the p ro d ucts of th e

mass o f each particle and th e sq uare of i ts d is tance
from th e li ne I 2 7m
.
g : .
Moment of i nerti amay als o be re f erre d to apo int or aplane .
Ingi nee ing p actice the sum o f

en r r th e pro d ucts o f each ele
mentary a eaand the square of i ts di s tance f o m apoi n t o r line

r r
is because of its mathemati cal si mi lari ty to the above ex pres

,
s i o n, calle d the moment of i nerti aof an area .
42 . momentwmo r moment of momentum o f

Angular
ab ody abo ut an ax is i s t h e p ro d uct of the mo ment o f
i nertiai nto th e angul a r v el oci ty ab out this ax is .
Rad i us of gy rati on is th e d is tance from th e ax is o f

ro tati o n o f a p o i nt wh ere th e ma
, ss o f th e b o d y may
be as sumed to be concentrated with o ut ch angi ng the
moment o f inertia .
k
( ) A moment o f afo rce prod uces rotati on . Th e
math ematical equations f o r rotation tak e th e same
form as th ose o f translatio n i f the angul ar units are
s ubs ti t uted f or t h e co rres p ond i ng li n ear o nes .
TAB L E II
TB ANSLATI ON TB AN SL ATI ON B o rATI ON
l = vt + § at9 0 = wt + § a3
t
F = ma
W=F l W=¢7 9
Kin E n. .
i mv
2 I
t.
a
»
r "
43E lasti city is a p rop erty o f bod ies sh o wn by a
.
tend ency t o reco ver from a d efo rmati o n If the .
d eformation co n si s ts of a h ange
c of v ol u me , we
s p eak of volu me elas ti ci ty ; hape only
i f it is o ne of s
( a S h ear ) w e s p,ea k o f t h e rig i d i ty o f a bo d y .
An elasti cf or ce is afo rce d ue t o an elas ti c d eforma

ti o n . It i s p ro p o rti onal t o th e d ef ormati o n an d in
th e Opp osi te d ir ecti on f or ex ample f or a stretched ,
wi re o r spring
44 . S train is any change of v ol ume or s hap e or of

bo th . I t is measured by th e rel ati v e d eformation ;
f or ex ample, strain = Al/ l .
Strai n h as no dimensions .
A s heari ng str ain, o r s hear, is a change of S hap e

o nl y and meas ured by the angle (or tan
it is
gent o f the angl e) thro ugh whi ch a s traight li ne ,
o ri gi nally no rmal to th e d isto rt ing force, h as b een
d isp laced .
A s tress is the acti on and a

re ct i on o f intern al
forces . It i s meas ured by the fo rce p er unit area
tendi ng t o resto re th e b ody to i ts o ri g i nal s hap e or
v ol u me .
[ s tress ] [ ML T ]
‘
l 4
45 . Modulus , o r coefi cient o f a

el sti ci ty , i s the quo
ti ent o f s tres s d i vi d ed by the strai n .
M E CHANICS 31
Af ter equilibri um h as been es tablished between the d i sto rti n g

and res rs ti ng f orces , the s tress may be taken as equal to t he
di storti ng f o rce (W OR K ING S T R E SS ) di v i ded by the area upon
whi ch i t acts .
Modul us o f v o lu me elasticity
dF dV V dF dP
A V A dV dV
Young
’
s modul us dF /A d l/l
1 FF .
A dl
S hearing s train
dF l dF
,
do
A A de
[ Mo d ul us ] [ML
-
l
T ]
-
fi
. Uni t : The dy ne p er
s ua
q r e centi meter .
E lasti c a
f efl ad a a f a
'
46 . ter ec t i s t h e g r u l i n cre s e o
s train befo re equilibri um i s establi shed und er acon

s tant dis torting force .
Th e energy s tored in a s trai ned el as ti c b o dy

( p ot enti al ener gy ) is measured by the work d o ne
i n p ro d uci ng th e s trai n ; f or ex amp le i n a s tretched
,
wi re or s p ring
Th e coeflicient of r esti tuti on, e, bet ween t wo colliding

bo d i es is the rati o o f the Speed of s ep arati on aft er
i mp act to the s p eed o f approach b efo re i mp act .
47 .A homogeneous body is abo d y whi ch ha

s at all
p o i n ts t h e same p p
r o er ti es .
An isotrop i c body i s abod y whi ch at any p oi nt h as

th e same p ro perti es in all d irect ions .
48 . A solid i s ab ody whi ch p ossess es b oth v ol u me

elas ti ci t y and ri gi di ty .
A cry st alli ne soli d is a s oli d of d efinite geomet

ri es l f o rm or co mpos ed of p art i cl es o f d efini te
s tructure .
An amorp hous soli d is as oli d wi th out any d efini te

s tructure .
49 . A fl uid is ab ody whi ch p ossesses o nly v olu me

el asti ci ty .
It yields to any conti nued sheari ng f orce , ho wever small .
A liquid is a fl ui d cap a l b
e o f formi ng a free s ur
face e. g .
, th e lev el s ur face o f water in abeaker .
A gas i s afl ui d incap abl e of fo rming afree surface .
It will co mpletely fill any vess el i n wh ich i t i s co ntaine d .
The divi si o n of bo dies i nto so l i ds , li qui d s and gases f aci li

tates the tr eatment of problems in mechani cs . It may lead to
M E CHANICS 33
i nconsi stencies i n h
o t er branches o f Ph ysics . T hus an amor
phons d may well be co ns i dered as a h ardened liquid
soli
(art 6 5
.
) an d u nder certai n co n di ti o n s n o d is ti ncti o n can be
made between liqui ds and gases (art .
50 . Vi s cosi ty i s th e p rop erty of afluid by v i rtue of

whi ch a s h ear can be establi shed only i n fi ni te ti me .
Th e coe
fi ci ent o f vi s cosi ty , n, of a flui d is th e r atio
of th e s hearing s t ress in th e fl ui d to the t i me r ate o f
th e s hear F
A A
t an 0
t d
wh ere F i s the force i n th e plane o f th e s urface, A ,
p ro d uci n g in th e ti me, t, an ang ular sh ear, 0, o f ali n e,

o ri gina ll y p erpendi cular t o t h e surface and at ad is
ta nce d from a, no ther s urfa
, ce a t r est .
1; beco mes numeri ca ll y equal to F i f the other quantiti es i n

th e ex pressio n b eco me unity .
M13 T" 4 1
[v] [ ]
51 H y d ros tati c p r es sur e at a p oint i n a fluid at
.
rest i s th e p ress ure ex ert ed by th e fl ui d a t t h e p oi nt .
It i s a s tress . If th e p ress ure i s d ue to th e weight

of th e fl uid alone ,
wh ere h i s th e d i stan ce from the s urface of th e fluid ,
d its d ensity and g th e accel erati on d ue to gravity .
D
Coefiicien t
f mp r es s
oibi li ty
co a” i s t h e r at i o o f th,e
rela ti ve chang e o f v o lume to th e p res s ure p rod uci ng

i t th e temp erature remaining co ns tant
, .
1 dV
V dP
It i s th e recip roc al of t he mo dulus of v ol u me

elas ti ci t y .
A thrus t ( or to tal p ress ure) is th e force ex erted
by a fl uid up o n a s urf ace .
If th e p ress ure is uni f o rm o v er th e s ur face ,
F = PA .
It i s alwa s a y g g
t ri ht an les to the surf ace .
Th e center f yoh d r osta ti c

p r ess ure o n a s urf ac e,
immersed i n afl ui d , is t h e p oi nt o f ap plicati o n o f t h e
res ul t ant o f all fo rces on th e s ur face d ue to th e flui d ,
o r, th e p o int of appl icati o n of th e thrus t .
by the condition that the sum of the mo ments

I t i s f ound
of all the elementary f o ces abo ut this po i nt must be zero
r .
IId dy JJ d dy
' '
MECHANICS 35
Work d ue to th e ex p an s i on of a fluid i s meas ured

in terms of th e p ress ure and c hange of volume .
If th e pressure i s f m
un i o r ,
W= H V. Va .
The buoy ant f or ce o r

52 . buoy ancy of a fluid on
abod y i mmersed i n i t i s th e a
res ul t nt up w rd a fo rce
d ue to th e p ress ure o f th e fl ui d o n th e s urface of
th e b o d y It i s meas ured by t h e l o s s o f weight

. of
th e bo d y when i t is i mmers ed in th e flui d .
F= W w ’
Vdg ,
where d i s the d ensity of t he fluid . It is eq ual to

th e w eight of th e flui d di splaced .
The f b a
center
uoy n c
y i s
o t h e p o i nt at wh i ch t h e
buoyant force may be ass umed t o act I t i s th e .
center o f i nert iao f th e di splaced fl uid .
53 . S urf ace tensi on of aliqui d i s the rati o of th e

force ex ert ed by the s urface o f th e li qui d to th e length
of th e bound ary li ne .
The f o rce i s alwa s aty ri g ht angles to the boundary and

parallel to the s urf ace of q d
the li ui .
T
[ ] [ M W ]
II . SOU ND
Acous ti cs i s that part of P

.
hysi cs
"
()
l S o und , or ,
whi ch t reats of th e p hys i cal p heno menawhi ch may

afi ect th e s ens e o f heari ng and o f th e laws gov ern
,
ing these and o th er p h eno mena o f th e s ame phys ical

nat ure .
So und a
s g d by the ear is d ue to avi brato ry motion
reco nize
i n an elas ti c bo dy and is pro pagated throug h air as wave

,
motion
54 . P itch i s the facto r o f s o und sens ation d ep end
i ng on th e frequency ofbrati ons p roducing th e
the vi
soun d . As a physical q uanti ty i t is the frequency .
[ ] [ ]
n T 4
55 Th e f undamental of av i brati ng body or of a

.
s ound i s th e co mp o nent v i b ra ti on of grea test wav e

lengt h (lo wes t pi tch ) .
Overtones are wav es of sho rter wav e length than

th e f un d amental .
H armoni cs are o v ert ones wh os e f req uencies are

ex a ct mul tip l es o f the fund a mental .
Th e wave f orm of agi ven soun d depends upon the number

o f overtones co mb ined wi th th e f un d amental t he amplitud e of ,
the d ifi erent components a nd th ei r d iff erence i n phase .
36
S OU ND 37
The quality of asound is th e facto r o f s o und sen s a

ti o n d ep end i ng upo n t he manner i n whi ch the fund a
mental i s co mb i ned wi t h th e o v ertones . As a
p hys i cal q uant i ty i t i s th e wav e fo r m .
56 . I ntensi ty of asound at ap oint is the ti me rate

of tr ans mi s s i o n o f energ y p er uni t area at th e p oin t .
It a
v ries as th e square of the amplitude of the wave .
Th e loudness of a so und i s th e factor of s ound
s ens atio n d ep end ing up o n th e intens ity and up o n th e
s ens i ti veness o f th e ear .
B eats ar e peri o d i c v ari ati o ns in th e i ntensity of a

wav e d ue to th e i nterfer ence of two o r more comp o
neuts of d iff erent wave l eng ths .
57 . S tati onary wave moti on i s a fo r m of vi b ratio n

charact eri zed by th e ex is tence o f certain p o i nts , li nes
o r s ur faces at rest .
Nod es are th e points , lines o r s ur faces of a b o dy

in s tati o n r a y wav e motio n whi ch remain at res t .
Th ey are ch aracterized by max imum v ari ation of stress
(press ure i n th e case of gases ) .
Anti nodes are the p oi nts , lines or s ur faces of a

bod y i n s tati o nary wav e motion whi ch h ave a max i
mum ampli tud e .
Th ey are ch aracterized by max i mumvariation of the ki netic

ener gy of the movi ng part s .
All d are bo di es i n stationary v ibration Th e

s o urces o f s o un .
parts of the vibrating bo dy are i n si mple harmonic mo tion ,
while the wave f orm does not pro gress along the bo dy .
58 . A musi cal tone is a train of s ound wav es of
co ns tant freq uency .
A musi cal note is atone wh ose pi tch is referred to

that of as tand ard . In Phy s ics thi s s tand ard i s usu
ally n 256 p er s eco nd and i s call ed c
2
in music it
is n 4 35 per s eco nd and i s called a l
.
A musi cal interval is th e r atio of th e freq uencies of

t wo to nes .
An a
oct ve i s t he interv al bet ween t wo to nes whos e
frequenci es ar e i n th e rati o of 2 to 1 .
A musi cal s cale i s a s eri es of n o tes ascend ing

o r d es cen di ng i n p i t ch by d efi ni te i nt er v als .
A p ure musi cal scale is as cal e in wh ich th e i nterv als

are s imple fracti ons .
Interv als d in thi s scale are i

use , and R .
All e ua
q lly temp ered s cale i s as cale in whi ch all in
terv als are q
e ual .
The i nterval used i n this scale i s W

59 . Th e ma
j or tri ad i s aco mb i nat i o n o f three to nes
wh os e frequenci es are as 4 5 6 .
Th e minor tri ad is a co mbi nati on of three t ones
who se f req uenci es are as 1 0 1 2 1 5 .

SO U ND 39
W e may also speak ofamajo r o r aminor tri ad i n atemper ed

sc ale though th e ratios of the f req uencies are not ex ac tly those
gi ven abo ve .
Th e d iatonic s cale is as cale containi ng sev en notes

i n an o ctave and bas ed up on t he us e o f ei th er the
maj o r or min or t riad
th e .
The chromati c scale i s a scal e of t wel ve notes , oh
t ained from t he di ato ni c s cale by the ad dit ion o f fi ve

semi to nes .
The co mplete seri es of tones on apiano f orm an q

e u lly tem
a
ti ered chromati c scale .
III . H E AT
m
( ) H eat i s t h at p art o f P hy s i cs w hi ch treat s o f
th e p hysi ca l p heno menaafi ecting th e sense of w armt h
and cold and o f the laws go v erni ng t hes e an d o th er
p h en o men a o f t h e s am e p hy s i ca l n a t ur e .
60. Temp erature is th e co nd iti on o f a bo d y afi ect

ing th e s ensati o ns o f warmth an d col d . I ts hanges
c
are acco mpani ed by p ycer ta

h s i ca
inl ch ang es ; f o r ex
amp le ch anges in press ure v ol ume electri cal resi s t

, , ,
ance electromo ti v e fo rce etc any o ne of whi ch may

, , .
,
be ch os en as ab as is f o r meas urement o f temp era t ure .
In the mercury in glass thermometer the increa

se o f temperature
is taken as pro portio nal to the apparent ex pansi on of mercury .
In the stand ard hyd rogen th ermometer th e i ncrea se i n tem era p

ture is ta ken as p p
ro o rti o nal to th e i ncrease i n ress ure o f a p
a
co nst n t vo lu me of hydro gen gas ori ginally un der apress ure of
100 cm of mercury at the temperature of melting ice .
— a —
‘2 t1 C
(P2 Pi ) (p a p i
po
For accurate measurements all t her mo metri c re ad ings mus t

be d
re uce d to th e standard hydrogen thermometer .
A temp er ature s cale is a s eries of t emp eratures,

forming an arbitrary nu mber of su bdi visions of a
40
HE A T 41
h
c os en temp erature interv al and co unted fro m an ar
bi trary zero p o i nt , but bj ect to
su th e s el ecti on o f th e
p arti cul ar t yp e o f th ermo meter .
The f und amental i nterval is th e temp erature

in terval sel ect ed f o r th e con structi on of a tem
p erat ure s cale . It is th e i nterv al between th e
t emp erat ure of melting ice and that o f s team of
p ur e water boili ng und er the p ress ure of one
atmosp h ere .
The uni t of the temp er ature s cale is called a

d egree . In th e Centig rad e s cale it is the Th th
p art of th e i nterv al b etween th e t emp erat ures

of melting ice and of the s team of p ure water
boilin g un d er o ne atmo sp here The fo rmer p oint .
is ch os en as zero . I n th e Fahr enhei t s cale it is

th e Th th p ar t of th e sa em i nterval and the
melting p o i nt of i ce i s h
c osen as 32 d egrees .
In the Reaumur s cale i t is th e l th

3o p art of the
s ame i nterval and the melting p o in t o f i ce is h
c osen
as zero .
T emperature is af und amental uni t and i ts di men

s io ual ex p ress i o n is
Temp erature coeflicient is the rati o

61 . of th e rel a
t iv e change o f aphy s i cal p roperty to th e cor resp ond
ing ch ange o f t emp erature f o r ex ample ,
Coefiicient of linear ansi on (increas e in l engt h per

ex
p
uni t leng th per d egree) ,
Coefiici ent of cubi cal ex p ansi on, or Simpl y coefllci ent

cf ex
p ans i on (t h e p ress ur e r emai ni ng co ns tan t),
1 dV
°
V dt
P ressur e coq flici ent ( th e v o lu me re maini ng con
s tant ) ,
1 dP
P dt
[ ] d
[ 9 l
l o
! ero coe fii ci en t i s t h e t emp er atur e coeffi ci ent re
ferred to th e cond iti o n at zero d egree, f o r ex ample

1 dP
P 0 dt
Si nce i n th e Centi grade scale o f the hydro gen thermometer

a is
, co nst nta and P q
e uals Po at zero degree :
For oth er physi cal quantities

L: 130 0 at fit !
V. Vo (1 a, z+ pg” .
Reduced to the h yd ogen scale means

r reduced to
cent i gr ade scale o f th e hydrogen th ermometer .
HEA T 43
62 . Absolute zero on th e g as scale i s th e t em
p erat ur e at whi ch hy d rogen gas wo ul d th eo ret i

call y ex ert no p res s ure . It i s nu meri call y equal to
th e reci p ro c al of th e p res sure mi
coe c ent of th e gas :
1 /a, .
Abs ol ute zer o 0 .
Abs olute temp er atur e i s th e t em era

p t ur e reck o ned
from ab solute zero .
63 . H eat is a q uantity whi ch, when ad d ed to a

body p rod uces chang es i n th e p hys i cal cond i ti o n o f
,
the b o d y accomp ani ed i n genera

, l by a ri s e o f t em
, ,
p erature H eat h as b ee
.n s h o w n t o b e e q ui v al en t t o
energ y a nd ma y t h refo re a l b d efi n ed a n g
e s o e s e er
y
measured in t erms of thermal units .
H
[ ] [W T
Th e uni t of heat necessary to rais e
heat i s th e
th e t emperatur e o f unit ma ss of w ater o ne d e
g ree I n.t h e met ri c s y s tem i t i s cal l ed a calori e ;

i n the E ngli s h sys tem a B ri ti s h thermal unit
( B. T .
Th e heat aise the temperature of a gram o f

necessar y to r
wa ter o ne degree Centi grade v ari es sli gh tly with the tempera
ture .The calorie, theref o re, beco mes a defi n i te quanti ty only
when th e temperatures selected f o r i ts determi nati o n are
specifi ed Th e i nterval f rom 15 to 16 C i s generally ch osen
.
° °
. .
44 D EFINI T IONS IN PH YSICS
64 . The thermal cap acity of a body is the

th e heat received by the bo d y to th e change
p orature p ro d uced :
H
C or H = O( tz tl )
_
.
ta tl
I n th e metri c s ystem it i s numer i call y equal to th e num ber

of calories re uire q d to rai se the tem perat ure of the bo dy o ne
degree Centi grade .
C
[ ] =
[ ML T ’ -
20
The thermal cap aci ty of a substance i s th e rati o of
th e th ermal cap acity o f ab o d y to i ts mass
c = C/m, or H= m(t,
c ti ) ‘
It i s numericall y equal to the thermal ca pacity of uni t mass

o f t he s ubs tance .
Fro m th e definiti on of th e calori e it f ollows that th e thermal

ca pacity of water i s unity It varies sli ghtly wi th th e tem
.
[] c
[p T O ]
-
fl -
l .
The sp ecific heat of asubstance is the ratio b etween

its th ermal cap aci ty an d t h at o f wat er :
It is nu meri cally equal to the thermal capaci ty of t he s ub
a
st nce . s no d imens io ns
It h a .
65 . F usion i s the t rans iti on from th e soli d t o the

li q uid ate
st . The melting p oi nt or f reezing p oi nt of a
HEA T 45
crystalline b ody is the temp erature at whi ch f usi on

or freezing t ak es place .
It is us uall y ref erred to one atmosphere .
The f usi on curve is a cur ve on the t emp erat ure
p ress ure di ag ram representing th e melti ng p o i nt as a

functi o n of th e p ress ure .
The f usi o n b q b ium between

p
curv e re resent s the sta le e uili r
th e soli d and the Duri ng f us i on the tempe ature

li qui d state . r
rema ins constant f or constant press ure wh ile th e volume ch anges .
An und er cooled or s up ercooled li qui d i s a li q ui d

who se temp erature i s belo w the melting p oi nt with
o ut cr ystallizati on taki ng place .
A li qui d may be hardened to an amorphous d by under

so li
cooli n g , but i n that cas e i t ha

s no defi ni te f reezi ng point .
Th e heat of f usi on o f a subs tance is th e heat p er
unit mas s necess ary t o mel t th e s ub stance .
H
m
I ts uni t i n th e metri c system is th e calori e -
p er
gram .
The heat of f usion is nu meri cally equal to th e h eat nee e dd

to melt o ne gr am of t he su sta b
nce Th e equati on
. H Lm
f urni shes ano ther meth od f or measuri ng heat .
[ H
L m -
i
l .
66 . Va p ori zati on is th e trans i tio n from the so li d
or li q ui d st ate to th e ga seo us state .
The v a
p or tens i on a s ubs tance is the p ressure
of
ex erted by i ts s aturate d v ap o r up o n th e walls o f the

co ntaining v essel .
The va or
p ten sion curve is a curv e o n th e tem
p eratur e-
p res s ur e d i ag ram rep resenti n
g t he vap o r
tensi on of ali quid as a fun cti o n of th e temp erature .
The p
v a or ten si o n curve p
re resents a stable q
e uili brium
between th e li qui d and the gaseo us state .
E va
p or ati on i s vap o ri zati o n of a li q ui d un d er a
p res s ure larger than i ts vap o r tensi on .
I t takes place f rom th e f ree surf ace only .
B oi li ng i s vap o ri zati o n o f ali q ui d und er apressure

s maller than (rarely equal to ) the vap o r tensi o n of
the li qui d .
It is acco mpanied by the f o mati on of bubbles in the interior

r
of the liqui d .
The boi ling p oint of a l iq uid is the temperature at

wh ich th e vap or tensi on is equal to th e ex ternal
p ress ure .
The vapor tension curve theref ore represents also the boiling
point as af unction of th e ex ternal pressure .
The nor mal boiling p oi nt o f a li q ui d is i ts b oiling

p o i nt un d er atmosp heric p ress ure .
HE A T 47
A s u er hea
p ted li quid is ali qui d whose temp erature
is ab o v e th e bo iling p o i nt wi tho ut boiling taking
pl ace .
The heat f ap or i zati

o onv of asubstan ce i s th e heat
p er unit mas s neces s a ry t o vap o ri ze th e s u s tab
nce
L = H /m .
Its uni t in the metri c system is the calori e -

p er
g r am .
The b a
s u s t nce is usuall y d
un erstoo d to be at the normal
boiling po int .
67 . Sublimati on is vap o ri zati o n o f asoli d .
The subli mati on curve is acurve on the temperat ure

p r es s ur e d i ag ram r ep r es ent i ng t h e v ap o r tens i o n o f
the s oli d as af uncti on of th e temp erat ure .
Th e bli mation curve represents

su an q
e uili brium between
th e soli d and th e gaseo us state .
The tr ip le p oint i s th e p o i nt on th e temp erature
p res s ur e d i agram where th e f usi o n cur v e, th e vap o r
tens i o n curv e and th e su blimati on curve meet each

ot her .
At th e tri ple point all three states are i n equilibrium While .
tem perature and press ure are co nstant at th e tri ple po int the
v o lu me of ag iven mass is vari able .
Fo r water at th e tri ple poi nt : t C ; P

. mm
of Hg .
68 . The d ew p oint i s th e temp erat ure at wh i ch the

water va b ecomes sa
res ent i n th e ai r,
t urated
p p ,
o r .
It is th e te mperature o n th e v apo r tens i on o r s ubli ma

'
ti on curv e co rresp o nd ing to th e p ress ure of th e water

vap o r p res ent i n th e ai r .
Relati ve humi d ity i s th e r ati o of th e p res sure of
th e water vap o r i n th e ai r to th e vap o r tensi o n of
water at th e te mperature of th e air .
69 The cri tical p oi nt is th e p o int o f greatest p res

.
s ure o r temp era t ure o n ad ia gram representing the

r egi o n o f mi x tur e o f th e li q ui d a s eo us s ta
nd th e g a t es .
I t is th e po int at th e upp er end o f th e v ap or tens i o n
curve .
Th e cri ti cal temp eratur e i s th e temp erature at t h e
crit ical p o i nt It i s th e t emperature t o whi ch agas

.
mus t be co oled b efo re li quefact i o n by p res s ur e i s
p o s si b l e .
Cri ti cal volu me and cri ti cal

p a re th e s eci fi c
r essur e p
v ol u me and th e v apor tens io n at th e cri ti cal po int .
At the al poi nt th e specifi c volumes o f th e li qui d and

cri ti c
the saturated vapor become equal .
70 . Convecti on f
o heat i s th e trans ference o f heat
thro ugh sp ace by means of di screte materi al b odi es .
Conducti on of heat i s th e t ransference of

71 . h eat
from parti cl e to p arti cle o f a b ody or from one b od y
to another i n co ntact with i t .
H E AT 49
Th e temp erature gr adi en t at a p o int is th e sp ace
rate of chan ge o f t emperature at the p oi nt
x a .
dl
It is avector quantity , direction of max i mum
k
ta en i n th e
ch ange of tempera t ure If t he temperature gradient between
.
t wo po i nts is uni f orm i t is th e rati o of the d iff erence o f tem

,
pot ature between the po ints to th e dis tance between th em
[ ]
x
[ 13
Th e coe i ci ent o
fl f thermal conducti vi t
y ( or thermal
con ducti vi ty, k) i s the ti me r ate of heat co nd ucti o n,
if ; p er unit area d i v id ed by the temperature
grad i ent dH dl
Adv dt
If the temperature g rad ient i s uniform and astead y

co nd iti on has been ah
re c ed ,
15” fi
and Ra
A7 01 )
ta
If th e heat is ex p r es s ed in cal o ries , th e t emp era

ture in d egrees C entigr ad e, th e d is tance i n centi
meters and th e ti me i n seconds , th e coefi ci ent o f
t h ermal co nd uct i vi ty is sai d t o be ex p ress ed i n abso

lute uni ts . F requently t he co nd uctiv i t ies ar e giv en
as relati ve conducti vi ties wi th resp ect to s ilver, wa t er
or ai r . In s uch cas es the co effi ci en t o f th e s tand ard
is us uall y set e qual to 100 .
The coeffici ent of t hermal co n ductivity is nu merically equal

to th e heat transf erred i n uni t time th roug h uni t areao f aplate
o f uni t th i ck ness wh en uni t difi erence o f tempera t ure i s main
tai ned between its f aces .
k
[ ]
72 Th e mechani cal equi valent of heat is the num
.
ber o f mechanical uni ts o f energ y whi ch equa ls t he

uni t of h eat .
I t h as no di Inensio ns .
1 cal o rie at 1 5 C 10 erg s j o ules

° 7
. x ,
42 7 g ram weig ht meters

- - .
1 B ri ti s h thermal uni t 7 78 foo t po und s .
W erg s J H cal o ri es .
J x 1 0 er
7 gs p er cal o ri e,
778 fo ot p ound s per B T . . U . et c.
73 . A n i s othermal p r oces s i s a pro cess that tak es

p l ace at a constant temp erature .
An adi abati c p rocess i s ap roces s that takes place

wi th out t rans ference o f h eat to or from th e system
un d er consi d erati o n .
IV . M AG NE TISM AN D E LE C TR IC ITY
( )
n Mag neti s m an d E lectri ci ty is th at p art of
h
p y s i cs whi ch treat s of th o s e
p h eno mena wh i ch
canno t be percei ved di rectly by the s enses and
wh ose ex is tence can be prov ed only by i nd i rect
metho ds .
Magneti c and electri c p henomena are at present ex plained

by th e as s um ti o n p of directi onal stresses in the h
et er and
c hanges occurri ng i n these stress es .
The ex is tence of eth er in sp ace is accepte d as a means of

i nterpreti ng phenomena th a t canno t be ex p lained by the prop
ert ies o f or dinary matter .
I V a M A G N E TOS T ATI CS
.
74 . Ma
g n eti c bodi es magn ets are bod ies which at
or
tra ct o r rep el ea ch o ther w ith af o rce wh i ch i s neit her
gravi tatio nal no r d ue t o mech ani cal acti on o f o rd i

na ry ma t ter a nd whi ch sh o w a d efi ni te orienta
, ti o n
rela ti ve to th e eart h s s urface
’
.
Magnetism is the name of ahyp othetical substance

p r o d uci ng at t ract i o n o r rep ul s i o n b et wee n m a g ne t i c
bod ies by action at a di stance .
Th e concept of magneti sm as an i mpon derable flui d was in

trod uced when the f orces bet ween magnets were s upposed to be
d ue to a ction a t adi sta
- nce
- - It was ass umed that magneti s m i s
.
located on th e surf a ce o f or wi thin ama gnetized bar on or near

o pposi te ends .
P ositivemagnetism is the magnetis m l ocated o n the

no rt h s eeking end o f a ma
-
g neti c n eedl e n ati
; eg ve
magnetism is the magnetis m located on th e so uth

s eek in g end o f amagneti c needl e .
75 . Magneti c p oles are the points o f a magnet so
s i tuated th a magneti sms

t, if th e p os i ti v e and negati v e
were concentrated at t hes e p oi nts t h e mag netic acti o n ,
ob serv ed a t s ome di s tance fr om t h e magnet w o uld

no t be cha ng ed .
Th e p osi ti ve p ole is th e north seeking p ole of a -
magnet th e neg ative p ole th e south seeki ng pole

,
-
.
Th e strength of amagneti c p ole m is th e quanti ty of , ,
magneti s m at th e p ole The fo rce b et ween two

.
quanti ties of magnetis m m1 and ma i s gi v en by th e

, ,
equation
mi me
F= i C 2
l
c
This f orce i s ex plained as being due to astress i n th e ether.
Uni t p ole strength, o r uni t p iole,

s t h at p ol e s tr eng t h
wh i ch re
pel s a like po le o f equal strength at a d i s
tance of one cen ti meter , in vacuo, wi t h a force of
o ne dy ne .
Pos i tive and negati ve poles appear al ways together in a

magnet and are o f equal st ren gth .
76 . Th e p ermeabi li ty u o f asubs tance is ap roperty

, ,
modi fying th e i nt eractio n of magnetic p o l es im

MAGNET ISM AN D ELEC T RICI T Y 53
mersed in, or separated by , thi s med ium . In ord er
to eval uat e thi s cons tant th e fo rce attracti on o r

of
rep uls i o n between t wo p ol es is taken as in v ers el y
o
p p
r o rti on al t o the p ermeabil it y
1 m m"
F
s 7h
Th e p ermeability is a fun d amental unit and its d i
mensi onal ex pression is [p ]
This gives th e d imens io nal formul a f or p ole
strengt h m
[ ] [ M u i r 1 t
s ]
-
Th e uni t of p ermeabi li ty is th e permeab ility of th e

va cuum .
D iama g néti c b od i e s ar e b o d i es wh o s e p er meab i li t y

i s s maller than uni ty .
P arama gn eti c bo d i e s a re b o d i e s wh o s e p erm ea b il i t y

i s larg er th an unity .
F err oma g ne ti c b od i es a r e b o d i es w h o se p er me ab ili t y

is v ery larg e .
77 . Th e magneti c moment o f amagnet is the p ro d

uct o f the streng th o f o ne p ole and the d istance be
t ween th e p oles : M ml .
M M i
ur l i
[ 1 [ ]
-
e .
78 magnetostatic f ield or si mply a magneti c

. A ,
field i s,t h at s p ace i n w hi ch a mag net i s act ed up o n
by mechanica l forces by v i rtue of its mag neti c
p r o perti es .
The magneti c intensity H , , of afield at ap o int is th e

p ro
p ert y
fi elof
d g th e
i vi ng ri s e t o mec h a ni cal f o r ces
if amagnet be brough t to th e p o int I t is meas ured .
by th e force per unit pol e acti ng upo n apole bro ught

t o that p o in t .
F
H
m
It is a v ector quantity , is nu meri cally equal to and h as the
sa me dire ctio n as t h e f o rce ex erte d at the poi nt upo n unit pole .
I t is i ndependent of th e presence of amagnet or of th e ex is t

ence o f af orce at th e po in t It i s t heref ore to be regretted th at
.
th i s physi cal quantity is f requently called magneti c f orce .
Acco rdi ng to the ether-strai n theo ry it i s ameasure of th e mag

neti c s tress .
magnetic i ntensi ty is th e i ntens ity giv ing rise

Uni t
to a fo r ce o f o ne d yn e acti n g on un i t p ole It i s .
f
'
lled th e aus s ) d
ca
Q o e rs fl .
I i —i
M T
-
H
[ ] [ L l
a ]
“
79 Magneti c i nduction B at apo int is the prod uct

.
, ,
o f th e magneti c per meability F of the medi um into

th e ma gnetic intensi ty at th e po i nt .
It i s a vector quantity , us uall y i n the same direction as H .
Acco rding to the et h e st r

r-
ai n theory i t is a mea sure of t he
magnetic strain .
U ni t magneti c inducti on is th e ind uctio n in a

med ium o f uni t meabili ty at a poi nt where th e
p er
intens it y i s o ne g auss I t h as no generall y accepted

.
MAGNE TISM AN D ELEC T RICI T Y 55
na e m . F or li ne p er s q uare centimeter
“
an d max
well per s q uare centi met er s ee bel o w .
B
[ ] [M W T -
I
FJ
L ines f m ag n
o e ti c i nd ucti on a r e i mag i nar y l i ne s in
a magn et ic fi el d which are at ev ery p o int i n t he

d i recti o n o f th e i nd ucti o n For p urp o ses o f mea
. s ur e
ment i t is custo mary t o rep res ent uni t ind ucti o n by

o n e l in e p er s q ua re centi meter o f a s ur fa ce a t right
angl es to th e i nd ucti on .
Lin es of in d uctio n are alwa s y closed li nes . Li nes of in

t en sit y may be defi ned i n a Si milar manner . Li nes of f o rce is
an ex pres si on o f ten use d , but i s appli ed as well to li nes of in
ductio n as to lines of in tens i t y , apracti ce cre ating co ns i derable
co nf us i o n.
The magneti c fl ux (I) through a surface , , i s th e sur

face i ntegral o f magneti c ind ucti on .
<I>
d A co s 0,
wh ere 0 is th e angl e b etween th e mal t o the s ur

nor
face and th e lines of i nd ucti on If the fi eld is uni

.
f o rm , th e magneti c fl ux t hro ugh asurf ace A a t ri ght

angles to B IS (I) BA .
Uni tmagnetic fl ux i s th e fl ux through uni t areaat

ap o in t wh ere th e i nd ucti on i s uni ty It i s call ed th e .
max well Therefo re we may use as th e uni t of mag

.
neti c in d ucti o n t he max well p er s ua re centi meter

q .
[ ]
<D
A tube of i nducti on i s atub ul ar sur face th e elements

of wh i ch co ns is t wh oll y of li nes of in d uctio n .
A uni t tube o f i nd ucti o n i s a t ub e t h ro ugh ev er y

cro s s ed secti o n o f whi ch t he fl ux is max wel l one .
80 M a.
g n et i za ti o n of a bo d y i s ap h en o men o n r es ul t
i ng from its i ntrod ucti o n i nt o a mag neti c fi el d o f
d iff erent p ermeab ili ty .
Magnetizatio n is al ways acco mpani ed by aredi stri bution of

the ma g neti c i n d u cti o n i n th e fi eld .
I nd uced p oles are p o l es whi ch h av e b een ass umed

t o ex i s t i n amagnetized b o d y in o rd er to ex p lain the
ch anges in th e co nd i ti on o f th e fi eld d ue to the i nt ro
d ucti o n of th e bod y with out
, taki ng into account th e
d i ff erence of p erm eab i l i ty .
Th e magnetizing field i ntensi ty , H ] , at ap o int in a

magnetized b o d y i s th e fi el d i ntensity res ul ting from
th e intro d uctio n of th e bo d y .
gene al diff erent f om the inte nsity o f th e o igi nal fi eld

It i s i n r r r
and may be f oun d by th e vect addi tio n of the o i gi nal i nten si ty

or r
and the demagneti i ng i ntensi ty d ue to the i nd uced poles

z .
Th e magneti c ind ucti on B x i n amag netized bo d y i s

,
th e p ro d uct of its p ermeabil i ty an d th e i ntensi ty o f th e

magnetizi ng fi eld
The i ntens ity f
o magn etizati on , J , of amag neti zed
1
bo d y i s — ti mes the d iff erence between i ts mag
4 7l "
MAGNETISM AN D ELEC T RICI T Y 57
neti c ind ucti o n and th e ind uction whi ch woul d ex is t

i f t he p ermeabili ty of th e bo d y were th e s ame as th e
p er m eab ili ty u, o f t h e o r ig i n al fi el d .
—“
— ”g
la
4W J = B a PI H S = B ! l .
If th e in tensity magnetizati on is unifo rm it is

of ,
th e ma gnetic moment o f the bod y p er uni t v olume .
Intensity of magnetization is a physi cal quanti ty of

th e same nature a s ma gnetic inducti o n .
The magnetic suscep tibi li ty x o f amagnetized b od y

, ,
is th e rati o o f i ts i n tens i ty o f magneti zati on to th e

intensi ty o f the magnetizing fiel d .
J P2 l‘
x = l
4 n
'
A ma gnetized body beco mes a magnet if , upon the with

d rawal of th e ex te rnal fi eld, there remai n s aseparate fi eld who se
lines of i nducti o n are li nked with th e bo dy .
A magnetizati on curve i s a curv e rep resenti n g th e

ind ucti on (or th e in tensi ty m ag neti za
of
ti o n) as a
f unction of the magnetizi ng fi eld starti ng with zero
i ntens i ty i n an unmag neti zed s pecimen .
Magneti c hysteresi s is a p h en omeno n aris ing from

th e t rans fo rmati o n i nto h eat of mag neti c energy d ue
t o th e tend ency o f a s ub stance t o p er sist i n i ts stat e
o f ma netiza ti n
g o .
A hy steresi s curve i s a curv e repres enting th e

in d ucti on a s af unctio n o f the ma gnetizing field when
58 DE FINI T IONS IN PH YSICS
th e l atter is carri ed through aco mpl ete cycle between

e ua
q l p o s i ti v e and negati v e v alues .
81 . Magneti c p a
oten ti l , 0 , i s a p hy si ca l quan
tity whos e r ate o f d ecr ea s e in a ny d i recti o n eq uals
the co mp o nent of the magnetic i ntensi ty in that
d i recti on
dfl
.
dL
It is ascalar quanti ty .
A magneti c e
qu ip otenti al sur f ace i s a sur face all
p o i n ts o f whi ch are at th e s ame p o tential .
The directi on of th e i ntensi t y of th e magnetic fi eld at any

po int is normal to th e e uiq potential s urf ace g
pass in throu hg
the poi nt .
a
[ ] [1 m m ; Ti .
Th e dif f m a
erence o gne ti c
p oten ti al b et ween t w o
i nt i t h ro d uct o f th e intens i ty o f th e ma g net i c

p o s s e p
fi eld and th e di stance between the p oints meas ured
al ong th e line of i ntensity
01 02 s l co s 0
.
If th e field is f m
uni o r
It i s nu merically equal to th e wo r k necessary to transf er uni t

pole f rom one poi nt to the other .
MA GNE T ISM AND ELEC T RICI T Y 59
Uni t dif f m a
erence o
gneti c
p otenti al i s th e d iff erence
o f p o tent ial b et ween t wo p o ints one centimeter apa , rt ,
i n auni form fi el d wh os e i ntensi ty is one gauss It is .
s o metimes ca lled agi lbert .
Magnetomoti ve f or ce i s th e difi erence of p o tenti al

along aline of intens ity fro m any point in the fi eld
back to th e same point :
M M F. . .
f Ha
ll .
It i s nu meri cally equal to k done in moving unit pole

th e wor
f rom apo int i n the fi eld alo ng ali ne of i ntensity back to the
s ame po int .
82 . Reluctance o r magneti c resistance R between , ,
t wo s urfaces i s th e ratio between th e magneti c difl er

'
ence o f p o tent i al and the mag neti c fl ux .
B etween two e uip otenti a

q l sur faces incl uding the
sa e m fl ux
Q
R
(D
I n auni form fi eld o f co nstant p er meability

l
R
p A
For acomplete magneti c circui t
<I>
M M F . . .
ER
Uni t r eluct ncea i s th at reluct nce a in which a

o f one max well i s p r o d uced by ad ifi er ence o f p oten

ti al of one gilbert . It is sometimes ca ll ed an oer sted t .
R
[ ] [ L l
fl
‘
83 Magneti c energy is an ex p ress ion f or

. energ y
meas ured in magneti c uni ts Thus th e . en erg y
s tored i n a g iv en v ol ume o f atub e o f i nd ucti o n be

t ween cr oss secti o ns o f d i fi eren ce o f p o ten ti al 0 is .
W L OC ( i f as
i cons tant ) .
BW
Th e energ y p er uni t v olu me at ap oint i n amag

neto st ati c fi el d i s
dW 1 1
(IT 8 '
rr Us;
The ener gy s p ent in mo v i ng a magnetic p o l e m
between t wo p o in t s wh o se di ff erence of p o t en ti al is
Q is
,
W= Q
. m.
IV 6 . E L E CT
R OS T ATI CS
84 . E lectrified or electri cally a

ch rg ed bod i es are
b od i es that attract or repel each o th er wi th aforce
whi ch i s neith er grav i tati o nal nor d ue to mech anical
acti on of o rd in ary matter and th at Sh o w n o d efin ite
,
ori enta ti o n relativ e to th e ea rt h s s urfa

’
ce .
E lectri city or electri c charg e q i s th e name of ahyp o , ,
thetica l s ub stan ce p ro d uci ng att racti o n o r rep ulsi o n

o f electri fi ed b odi es by a ct i on a t ad is tance - - -
.
MAGNETISM AND ELE C T RICI T Y 61
The concept of electri ci t y as an i mponderab le fluid was in

troduced wh en the f orces between elect ifi ed bo dies were sup
r
posed to be d ue to ac o a
ti n - t-
a- i stance d . It was assumed th at
electri ci t y is lo cated at the s urf ace of , o r wi th i n, an electrifi ed
body . For adefi niti on of electri cit y by the ether-stra in th eory
see art 8 8
. .
'
V P osi ti ve electri ci t
y is th e electri cit y p ro d uced on
glas s by bbing i t with Silk ; neg ative electri ci ty i s

ru
ro d uced o n h ard rubb er b rubb i ng i t wi th wo ol

p y .
Th e fo rce between t wo quanti ti es of electricity q1

and q, ad istance d ap art is giv en by the eq uati on
, ,
F —t 911 2
a
.
.
d
The f orce i s ex plained as being d ue to astress in the other .
The electr ost ati c uni t o f electr i ci ty o r unit charg e is

th at quantity of el ectri ci t y wh ich re els
p an e qual
quantity at a d istance of o ne centi meter in v acuo
wi th afo rce o f o ne d y ne .
E lectri c sur f ace d ensi ty is q uantity of el ectri cit y

p er un i t area
'
If th e charge is unifo m d is tri buted over th e

areaA,
o
i .
85 . The di electri c const nt a or ifi

s
p ec c i nducti ve
ca
p aci ty, c, of as ubstance is th e p rop erty mo d i fy ing
th e interacti o n of as ys tem o f fied bo dies im

el ect ri
mersed i n, o r sep arated by , t h is medi um In o rder .
to eval uate thi s co ns t nt a th e fo rce of attractio n or
re
p ul s i o n between two quanti ti es o f electri ci ty is
taken as inversel y prop orti o nal to th e di electri c
co ns t nt : a
1
F :
i
c d a
Th e dielectri c constant is afundamental unit and i ts

d i mensi onal ex p res sio n i s [ c] This giv es the di
mens ional fo rmul af or electri city i n the electro static
s ystem
[ q] [ 1M iW e] ,
and f o r s ur face density

M IL i T l ci
[ ]
a [ ]
‘
-
.
The dimensi onal f ormula

e f or electric al quantiti es i n th e
electroma neti c system will be
g gi ven in arts . 93 104
-
.
The uni t o f d i el ectric co ns tant is th e d i electric

const ant of t he vacuu m .
86 . An mply an electri c field E

electrostatic, o r si , ,
i s that s pace i n whi ch an el ectrified b o d y i s acted

up on by amecha ni cal force by v ir tue of its electri c
rt i es
p p
ro e .
The intensity f
o an elect
i fi eld at apoint is th e
r
c
MAGNET ISM AND ELEC T RICI T Y 63
o
p p
r ert y of fiel d gi ving ris e to amechanical force
th e
i f an electrified b o d y he br o ught to th e p o i nt .
I t i s meas ured by th e rati o o f th e mechanical fo rce

acting at th e p oi nt up o n an el ectrifi ed bo dy to th e ,
quantity of electri ci ty on th e b od y
E M i z l r
-
l
-
i
[ ] [ j
-
o .
Uni t i ntensity of an el ectric field i s the i ntensity

g i v i ng ri s e t o a fo rce of o ne d y ne acti ng o n unit
c harge .
Intousity of an electric fi eld i s avector quanti ty and i s numeri

cally equal to and h as th e s ame directio n as the f orce ex erted
at the po int upo n unit quantity of electricity .
It is i ndependent of t he presence of electrifi ed bo dies or ,
f orces ex i sti ng at th e poi nt and i t i s theref ore unf o rt unate that

,
i t is s o meti mes call ed the electric f o rce Acco rdi ng to the .
eth e stra
r- i n t heo r y it i s ameas u e of r t he electri c str ess .
87 . E lectr i c d isp lacement o r electr os tatic ind uction,
. D, at apo int i s t imes th e p ro d uct of the di elec

4n
t ric cons tant c of th e medi um into th e el ectri c intou
s ity at th e point
It is avector quanti ty in th e s ame direction and sense as E .
Accordi n g to the et hen strai n theory it i s ameas u e of the elec r
t i c st a
r r in At th e s u f ace o f aco ndu to r D beco mes equal to
. r c
the surf a ce dens i ty So me aut ho rs defi ne it as D

. CH .
Uni t electrost ati c i nd uction i s th e i nd uction i n a

medi um o f uni t d i elect ric co ns tant at a p oin t where
t he electri c i ntens ity i s 4 n '
uni ts .
i i l i
M L T o
'
D
[ ] [ ]
-
.
L ines Qf electrical ind ucti on are i maginary lines i n

an electri cal fi el d whi ch are at every po i nt i n t h e d i
recti o n o f th e i nd uct i o n . Fo r p urpo s es o f measure
ment i t is cus to mary to re res ent un i t i n d uct i o n by
p
one l ine p er s q uare centimeter of a s urface at r ig ht
angles to th e d irection of the i nd uction .
E lectri c i ntens it y may si milarly be presented by lines

re of
i ntens it y .
Since the electri c i nten sit y at a dis tance r f ro m a co ncen

trated uni t h arge i s
c an d th e s urf ace of asphere o f radi us
c
r is 41rr ,
9
li n es of i n ducti o n emanate f ro m aposi ti ve h arge q
c
q .
Si mil arl q li nes end i n achar e —q

y g .
The electri c fl ux II thro ugh as urface A is th e s ur
face i ntegral of t he el ect ri c i nd ucti on .
f D dA cos d
where 0 is th e angle b etween th e normal t o th e sur

MAGNET ISM AN D ELEC T RI CI T Y 65
face and the lines o f i nd ucti o n . If th e fi eld is uni

fo rm th e electric fl ux th ro ugh
, a surface A at ri ght
angles to D is
II DA
Uni t electr ic fl ux i s th e fl ux t hro ugh uni t areaat a

p o i n t where th e d i splacement i s uni ty .
[ ]
II [ Mu r
i - l
ei
] .
A tube of ind ucti on is a tub ular s urface th e ele

ments o f which cons is t wholly o f li nes of i nd ucti on .
A uni t tube o f in d ucti o n is a t ub e t hro ugh y

ev er
cro s s sect i o n o f wh i ch th e electri c fl ux i s u ni t y .
88 . An electr i cal con ductor is a body which d i s

t ribut es elect r i cal c g reat rapid ity
harg es wi th .
A n insulator o r di electri c i s a b od y whi ch d is trib

utes elect ri cal charges wi th ex t reme sl o wness .
An electri c d
con ucto r i s una le to b su pport i n i ts interi or an
electri c s tr ain . I n an electro st ati c fi eld the tu bes of i nd uctio n

termi n ate on th e s urf ace of co n ductors . Free y may
el ectrici t ,
t h eref o re, be defi ned as a manif estation of a dis conti nuity of

tu bes o f electri c i nduction .
89 E lectri cal p otenti al i s a p hysi cal quan ti ty

.
whos e r ate o f d ecreas e i n any d irecti on equa l s th e

co mp o nent o f th e el ect ri c i nt ensi t i n th at d i rection
y .
dV
It i s ascalar quanti ty .
66 DE FINI TIONS IN PH YSICS
An electri c e ui
q p otenti al s urf ace is a s urface all
p o i nt s o f whi ch are at th e m
sa e el ect ri c p o t en ti al .
Th e d i recti o n of the i ntens it y at any p o in t

el ectri c
is n or mal to th e equi p ot ent i al s urface t hro ugh th e
p ornt
dV
.
dn
i
V
[ ] [M u r
Th e electri ca otenti a
’
l difier ence of p l between tw o
p o i nt s i s t he p ro d uct o f th e el ect ri cal i ntensi ty and

the d is tance b etween th e p oi nts alo ng th e li ne of
i ntensity
fg f
I
V, -
V,
f E dL eo s o dL s os o .
It i s nu meri cally equal to th e wo r k n ecessar y t o transf er
uni t quantity of electri ci ty f ro m o ne point to th e other .
enti a
’
Uni t difl er ence f

O p ot l is th e d ifi erence of
p o t en t i al re qui ring th e ex p en di ture o f o n e erg f or a

trans fer of an el ectro stati c uni t q uant ity o f el ec
tri city .
A d efi nite merical val ue can be gi v en t o the

nu
p o t ent i al at ap o i nt by ch o o s i ng s o me p o i n t as b ei ng
at zero p otential (earth o r i nfinity) .
90 . Th e electri cal cap aci ty of aconductor i s ap ro p

erty by v irt ue o f wh i ch i t can when i ns ul at ed ho ld
, ,
MAGNE TISM AN D EL E C T RICI T Y 67
ach arge . It is measured by th e r ati o of th e quan

t i ty of electri ci ty o n th e co nd ucto r to i ts p otential
C = q/ V .
I t is merically equal to the quantity of

nu electri cit y ch arg
i ng th e co nductor f ro m zero to unit potenti al .
C
[ ] L
[ ]o .
Fo r a sp h eri cal co nd ucto r of rad ius r , s urro un d ed
by amed i um of di el ectric co ns tant c
C = cr .
Th e cap acity of a condenser is aprop erty by v irtue

o f w hi ch i t ca n h ol d eq ua l q uanti ti es o f p o siti v e an d
neg a ti v e elect ri ci ty i f i ts t ermina ls are at d i ff erent
p o t en t i als . I t i s m ea s ured by th e ra ti o o f th e p os i
tiv e qua nti ty of electri ci ty s t ored i n th e con d en s er
t o th e d ifi erence o f p o tent i a l b et ween th e t wo ter

mi nals
It is nu meri cally equal quantity of electri city charg

to th e
i ng the co nden ser to unit di ff erence o f potential .
Accordi ng to the ether strai n th eo ry th e ca

-
p acity f
o a co n
d enser i s aproperty by vi rtue of wh ich an indepen dent electric

fi eld ca n be esta blis h ed i n the dielectric between the oppo site
s urf aces o f the co ndenser .
The capaci ty o f a condenser i s proportional to the specifi c

inductive ca pacity of a substance used as the dielectri c ; and
the specifi c i nducti ve capa city or dielectr i c co nsta
,
nt of a sub ,
s tance is theref ore numerica lly equal to th e rati o of th e capac

i ty 01 of a co ndenser with thi s
a b
as a dielectri c to th e
su s t nce
ca pacity C of the condenser wi tho ut any materi al dielectric be

t ween the plates For all practi cal purposes air ma
.
y b e ch o sen
as the standard of di electric co nstant (c

c 01/ C , nu merically .
Fo r a sp h eri ca l co nd enser o f radi i r l and r,, the
p l ates b ei n g s ep arate d by a m ed i um o f d i el ect r i c
co nstan t c,
r r
'
7 7
s 1
For aplane p arallel co nd enser filled wi th ad i elec

t ri c of thi ckn ess d , c
C A ( nearl y) ,
4 7rd
wh ere A i s th e total areao f t he d i el ectri c between

t h e pl at es of th e cond enser .
The electr ost ati c uni t f

o ca
p aci ty i s a cap aci t y
charged to o ne el ectro s tati c uni t o f d iff erence of
p o t ent i al by uni t c harge .
The d i electri c strength o f an insulato r i s th e max i

mum d iff erence of po tenti al p er centi meter thi cknes s
whi ch th e ins ul ator can s up p o rt wit hout r upture .
91 . E lectrical energy i s an ex p res si on f or ener gy

i nd i cati ng merely that energy may be meas ured i n
el ectri cal unit s Thus t he energy spent in mov i ng
.
a quanti ty o f el ect ri ci ty from one po in t of a fi eld to

another i s th e p ro duct of t h e quanti ty and the d ifi er
ence o f p o t ent ial bet ween th e p oints
MAGNET ISM AN D ELEC T RICI T Y 69
s L oos c .
Th e energ y Sp ent in ch argi ng a co nd enser is one
h alf th e p ro d uct of th e di fi erence of p o t enti al i nto

th e quantity o f electri ci t y i n th e co nd ens er
f n =
f C Vd V
The energ y p er unit v ol u me at a p o int o f an

elect ros tati c field where the intensity i s E and th e
d isp lacement D ,
d W 1 1
dr 2 Sr
92 . An electri c sp ark i s th e sudd en breaki ng d o wn

of ad i electric acco mp anied by a p ass age of electri c
i ty . I t is a d iscontinuous p henomenon .
An electr i c curr en t i s th e p as s ag e o f el ectri ci ty

th ro ugh a cond ucto r . B y th e eth er-s train t heo ry
i t is ex pl ai ned as t h e d i s app ear an ce o f an el ectr i c
s train i n th e d ielectric s urro und i ng th e co nd ucto r .
Strictly s p eaki n g th i s is a “
co nd ucti o n current .
”
Curr ent s tr ength, intensi ty Qf curr ent, o r si mpl y cur

r ent is the t ime rate o f t rans ference o f electri ci ty
I
(It
It is nu meri cally equal to th e quantity of electri ci t y pas si ng

in uni t time if the current
, re mains co nstant. It i s a scalar
quantity either po sitive or negative I t is po sitive if apositive

, .
quantity of electri city flo ws f ro m apoi nt of h igh er potenti al to

o ne o f lo wer po tenti al i e i n th e same sense as th e intens i ty of
, . .
,
th e electri c fi eld .
I M ui r s t
[ ] [ ]
-
o .
Uni t curr ent is a current i n whi ch uni t quanti ty of
el ect ri cit y is t rans ferred i n unit ti me, i f th e curren t
remai ns a
co ns t nt .
Curr ent d en si ty, i , at ap o int is th e current p er uni t
areaat th e p oi nt .
It i s av ecto r quanti ty hav ing a di rectio n no r mal

to t h e areach o s en, and th e s ame s ens e as t he current .
It i s us uall y t aken n or mal t o th e e quipo tenti al s ur
face at th e p o i n t .
l i —z i
M
-
[]
i [ L r c
] .
A convecti on cur rent i s th e p as sag e of elect ri ci t y

t hro ugh a non co nd ucto r, s uch as a ir or free sp ace .
Its d ensit y at any p oi nt is
where
3 2 i s th e
1
quanti ty p er unit v o l u me (electr i c
volu me d ensity ) and v th e vel o ci t y of th e charges .
MA GNE TISM AN D ELE C TRICI T Y 71
A di sp lacement curr ent i s a p hysi cal quantity of
t he s ame d i mensi ons as a cond ucti on cur rent, but

connected w i th a v ari ati on i n ti me of an el ectro
stati c fi eld . It i s meas ured by the ti me rate of

vari ati o n of el ectri c d i s pl acement Its d ensity at
.
any point of th e di electri c is
IV c . ELE C TR OM A G NE TISM
( )o E lectroma
g ne ti c
p hen omena are p h eno mena i n
whi ch energy a a rs t o us b oth a l t ri c and a

pp e s e e c s
magneti c energy and in whi ch t here ex is ts a d efi ni te

relatio n b etween electric and magnetic quanti ties .
93 . An electr i c i s a p hys i ca
current l quanti ty con
nected with a trans mis si o n and t ransfo rmati on of
ener gy which is accomp ani ed by th e es tablis hment
o f ama g n et i c fi eld n o t d ue
, to mag nets .
An electric conductor (s ee als o art 8 8) i s a b od y .
whi ch can be used to res tri ct th e trans mis s i on o f

energy by a n el ectri c current t o ad efi ni te p ath .
An electri c con ducti on curr ent (s ee als o art 92) i s

.
an electri c current, c haracteri zed by the app earance
of h eat in acond ucto r and the ex is tence of a mag

neti c field wh ose li nes of in d uct io n are cl os ed lines

abo ut th e ax is of th e co nd uct o r .
The current is sai d to fl ow t hro u gh th e co n ducto r . I n th e

case of aco nducto r o f ci rcul ar cro ss section th e tubes of mag
net ic i nducti o n a re ci rcles i ns i de an d outsi de o f t he co nducto r .
The heat appeari ng i n t he co nducto r is the equi v alent of energy

flo wi ng i nto i t f ro m the surro undi ng s pace The current i s a
a
.
sca lar qu nti ty , and may be ei th er po si ti ve or negat i v e accord

i ng to t he di recti o n o f th e magnetic i nducti on encircli ng i t .
A cond ucti o n current, may be meas ured by the

1;
i ntens it y o f t he magneti c fi el d p ro d uced by i t Th e .
rela t i o n b etween thes e t wo phys ica l quantiti es i s

giv en by Lapl ace s eq uati o n ’
I ds
dH = E
d a
whi ch i nteg rated f o r a circul ar current of r adi us r
gi v es f o r th e field i ntensi ty at the center

2 vr
H 1;
r
and i ntegrated f o r an i nfi ni tely long s traight current ,
g i v es f o r t h e fi el d in tens i t y at a d istance r from th e

ax is of t he current
2I
H
r
M M
. . F . 4 77 1:
I n av ery l o ng s ol eno i d o f N turns and l ength L
4 WN
H I
L
M AC NE TI S M AN D ELEC T RICI T Y 73
I
[ ] [
I i
M L T ‘
Wl i
Th e magnetic unit of cur rent i s th at current

electr o
wh ich wh en p assing th ro ugh an arc of uni t l ength

,
i n acir cl e o f o ne centi meter rad i us will p ro d uce at ,
th e center o f th e cir cl e a magnetic fi eld i n tens ity

o f o ne g a uss ; or unit curr ent is th a t current w hi ch ,
when flo wi ng thro ugh aci rcle o ne centi meter rad i us

will pr o d uce at i ts center a magneti c fi el d wh os e
i ntensi ty i s 2 tr gauss Th i s unit is called th e C G S
. . . .
uni t o f current i n o rd er t o d i sti ng ui s h it fr o m th e
p ra ct i cal un i t i n co mmo n u s e ( s ee art I t i s .
ind ep end en t o f th e p ermeab ili ty o f th e medi um s ur

ro und i ng th e cur rent .
A constant curr ent is a current wh i ch pro d uces a

magneti c fi eld whos e intensi ty i s constant at every
p o i nt .
Th e heati ng ductor as well as other efl ects pro

of th e con
duced by aco nstant cur rent take place at aco nstant ti me rate .
All alternati ng cur rent is a current wh i ch vari es
p eri od ic ally bet ween q

e ual p o s i t i v e and ne gati v e
val ues .
A sinus oi dal curr ent is a current who se values
p l o t ted as a f uncti o n of th e t ime are r ep res ented by

a si ne curv e
I 1; si n ( at
Curr ent d ensi ty , i , at a p o int (See als o ar t 9 2) is .

‘
th e current p er unit areaat th e p o i nt .

It is avecto r quantity havi ng adi rection normal to th e area

h
c os en and the same sen se as the current .
I 9
M L T Wl l
-
[]
i [
'
94 .
Q uan ti ty o f electri ci t
y i s th e ti me i nt egral of
an el ect ri c curren t
or f or cons tant current d uring t he ti me t,
Q It .
It i s an hypoth eti cal fl ui d supposed to pass th ro ugh a co n

ductor ca yi ng
a current It
rr . i s i dentical in i ts nature wi th
electrostati c quanti ty of electri ci ty .
I o1= [M m l
e i
-
The electr o magneti c uni t of quanti ty of electri ci t

y i s
th e quanti ty p as s i ng i n o ne s eco n d if th e curren t is

unit y . I t is called th e C G S . . . un i t q uantity of
electri ci t y (s ee als o art .
This unit is 3 x 1 0 electros tati c units o f

10
electri c
i ty ( art .
95 . Th e electri c r esi s tance, R , of a co nduct or is a

c h aracteri stic p rop erty of th e cond uctor by v i rt ue o f
whi ch th e energy o f an electric current i s t ransfo rmed
i nto heat I t may be mea
. s ured by th e eq uati on
MAGNE T ISM AN D ELEC T RICI T Y 75
o r, if the current is cons tant d uring th e tirne t,
H p Rt .
The electric res i stance of a given conductor at a cons tant

tempera ture is a co ns ta nt i e , i ndepend ent o f th e current
, . .
( O h m s law
’
) I t i s s o me
.t imes c alle d o h mi c resis tance .
[ ]
R [L T F]
-
I
Th e mag neti c uni t Qf resi stance is th at res ist

electr o
ance i n wh i ch h eat equi valen t to o ne erg i s prod uced

by uni t constant current i n one s eco nd I t is called .
th e C G S u nit. . . o f r es i s t an ce ( s ee als o art .
Resi s ti vi ty fi or s
p eci c resi s tance, p, i s t h e ch ar acter
i sti c p rop erty o f a subs tance up o n whi ch th e res i s t
ance o f aco nd ucto r fo rmed of thi s material d epend s .
For p urp o ses o f meas urement i ts numeri cal v al ue

is d efi ned by th e equati o n
p R A/ l,
wh ere R is t he resi s tance, A th e cros s s ecti o n and l

th e leng th of th e co nd ucto r .
It i s numeri cally equal to the a

res i st nce between two o ppo
si te s i des of aun it cu b e of the s u bstance .
[P] [ P T -
I
F]
E lectri cal conduct nce, a G , and conducti vi t ,

y g,ar e
th e reci p ro c al s o f res is t nce a and r es i st i v i t y .
96 E lectri cal d ifl erence f otenti al, Vl V2, be

‘
. o
p
76 DEFI NI TI ONS IN PH YSICS
t ween two p oi nt s of aci rcui t is th e energ y p er un it
q uanti ty of electri ci ty spent d uri ng the p assage of

th e quanti ty of elect ri city fro m o ne p o int to th e
I n case th ere is onl y an ohmic a

r es i st n ce between
th e t wo p o in ts,
I n aresis tance apos iti v e current flo ws f ro m apo i nt o f hi gher

potential to a po int of lower po ten tial This is equivalent to .
y g
s a in : Th ere i s a f all of po tential over th e a
resis t nce e qual
to I R .
V
[ ] [ M W w e] .
Th is quantity i s i dentical in its nature wi th electro stati c d if

f erence of po te nti al It i s a s calar quanti ty eit her po s i tiv e o r
.
,
nega tiv e accor di ng to t he sens e i n wh i ch it i s ta

, ken .
Th e magnetic uni t of al i s
'
electr o d ifler ence of p oten ti
th e d iff erence of p o t ent i al p r o d uced at the termi nals

o f unit res i s t ance carr i n
y g uni t curren t ( s ee al so ar t .
1
Thi s uni t 18 q al to
e u
10
el ect ros tati c
3 x 10
uni t a
( t
r .
E lectri c i ntensi ty at ap oin t i n a circui t i s th e sp ace

rate o f d ecrea s e o f p o t en ti al at th e p o int .
fl ’
dL
2 = gE .
M AC NE TI S M AND ELE C TRICI T Y 77
97 . E lectromoti ve f or ce, E M F . . .
, i s ad iff erence of
p o tent i al, tend ing to p ro d uce an el ectri c current .
Th e electromoti ve f or ce o f a ma ch i ne is th e d i f
ference o f p o tenti ali ts po les , wh en they are

between
n o t connected by a co n d uct o r, i e , wh en it is o n a n . .
op en circui t .
Termi nal p otenti al diff erence of a machi ne i s th e

d iff erence of p o tenti a
l between i ts p oles wh en th e ci r
cui t is cl o sed .
A di r ect or i mp ressed electromoti ve f or ce i n acircuit

is an E . M F. . causin g an el ectr i c current t o fl ow
th ro ugh a ci rcuit .
It i s gnized by the f act th at i n the porti ons of th e cir

reco
cui t co ntai ni ng adi rect E M F th e e i s arise of potential or a

. . . r
f all of potenti al smaller than the I R drop d ue to the o h mi c re
s is tance.
A mo ti ve f or ce i s an E M F
counter electr o . . . tendi ng
to send acurrent thro ugh t h e ci rcui t in the Op p o s i t e
sense t o that o f th e ex is ti ng cur rent .
It is reco
g nize d by the f act that in the portions of the ci rcui t
cont ai n i ng a co unter E M F there is a f all of po tenti al
. . .
gr eate r t h an t h at ca used by t h e o h mi c resi stance I t i s us ual ly .
gi ven anegative Sign In any circuit carrying an electric cur

.
rent the s um o f a ll the E M F s , taken wit h t heir pro per Si gn ,

’
. . .
eq uals th e f a ll of potenti a l ov er t he oh mi c resis tance o f t he

who le ci rcuit .
98 . A thermoelectromoti ve f or ce i s an el ectro moti v e

fo rce p r o d uced when th e j uncti o n of t wo d i ss i mi lar
78 DEFI NI T IONS IN PH YSICS
cond ucto rs is kep t at a di fi erent temp era ture from

th at of th e o ther end s o f th e co nd uct or s .
Thermoelectri c coefi ci ent i s the ratio of a thermo

elect romo ti v e f o rce t o the corresp o ndi ng d i fl erence
o f tempera ture
V '
V”I ta :
It is usuall y called the moelectric p ower

r .
lA P elti er electr o motive f or ce i s that p orti on o f th e

t hermo whi ch i s l o calized at th e j uncti ons o f
e co nd uct o rs .
A Thoms on electromoti vef or ceis that porti on of th e

t hermo E -
. M F whi ch i s
. . l ocated i n the co nd ucto rs
and is d ue to th e di f f erence of temp erature al ong th e
co nd uct o rs .
99 . An electroly te i s a co nd ucto r that i s d eco m
p os ed by t h e p ass age of an electric current .
E lectr oly si s i s th e d eco mpo sit io n of an electrolyte .
Th e mi cal equivalent o f asubs tance is the

electr oche
ra ti o o f th e mass i n gra ms d eposit ed i n an electrolytic

cell by t he p a ssag e o f elect ri cit
y to th e q uant it y o f ,
el ect ri cit y
m at o mi c mas s
! : !R !3 x che mi cal eq ui val ent
O val ence
( s ee also art 105 d

) . .
I ons are electri fied mass particles formed by adi s

s oci at io n o f molecules .
M AGNE TISM AND ELEC T RICI T Y 79
Cati ons are i o ns whi ch trav el wi th th e current and

app ear at th e negativ e termi nal of an elect roly t i c cell ;
ani ons are io ns whi ch app ear at th e p os it iv e t ermi nal
of a n el ectr olyti c cell .
The e
qui valent con ducti vi ty , A, of an elect rol yte is
the co nd ucti v i t y gram eq uiv alent o f the d i s
of one
s ol v ed s ub s t an ce wh en elect roly zed b et ween el ec
t ro d es o ne centi meter ap a rt It is usually referred

.
t o one liter o f th e s olut io n and i s mea s ured by th e
eq uati o n
1 000
9,
n
wh ere n i s th e nu mber gram equiv alents

of i n ali ter
and g t he electri c co nd ucti v ity ( art .
P olari zati on of an electr olyti c cell i s t he eff ect of a

curr ent haracteri zed by the establishment of a
c
count er el ect ro motiv e fo rce .
It is us ually restricted to the polari zati on of meta ls immersed

in ali qui d
. .
100 The capaci ty of a condenser is ap rop erty by

.
v i rtue of whi ch i t ca n h ol d q ua nt ity o f el ect ri ci ty i f
its termi na l s are at d i ff erent p o t entials It is meas .
ured by th e ra tio of th e quant ity o f el ectri city to t he

d ifi erence of p o tent i al bet ween th e termi na ls of th e
co nd enser .
C
It is nu meri cally equal to th e quanti ty of electri city stored
wh en the d iff erence of potential i s unity .

80 D EFINI TIONS IN PH YSICS
0
[ 1
I n th e case of av ari able current th e d iff erence of
p o t ent i al o f the co nd ens er i s at t h e t ime t

t
Vl V 51. I .
I dt
0 a
Th is may be co ns ias a co unter E M F and t here
dered . . .
f o re i n a circui t co ntai ni ng a v ariable i mpress ed E M F . . .
E , a resistance R and a capaci t y C '
If th e i mpressed E M F is harmo n ic : E ;
. . . E ,» si n wt .
E“ 1
1
sin
(wt + tan
CR w
The C C S uni t of cap aci ty i n the electromag net ic

. . .
sy s tem i s acap aci t y h o l d i ng uni t C G S quant i ty o f . . .
el ect ri ci t y i f th e p o tenti al d ifl erence bet ween its ter ’
mi nals is o ne C G S unit (s ee a
. . ls o art
. Thi s .
unit is equal to 9 x 10 30
elect ro stat i c uni ts ( art .
101 . R eactance X , , d ue t o cap aci t y is a quantity o f

th e d imensio ns of aresistance whi ch wh en multip l ied
by th e max imum current I, gi v es the max i mum
count er E M F d ue t o th e cond enser
. . .
( r eacti ve or con
MAGNETISM AN D ELEC T RICI T Y 81
d enser E M . In th e case o f ah armo nic current
I I ,” cos ( a
l t 0) th e reactance d ue to acap acity i s
1
Co)
The uni t of a a
r e ct nce is the same as t he uni t o f re
s i s tance .
Th e i mp ed ance , !, of a circui t is a quanti ty of
the d imensi o ns of a r es is t ance whi ch when multi

p l i ed by amax i mum current L equals , max i mum
th e
i mp ress ed E M F
. . . I n th e case of an h armonic
curr ent th e i mp edance of a ci rcui t co ntai ning
a
r esi st nce R and cap aci t y C is
1
one
The uni t o f i mp ed ance i s th e same as th e uni t o f
res i s tance .
102 . E lectromagneti c i nd ucti on is th e efl cct

’
p ro
d uced in an el ectri cal fi eld by a v ariati o n of a mag

net i c fi eld , o r vi ce ver s a .
Th e coe i ci entfl f
o s el n d ucti on ,
fi or t he fi
sel n duc
tance of a co i l o r ci rcui t, i s th e rati o of th e magnet ic

fl ux thro ugh i t ( coi l
fl ux ) , d ue t o i t s o wn current,
to the cur rent s tr engt h :

If t here are N turns i n aco il and av erage

magnetic fl ux t hrough eac h turn,
o, my ,
I
L = N 9 L .
I]
L
[ ] [ al
L o
Uni t sel nd uct nce

fi a is t hat s elfi nd uctance i n whi ch
uni t fl ux i s p ro d uced by uni t current Selfi n d uctan ce .
i s us uall y meas ured by th e counter electro mo ti v e f o rce

i nd uced in the ci rcui t by av ari ati on of th e fl ux or th e
current
dt dt
U nit s el fi nd uctance may als o be d efined as th at

s elfi n d uct ance i n wh i ch uni t d i ff erence of p o t ent i al is
i nd uced when the current i n th e cir cui t v ari es by
uni t current p er s eco nd ( s ee also art .
The a very lo ng circul ar coil of cro ss

s elfi nd uct nce a of
s ecti o n A and length I, h avi ng n turn s p er centi meter o f i ts
length and bei ng i n amedium o f const a nt permea bili ty is, is
103 . Reactance d ue to selfi n d uct ance is a quantity

of th e d imensi o ns of a resi s tan ce w hi ch wh en mul ti
p l i ed by the max i mum current eq uals the max imum
co unter E . M F d ue
. . t o th e s elfi nd uct ance (i nd ucti ve
MAGNE TISM AN D ELEC TRICI T Y 83
E M:
. I n th e ca
s e of an h armo nic current th e
a a
re ct nce d ue to asel find uctance L is
X = L al .
Th e imp edance of a ci rcuit containi n g resistance

and s elfi nd uctance i s i n the a
c s e of an h armoni c cur
rent
Si n a
lt tan 1 “
In th e case o f acircuit co ntai ni n g resi stance , capacity and

selfi nd uctance and carr yi ng an h armonic current, the a
re ct
X = Lul
and the impedance
1
Ca
l
104 . The coq fiici ent o f mutual i nd uction or the

mutual inductance o f tw o coils o r circuits is the ratio
o f th e mag neti c fl ux th ro ug h o ne of t hem ro d uced
p
by a current in the o ther to th e intensity o f this
,
current :
M
M
[ ] L
[ ul
Selfi nd uctance and mutual i nductance are the same physical
quantity , viewed f ro m adi fi erent standpo i nt .
Uni tmutual ind uctance is th at mutual inductan ce

i n whi ch unit fl ux is pro d uced in o ne o f th e ci rcui t s
by uni t cur rent i n th e o ther Mutual i nd uctance i s
.
us ua lly meas ured by th e co un ter electro mo ti v e f or ce

i nd uced i n eit her ci rcuit by a vari ati on o f th e fl ux
thr o ugh i t o r o f th e current i n th e o ther .
mutual i nductance may therefore als o be d e

U nit
fined as that mutual i nd uctance i n whi ch uni t di f
fer ence of po tent ial i s i nd uced i n o ne ci rcuit when
the current i n th e o th er v a ri es by uni t current
p er
seco nd ( see also ar t .
105The p racti cal electrical uni ts in the electro

.
mag neti c system are

a Th e uni t of r esi stance is a res i s tance equal to
.
1 0 C G S uni ts (art
9
. . . It i s cal led an ohm
. .
The oh m h as been chosen as the fi rst pri mary electrical unit .
In ord er to disting uish f ro m the nex t uni t i t is als o called a

‘
f undamental electrical unit .
The inter national ohm i s the resi s tance off ered to

an un var yi ng el ectri c cur rent by a co lumn
.
of mer
cur y at the temperat ure o f melti ng i ce ,
g rams i n mass of a co ns t a
,nt cro ss s ect i o nal ar ea -
,
and of alength of centi met e

”
rs .
MAGNE T ISM AN D ELEC T RICI T Y 85
desi gnation i nternation al has been given to certain

The “
concrete stand ar ds wh i ch are wi t hi n the errors of th e mos t accu
rate mo dern mea s urement s equa l to the correspond i ng f unda

mental uni ts and are used f o r o rdinary electri cal meas urements .
b. The uni t of electri c cur r ent i s acurrent e q ual to

C G S. . . uni t ( art . I t is called an amp ere .
Th i s uni t was ch o sen a

s th e seco n d pri mary uni t . All ot her
units are derived f rom these pri mary units .
The internati onal amp ere is th e unv aryi ng electric

current whi ch when p a ss ed th rough a s oluti o n o f
s ilv er ni trate i n water d ep o sits si lv er at the r ate of
of agram per seco nd .
Th e s ilver nitrate sol utio n mus t be prepared and the meas

urement be ca rri ed o ut i n acco rdance wi th specifi cati ons g i ven by
the I ntern ational Conf erence on Electri cal U nits and Standards .
c. Uni t dif
of p erence otenti al i s th e d iff erence of
p o t en ti al p ro d uced at t h e t er mi nal s of o ne oh m by
a co ns tant current of o ne ampere . It e uaq
ls 108
C G S
. . . uni ts (art . It i s called avolt .
Th e inter national volt is th e el ectri c d iff erence of
p o t enti al whi ch when s tead ily ap pli ed to a cond uc

to r wh os e resis tance is o ne i nternati onal o h m will
p ro d uce acurrent of o ne i n ternat io nal ampere .
practical purposes it is sufli ciently well represented by

Fo r all
th e 1 0183th pa
. rt of th e E M F of a Wes to n no rma l ce ll at
. . .
20 C°
Th e E M F of a Westo n or Cadmium normal cell is
. . . .
E 0 0000406 (t
.
°
20) (t
°
volts .
d Uni t quanti ty of electr ici ty i s th e q uantity fl o w

.
i ng th ro ugh a circuit i n o ne seco nd i f th e cur rent i s

co ns tant a nd equa l to o ne amp ere It eq uals .
C G S
. . . unit . It is alled acoulomb
c .
mbs are necessary to liberate by electro lysis th e

co ul o
mass of o ne chemical equivalent T hi s makes th e electroch emi

.
cal equiv alent of hydrogen z gram per coulomb

(art .
e
.Th e uni t of cap aci ty is th e capacity of aco ud en
s er w hi ch is ch ar ed t o a d ifi erence o f t nt i al f
g p o e o
o ne v olt by o ne co ul o mb It is called af ar a d. A .
mi crof arad farad One farad eq uals .
C G S unit amicro farad eq uals

. . .
, C G S uni t . . .
( art .
Since aC G S electro magneti c un i t

. . . e u q als 9 x electro
s tati c uni ts , o ne micro f arad equals electros t ati c u ni ts
and the capacity of aparall el plate co ndenser (art . ex pressed

i n microf arads, i s nearly
1 c
A
4 1rd
f . Th e uni t o f i nductance i s th e i nd uctance i n a

circuit in wh ich th e i nd uced E . M . F . is o ne v ol t,
while t h e i nd uci ng cur rent v ari es at th e rate o f one
ampere p er s econd I t eq uals . 109

C G S . . . uni ts
( art I t
. i s call ed a henry .
MAGNE TISM AND ELEC T RICI T Y 87
The h enry is the uni t f or selfi n d uctance as well as f or mutual

i nductance Th e selfi nd uctance o f av ery lo ng co i l (art 102)
. .
ex pressed in practi cal uni ts beco mes nearly

4 sr a
A t .
g . Th e unit of energy i s th e energy ex p end ed by

o ne co ulo mb i n p as s i ng t h ro ugh a d i ff er ence o f p o
tenti al of o ne v ol t . It quals
e 107 C G S
. . . uni t s .
I t is th eref o re i denti cal with th e j oule and call ed by

that n ame . The ki lowatt-hour , e q ual to
j oules , is frequently us ed .
E nergymay be ex press ed in ter ms o f electri cal

uni ts i n many d iff erent ways (see als o art Thus .
th e energy s pent i n acond uct o r carry ing acurrent
or f or co ns tant current
W= P R t V
0( I V2 ) .
E nergy s to red i n ach arged con d ens er
W= Q V
i ( i -
VD
E nergy s to red i n th e fi el d when a curren t

tabli sh ed thro ugh a coil o f s el find uct nce a L
W= i .
E nergy s to red i n afi eld of two ci rcuits carr ying cur
rents I I and L r esp ecti vel y
The uni t of p ower i s th e rate o f ex pendi ture of

h.
energ y r ep res en ted by o ne amp ere flo wing t hro ugh a

d iff erence of p o t en t i al o f o ne v o lt . It e quals 107
C G S
. . . uni ts . It i s th erefo re i d enti cal w ith th e watt
and is by that name
called . Th e ki lowatt is us ed
more frequently i n p racti ce .
Th e i nternati onal watt is th e energy p er s econd ex

nd d by u l t ri c current o f o ne i nternati nal
p e e e e ec o
amp ere und er an electri c press ure of o ne i nterna

ti on al v olt .
IV d . E L E C TR ON S A N D RAD IOAC TIV ITY
106 . I onizati on of a g as i s th e breaki ng up of i ts

molecul es i nto p art i cl es charged p o s i t i v el y and neg a
ti v ely ( s ee I ons , art .
By ionization the gas becomes aco nductor of electri cit y .
An electron o r corp us cle is t h e s mall es t n eg ati v e

electri c c harge k no wn to ex is t i nd ep end en tly .
2 3
)
e u
mo
’
V ii
where e ge of the electron m its mass

i s th e ch ar , , it i ts veloci t y ,
and V the velocity of light .

MAGNETISM AND ELEC T RICI TY
e
x 10 electro
7 magneti c uni ts per gram .
mo
e x electro st atic uni t .
Its mass whi ch i s po ssi bly only apparent is very small as com
pared wi th th at of an io n .
Cathode rays are streams of el ectro ns proj ected f ro m

the catho d e of a h ighly ev acuat ed t ube d uri ng d i s
c harg e Q .
or
Canal r ay s are p ositi v el y charg ed i ons appearing
behi nd ap erforated cathod e of av acuum tube duri ng
d ischarg e .
Roentgen ray s o r X rays are uncharged rays p ro

d uced by as udd en st op p i ng (chang e of v el o city ) o f
cat hod e rays or of electro ns , .
107 . Rad i oacti ve s ubstan ces are s u st a

bnces whi ch
p o s sess th e p rop erty o f Sp o nt aneousl e

y mitting radi a
ti o ns cap able of p as si ng t hro ugh S ub stance s o p aq ue
to a y l i g ht
ordi n r .
a r ays o r ap arti cles are p osi tiv ely

- -
chaged
r ra s
y
emi tted fro m ra d io acti v e s ub stances .
e
electro magneti c units per gram
m
.
e x electrostati c unit.
The aray h as been proved to be a h eli um atom wi th two

-
el ementary cha rges Th ey are i denti cal with ordi nary canal
.
r ays .
B - ra s
y are negatively charged rays of high p ene
t rati ng p o wer emitt ed fr o m rad i oact ive s ubstan ces .
90 DE FINI TIONS IN PH YSI CS
They are m
s trea s of elect ro ns o f h igh speed Th ey
.
are i d entical wi th cat hod e rays, but hav e great er

speed .
o -r
y ay e are uncharg ed ray s em i t ted f ro m rad i o act i v e
s ub s t an ces
. They are id enti cal with Roentgen rays .
8 rays are slo w s peed elect ro ns prod uced

-
by a rays
-
when t raversing t hrough matter .

V . OPTICS
(p ) p O ti cs i s th at p art o f Phy s i cs wh i ch treat s o f

th e p hy si ca l phenomena aff ecti ng the sense of sight,
an d of the laws go verning these an d other ph enomena
of th e m
sa e h
p y s i cal nat ur e .
108 . L ig ht is ap eri od i c d i s turb ance i n space cap ab l e
of afi ecting th e sense o f s i ght .
It h as aconstant p d in an i sotropic medium

s ee
V: An,
wh ere n is the f requenc y . It may be co nsi dered

as a wave
moti o n i n the eth er and Abe called th e wave length of the li gh t
d
un er co ns i era d
tio n .
Radi ation is th e coll ect i ve na e m gi v en to wave mo

ti o n 24
( ) of th e ether in d ep end ent of th e sensati o ns
p r o d uced .
It i s d
n ow consi ere d as being an electro magnetic phenom
enon .
I ntensi ty o f ra 1; at ap oi nt is th e time rate

d i ati on,
of t rans mi ss i on of energ y per unit a reata ken at right
angles to th e directi o n o f p rop ag ati on of ener gy .
dW
or I
d r
92 DEFINI TIONS IN PH YS I CS
where i s th e me
v ol u d ens ity of energy at th e
d 7
p o i nt and v i ts v elo cit y .
I t is nu merically equal to the ener gy transmitte d in un i t

ti me t hrou gh uni t areaat right angles to th e di recti o n of p op r
agati o n if th e ene gy is uni f ormly dis tri buted thro ug h space

r .
109 . A lumin ous body is an in d ep end ent or p ri mary

s o ur ce o f l i g ht .
A ll i lluminated body is a d ep end ent o r seco nd ar y

s o urce o f li g ht .
I t is v is i ble o nl y wh en li gh t f ro m a l umi no us bo dy f alls
A tr ansp ar ent body is abod y th rough whi ch s o urces

o f l i gh t can be s een s h arp l y d efi ned .
I t trans mits li ht with o ut a sorpti o n

g b .
An op aq ue body is a bod y whi ch d oes no t tr ans mi t

light .
110 . A ray o f light i s a di rected line al ong whi ch

en erg y of l i gh t i s being p p
r o agated .
A p enci l of lig ht is a p o rtio n o f s p ace filled wi th

energy o f li ght and b o und ed by ra ys .
A con vergi ng en ci l i s a pencil i n whi ch th e ra s y

p
are d ir ected to ward s ap oint .
A d i verging p enci l i s a p encil in whi ch th e ay s

r
co me fr o m ap oin t .
A beam o f light is a p encil bound ed by p arall el

r ays .
OP T ICS 93
All these defi niti ons may be generalized so as to i nclude all

r adi ati on .
111 . An i mage i s an Opti cal fi gure mbli ng a

r es e
g i v en o bj ect and fo rmed by th e li ght comi ng f ro m
th i s o bj ect .
It i s si tuated at th e points to ward which the rays converge or

f ro m which th ey d i verge ; th e po i nts are th e centers of curv a
ture of th e wave f ro nts .
A re al ima
g e 18 an image thro ugh which the rays
actually pass .
It can be f or med on ascreen .
A vi rtual i mag e is an image from whi ch th e rays d o

no t act uall y p ro ceed .
It cannot be f ormed u onp ascreen .
112 . Refl ecti on of light is th e ph enomenon of a

ch an ge i n d i rectio n o f a ray o f li g h t wh en i t s t ri kes
up o n asur face an d is thr o wn back into th e med ium

from which it m
ca e .
Th e angle of incidence, in wav e moti on , i s th e angle

between t he imp inging wav e fr ont and th e s urface .
I t may a l s o be d efined a s th e a n gle b et ween the n o r
mal to the s urface and th e incomi ng ray .
Th e angle of refl ecti on is th e angl e bet ween th e re

fl ecting s urface and th e reflected wav e fro nt It may .
als o be d efi ned as the angle between th e no r mal to

t he s ur face and th e re flected r ay .
94 D E FINI TIONS IN PH YSICS
Ex ce pt when parallel rays f all upon aplane surf ace th e angle

of i nci dence, an le of g refl ectio n and angle o f ref ractio n
(art 113) .
have no defi nite v alue unless attenti on is fix d upon

e aparti cular
po int on the surf ace .
Diflus e r efl ecti on is
.
’
re flecti o n without the formati o n
of an i mage .
113 . Ref racti on i s th e phen omeno n o f a chang e i n

th e d i rection of a ray wh en i t p asses f ro m one
med ium t o another .
Ang le of r qf raction i s th e angle between th e s ur

face of sep arati on and the wave fr ont i n the seco nd
med i um It may also be d efined as an angle between
.
th e norma l to the s urface and th e refracted r ay .
The index of r ef r acti on between t wo medi a i s the

rati o o f the sins o f th e a ngl e o f i nci d ence to th e s ine
of the a ngl e o f refracti o n .
It did oraf o r radi ati on of difi erent wave length .
Th e absolute i nd ex of rq r acti on o f
f amed ium i s th e
i ndex of f a
re r cti on between th e et her and th i s
medium .
The ratio of th e i n ices d of a

ref r cti on of med ia equals
two
the i nverse rati o of the velociti es of li ght i n the two media .
n
l E
”
3 VI
Tile cri ti cal ang le i s th e angle o f i ncid ence wh os e

si ns eq u a
ls t h e i nd ex o f refracti on : s i n 0 n .
OP TICS 95
The cri tical angle is areal quantity only when n is smaller

th an o ne, i . s .
, i f the angle of inci dence lies i n th e optical ly
denser medi um .
D ouble
f re r acti on of lig ht is th e s epar ation of a
beam of light i nto t wo s ep arate beams upo n ent eri ng
an anisotro pi c med ium .
114 . Af ocus i s ap o i nt from which ray s diverg e or
to ward which they co nv er ge .
It may be real o r vi rtual .
Conjugate f are two p oi nts s o l ocated th at, wi th

oci
as ource o f li ght at o ne, i ts i mage is at the o ther .
The p ri ncip al f ocus of an op ti cal i ns trument i s th e

p o i nt at whi ch ra s , o ri
y ginally p arallel t o th e ax i s ,
are focus ed .
It i s th e f ocus con u j gate to an object or image in infi nity .
115 . Th e p ri ncip al p lanes of an al system are

opti c
pl anes nor mal to the Op ti cal ax i s and s o s i t uated th at

to eac h p o i nt in o ne pl ane th ere co r res p o nd s aco nju
gate p oint in the other pla ne a t the s a me d istance

from th e ax is .
Th e di stances of the pri nci pal planes of alens of thickness d ,
and i ndex o f ref racti o n n f rom the corresponding surf aces are
,
f or large radii o f curvature R, and R of th e lens surf a ces :
Rl d
h
R: d
h,
B l + R, n
96 D EFINI TIONS IN PH YSICS
The p r incip al p oints of an op ti c al sys tem ar e the

p o ints o f the op tic al ax is where i t pass es thro ugh th e
p a
rin cipl p l anes .
Th e f ocal lengths, f l and f ,, of an Opti cal system

are th e d istances of th e p rincipal foci on either sid e
fro m the nearest p ri nci p al p oint :
fl + 6 1,
P 9
where p and q a re th e d i stances of th e obj ect a nd
i mage resp ecti vely f ro m th e co rresp onding p ri ncip al
p l anes
11
.
fa ”
a
wh ere nl and naare th e in di ces of re ra
f ction o f th e
fi rs t and las t med ium .
If the o ptical system is s urroun ded by asi ngle medium , e.g .
air.
1 1 1
q
The introducti on of the pri ncipal planes allows the use of
f ormula
e deri ved f or very thi n lenses .
116 .The resolving p ower of an optical i ns trument

is i ts ab ility to p ro d uce t wo dis tinct sep arate i mages
of t wo cl os ely adj acen t p o in ts o f the obj ect v i ewed .
For apri sm wh ose base h as a thickness t and whose rate of

dn
vari ati on of i ndex a
of ref r cti on wi th wave length is
EU
OP TI CS 97
i A
t
!
must be greater th an
dh AA
For a grating of n li n es, and aspectrum o f the mth d

or er,
ma must be greater than

AA
For a telescope wi th an o bjective of diameter D and two

o bjects appeari ng under th e v is ual angle h c ,
ch mus t be greater th an 24 so meti mes ate d as

st
Sp heri cal aberrati on is th e p ro ducti on o f a di s

to rted i ma g e o f an o bj ect, d ue t o t h e f o rm o f th e
s ur face o r s ur faces of th e i nstr ument p rod uci ng th e

i mage .
117 D isp ersi on cf light is th e t rans fo rmati o n, up o n

.
ref racti o n, o f ab ea m o f light i nto adiv ergi ng p encil ,

or i nt o s ep arate beams , d ue t o th e vari ati o n o f th e
i nd ex of refracti o n with wav e l ength .
Th e di sp er si ve p ower of as ubstance i s the rati o o f

th e angular s eparation d ue to d ispersi o n of two
sel ected r ay s to th e d ev i at io n from th e o ri ginal
d i rectio n mean ray b etween them
of th e .
Color i s as ubj ecti v e ex p eri ence p ermi tti ng a dis

cri mi nati o n o f d iff erent quali ti es o f light .
It i s caus ed by th e diff erence in wave length of ether vibra

ti o ns aff ecti ng th e sens e of sigh t
!
.
I n Ph ys i cs colo is f requ n tly used synonymo usly with

r e
ra di ation of defi nite wave length .
II
98 D E FINI TIONS IN PH YSICS
118 A sp ectrum i s as uccess io n of col o rs pr od uced

.
by the sprea d i ng o f abeam o f light in to co mp onents

of di fl eren t wav e l eng th .
Its meani ng may be generalized so as to i nclude all radi ati on .
U ltrami olet waves are et her d is turbances of wave

l eng th s S ho rter than thos e o f l i gh t .
They may be stu died by maki ng use of their p hotograph ic

efl ects .
I nf ra r ed waves are
-
oth er d isturb ances of wav e
leng ths lo ng er th an th ose of l i gh t .
They may be stu died by making use of their thermal eff ects
p
u on absorbi ng bodies .
E lectr ic waves ar e her di sturb ances o f wav e

et
lengt hs v ery lo ng as co mpared wi th th o s e o f li g ht .
They may be stu died by maki ng use of th ei r electro magneti c
S electi ve absorp ti on i s ab s orption of th e energ y o f
wav es o f certain wav e l eng ths out of th e to tal energ y

o f rad iati o n p resen t .
Anomalous di sp er si on i s d is pers ion through asub

s tance wh o s e i nd ex o f refra cti o n d o es no t i ncrease
co nti nuo usl y as t he wav e leng th d ecreases i n th e re
gio n of th e s pectr u m co ns i d ered .
Th i s phen o meno n is d ue to ab sorption b and s in th e s pectrum .
Th e ord er of co lors i n the spect rum diff er s f rom that f ound in

n orma l d ispers i on thro ugh tran sp arent medi a .
OP T ICS 99
119 . Chromati c aberr ation i s th e p ro d ucti on of an

image who se colo r d iff ers fro m that o f t he o bj ect .
I t is due to dispersi on , i s .,
. to th e vari ati on of dex
th e i n of
a
ref r cti o n with wave length .
120 . P olarized rad i ati on is r ad iati on whose i ntou

s i ty o f t rans mi ss io n th rough an ani s o tro pic
med ium
d ep ends upo n t he o rientati on o f th e medi um .
P lane p olari zed light (rad i ati o n) is p o lari zed li gh t

'
in wh ich th e v ib rati ons o f th e ether app ear to be in

o ne d i recti o n o nl y .
The p lane of p olarizati on is the p art icular pl ane of

incid en ce i n which the p olari zed l ight is most cop i
o usly re flected .
The electri c vector o f plane polarized ether vibrations is at

r i gh t angles to th e plane of po larizati o n Th e same i s t rue f or
.
the lig ht vector pro ducing p hoto gra ph ic efl ects or fluorescence .
E llip tically p olarized light (radi ati on) i s p ol ari zed

li gh t i n whi ch the v ib rati o ns of th e ether app ear t o
be co mpound ed of two compo nents o f plane p olarized
light, at ri ght angles to each other.
INDEX
(The numbers re er f to the numbers o f the arti cles)
pati l 107
41.- r c es , . B h omo geneous , 4 7
o dy , .
Ab atierr h mat i on, c ro c, 1 19 . illumi nat ed , 109 .
ph i al 1 1 6
s er c , . is o tro i c, 4 7 p
Ab lut t mp atu
so e e er re , 62 . lumin o us , 109 .
ind ex of ref ract io n , 1 13 . magnetic, 7 4 .
zero , 62 . o a p
q ue, 109 .
p
Abso r t io n s elect iv e , 1 18, . trans a ren t , 109 p .
Accelerated mo ti o n 17 , . B oilin g o int ,; 66p .
Acre 6 , . B ole, 2 9 .
Adi abati c ro cess 7 3 p , . B ritis h t h erma l unit , 6 3 .
Af t erefi ect ela s t i c 46, , . B uo y a ncy , 5 2 .
p
Amor h o us so li d 48 , . ce nter o f , 5 2 .
Ammre, 105 . B uoy a nt f o rce , 52 .
internat i o nal , 105 . B ush el , 6 .
p
Am li tud e, 2 0 .
o f wa v e, 2 4 . Calorie 6 3 , .
An gle, 8 . C anal ray s 106 , .
criti cal 1 13 , . p
C a acity electri cal 90 100 105
, , , , .
ofin cid en ce, 1 12 . o f a co nd ucto r 90 , .
o f refl ect i o n , 1 12 . S p ifi
ecin d ucti v e, 85
c .
o f ref ra cti o n , 1 1 3 . th erma l , 64 .
Ang ular accelerat io n , 1 7 . Cat ho d e ray s , 106 .
ha rmo ni c mo ti o n , 2 1 . C atio ns , 99 .
mo mentum, 42 . Center o f grav ity , 40 .
v elo city , 1 5 . o f h y d ro s t at i c ressure, 5 1 p .
Ani o ns , 99 . o f i nerti a , 40 .
An omalo us dis ers io n , 1 18 p . o f ma ss , 4 0 .
An t in o d es , 5 6 . Centi grad e scale , 6 0 .
Are, 6 . C entimeter , 3 .
Area, uni t o f , 6 . C . G
S uni ts , electrical, 93
. . .
p
Atmos h ere , 34 . p
Centri etal f o rce, 3 2 .
Ax is o f ro tati on , 14 . Cent ro id , 40 .
Chr o mati c aberrati o n , l 19 .
—
B ray s 107 , . sca le , 59 .
Bea m o f li gh t , 1 10 . C ircle o f ref erence , 2 0 .
Boa t s , 56 . Circular mil , 6 .
101
102 INDEX
D n ity 7
e s . .
D i d unit 1
er v e s. .
o f ex pan i s on, 61 D w p in t 68
e o , .
of f ri ct io n , 33 . Diamag n ti b di e c o es , 76 .
o f mutua l ind ucti on, 104 . D iatoni c scale, 59 .
of p
ress ure , 6 1
o f res ti tut io n , 4 6 . Di el ectri c co ns tant , 85 .
o f self -ind ucti o n , 102 stren gt h , 90 .
o f t h erma l co nd ucti vrty , 7 1

o f v is co si ty , 50 . 89 , 105 .
Co lor 1 17
, of magnetic p o tenti al,
p
Co nd enser , ca acity o f , 90, 100 . Difi ractio n , 2 6 .
Co nd uct ance, electri cal , 9 5 Difl us ed refl ecti o n 1 12

'
. .
,
Co nd uct io n o f h eat 7 1 , . Di mensi o nal f o rmula, 5 .
Co nducti vi ty , electri cal , 9 5 .
eq ui v a lent , 9 9 . Di p i n f light 1 17
s ers o o , .
t h ermal , 6 2 . Di p i p w 1 1 7
s ers ve o er , .
Co nducto r elect ri cal 88 , 9 3

. , . Di pla m nt 12
s ce e , .
Co ns tant of grav i tati o n , 3 1

C o nv ectio n current , 9 2 . Di pla m nt u nt 92
s ce e c rre , .
C o nv ecti o n o f h eat 7 0 , . Di i pat i f

ss 38 ve o rce, .
Co nv erg ing encil , 110 p . Di tan 1 l

s ce, .
p
C o r uscles , 106 . Di ging p n il 1 10
v er e c , .
C oul o mb , 105 . D ubl f a ti n 1 13

o e re r c o , .
Co unter E . F 97 M . Dy n 2 8 e, .
Crit i cal angle, 1 13 .
p oint , 69 .
p ress ure, 69 . f o rce, 4 3 .
Elas ti city , 4 3 .
v o lu me , 69 . coefi cient o f , 45 .
Cry stalline solid 4 8 , . Electri c ch arg e, 84 .
Current , alternating , 9 3 . p
di s lacement , 87 .
co n d ucti o n ,93 . fl ux , 8 7 .
electri ca l , 9 2 , 9 3 , 105 . intens ity , 96 .
sinuso i d a l, 93 . surf a ce d ensi ty , 84 .
Current d ens i t y , 9 2 , 9 3 . Electri cal ca aci ty , 100, 105 p .
Curv ature, 1 3 . co nd uct a n ce , 9 5 .
Curv e, h y steresis , 80 . co nd ucti v i ty , 9 5 .
s ublima t io n , 6 7 . current , 92 , 93 , 105 .
p
v a or t ensi o n , 66 . d ifl erence o f o tentia l, 8 9 , 96 p .
Curv il in ear motio n , 13 . energy , 9 1 , 105 .
fi
eld , 8 6 .
b-ray s 107 , . p
o tenti a l, 8 9 .
m
D am d h armo ni c mo ti o n , 2 2 . res is t ance , 9 5 , 105 .
D ecrement , lo g arithmi c, 2 2 . sp a r k, 9 2 .
D egree , 8 , 60 . wav es , 1 1 8 .
INDEX 103
Electrica lly charged o dies 84 b , . Force, 2 8

Electri city 84 , . cent ri al 32 p et , .
fi
Elect ri ed bo di es 84 , . co nserv a tiv e 38 , .
Electro chemi cal eq ui v alent , 99 . diss i ativ e 38 p , .
Electroly s is 99 , . elas ti c 4 3 , .
Electroly te s 99 , . elect ro mo ti v e , 97 .
Electro magneti c ind uction , 102 . f ricti o nal , 33 .
ph eno mena 92 , .
gravi t ati o nal , 3 1 .
Electro mo ti v e f o rce 9 6 , 9 7 , . n o nco nserv a ti v e, 38 .
co un ter , 97 Fre ezing o int , 6 5 p .
p
im ressed , 9 7 Fre q uency , 20 .
Peltier , 98 . M d amental , 55 .
Th o mso n , 98 . Fundament a l interva l , 60 .
Electro n , 106 . units , 1 .
Electro st at i c inducti o n , 8 7 . Fusio n , 65 .
p p
Elli t ically o larized li gh t , 12 0 . Fusi on cur ve, 65 .
Energy , 3 7 , 4 6 .
elect ri cal , 9 1 , 105 y ray s , 107

‘
.
-
kinetic, 3 7 . Gall n 6 o , .
magneti c , 8 3 . G a 49 s, .
p ot entia l, 37 . Gau 78 ss , .
p
E och angle, 20 . Gil bert 8 1 , .
Eq uall y tem er ed s cale, 58p . G am 2

r , .
p
Eq ui o te ntial surf ace, elect ric, w i gh t 28
- e , .
89 . G a itati nal f
r v 31 o orce, .
magneti c, 8 1 G a i ty 1 7
r v , .
Eq ui v alent , electro chemica l , 99 . nt f 40

ce er o , .
mechani cal , of h eat , 7 2 . p ifi 7 s ec c, .
E rg , 3 5 . Gy ati n adiu f 42
r o , r s o , .
p
Ev a o ratio n , 6 6 .
Ha m ni m ti n impl
r o c o o , s e, 20 .
Fahrenh eit scale, 60 . al 58 sc e, .
Farad , 105 . Ha m i 55
r o n cs , .
Ferr o mag ne ti c bod ies , 76 . H at 63

e . .
Field electri cal , 86

, . co nducti o n o f ,
71 .
magneti c, 7 8 . co nv ecti o n o f , 7 0 .
Flui d , 4 9 . mechani cal eq ui v alent of , 72 .
Flux , electri c, 8 7 . H ea t o f f usi o n , 65 .
mag neti c, 7 9 . o f v a ori za t ion , 66 p .
Foca l len gth , 1 15 . H ecta re , 6 .
Focus , 1 14 . H enry , 105 .
co njug ate, 1 14 . H omo geneous bo d y , 47

p rin ci a p
l , 1 14 . H orse p
o wer , 3 6 .
Foot . 3 . H umi di ty , relati ve , 6 8 .
H y dro g en t h ermo meter 60 , .
H y drostati c ress ure , center of , 5 1 p .

104 I N DE X
m unit d l
di sp ai m d , l l7 .
ray d . 1 10 .
refl ect i o n 1 12 d , .
re f ractio n o f , 1 16 .
Ii na d d ec trical ind neti m. 8 7 .
und erc ool ed . 6 5 .
L og fi t hmi c d ecreme nt , 22 .
lines of , 79 , 8 7 . Lumi nous bo dy , 1 09 .
Inducti v e E . M . F .
, 103 . 81 .
fl ux . 79 .
moment of , 41 .
ind ucti o n, 7 9 , so .
mo me nt , 77
p ol e , 7 5 .
p o t en ti al, 8 1 .
res is t an ce , 8 2 .
of mag netizatio n , 80 .
Interf eren ce, 2 6 . Mag n t i ati f ab dy

e z on o o , 80 .
I nterv al, musical, 58 .
Ion 99
, . Magn ti i ng fi ld 80
e z e , .
Io nizatio n 106 , . Mag n t m ti f e o 81 o ve orce, .
Mag t 7 4
ne s , .
In trep ic bod y , 4 7 . Magn t tati fi ld 78

e os c e , .
Maj t iad 59
or r , .
J oule, 35 , 105 . M ass 2 , 28

, .
center o f , 40 .
Kilogram, l .
K ilo grammeter 35 , . Ma w ll 79
x e , .
K ilo watt h our 3 6 105 , , . M h a i al q ui al nt

ec n c e v e of heat , 7 2 .
K ineti c energy . 37 M lting p int 65

e o , .
I ND EX 105
Permeabili ty , 7 6 .
M ti h
e r c p wer 36 orse o , . Phase, 20 .
Mi f a ad 105
cro r , . Pitch , 54 .
Mi n 3cro , . Plane o f olari zap tion, 120 .
Min t iad 59
or r , . p
Plane o larized li ght , 12 0 .
M dulu f lati ity 45

o s o e s c , . Po larizati o n , electric, 99 .
M o ment o f af orce 39 , . Po lari zed rad iatio n, 120 .
of inertia, 4 1 . Pole, in d uced , 80 .
o f ma s s , 40 . magnetic, 7 5 .
of mo mentum. 42 . Positio n o f abod y . 7 .
M o mentum ,29 . Pos iti ve electri city , 84 .
ang ular , 42 . magnetism, 7 4 .
M oti on 1 3, . Potential , electrical, 8 9 .
accelerated 17 . . magneti c. 8 1 .
ang ular harmonic, 2 1 .
mple harmoni c 20
si , . Po und al , 28 .
unif orm a ngula r 16 , .
unif orm circula r 16 19 , , . Power , 3 6 , 105 .
un if orm rectilinear 16 , . p
d is ersive. 1 17 .
unif om ly accelera ted 18 , . reso lving , 1 16 .
M usical scale 58 , . t h ermoelectric, 9 8 .
t o ne, 58 . Pressure, 34 .
M utual inductance 104 . . cri ti cal . 69 .
M y dron 2 , . hy drostatic. 5 1 .
p
Princi al f ocus , 1 14 .
p
lane, 115 .
p
oint , 1 15 .
Pure musical sca le, 58 .
Q uali ty of sound , 55 .
Ohm 105 , .
internati onal, 105 .
p
O aq ue bod y , 109 . Radiation, 108 .
Ov ertone, 55 .
p a o l rized .
120 .
Paramagnetic body , 76 . Radi o activ e substances ,
Radius of gy ration 42 , .
Pelti er E M F 98 . . . Ray of light 1 10 , .
Pen cil . co nv ergi ng , 1 10 . R ay s canal 106

, , .
diverging , 1 10 . a S 7 and 8 107

, ,
‘
, .
Pencil o f ligh t , 1 10 .
Roentgen , 106 .
Perio d , 19 . Reactance, 101 , 103 .
Real imag e, 111 .

106 INDEX
Rectilinea r motion , 13 . Stationary wav e motion 57 , .
Ref erence o int , 20 p . Strain 44 , .
Re fl ecti on , 1 12 . Strength o f magneti c pole 75 , .
diff us e, 1 12 . Stress 44 , .
Re f racti on , 1 13 . Sublimatio n 67 ,
angle o f , 1 13 . Sublimati o n curv e 6 7 , .
d ouble , 1 13 . Supercoo led li q uid 6 5 , .
ind ex o f , 1 13 . Superh eated liq ui d 6 6 , .
Relati v e humi dity , 6 8 . S urf ace d ens i ty electri c 84 , , .
R eluctance , 8 2 . Surf ace tensi o n 53 , .
Res istance, electrical , 9 5 , 105 Susceptibili ty mag neti c 80 , , .
magneti c, 82 .
p fi
s eci c, 9 5 . Tem p er ature 60 , .
Resi st i v ity , 9 5 . abso lute 6 2 , .
p
Reso lv in g o wer, 116 . crit i cal 69 , .
Rig idi ty , 43 . p
Tem erature co efi cient , 6 1
Ro t ati o n , 14 .
gra di ent 7 1 ,
R o to r, 10 . Tensi o n , 34 .
Termi nal otenti ap l difl eren ce, 9 7 .
Scalar q uantity , 10 . Th ermal ca aci ty , 64 p .
Scal e chro matic

, , 59 . Th ermal co nd uct ivi t y , 7 1
di ato ni c, 59 . Th ermoelectro mot iv e f orce, 9 8 .
eq ua ll y tem ered , 58 p . Th o mso n E F , 98. M . . .
musi cal , 58 . Thrust , 5 1 .
thermo metri c, 60 . Time, uni t o f , 4 , 20 .
Seco nd , 4 . angle , 20 .
Selectiv e abso r tio n , 1 18 p . To ne, musi ca l , 58 .
Selfi nd ucti on , 102 . Tor q ue, 3 9 .
Shear , 44 . To rsi o n al v i bration , 2 5 .
Sh earing st rain , 44 . Trans lat i o n , 14 .
p
Sim le h armonic motio n, 20 p
Tran s aren t bo d y , 1 09
m
. .
Sim e wav e 24 , . Trans v ers e v ibratio n , 2 5 .
Triad , major and mino r, 59 .
Slug , 2 . p p
Tri le o int , 6 7 .
Solid , 48 . Tube o f ind u ctio n , 7 9 , 8 7 .
amor h ous 48 p , .
Soli d angle 8 , . Ultra-v iolet wav es 1 18 , .
p
S ark electri cal 9 2
, , . U ndercoo led li q ui d 6 5 , .
p fi
S eci c grav ity 7 , . U nif ormly accelerated mo tio n , 18 .
h eat 64 , . U nif orm mo ti o n 16 , .
inductiv e ca acity 85 p , . p
U ni t s , racti cal electri cal , 105 .
resist ance 9 5 , .
v olume 7 , . Vapo rizat io n ,

66 .
Spectrum 1 18 , . h eat o f 66 .
Speed 15 . . Vpa or tensi o n , 6 6 .
Spheri cal aberration , 116 . curv e, 6 6 .

INDE X 107
V t 10
ec o r , . Wa v e, 24 .
V to q uantity
ec r , 10 . electri c, 1 18 .
V l ity lin a
e oc , e r, 15 . inf ra-red , 1 18 .
ang ular 15 , . s tati o nary , 56 .
Vib ati
r lo ngitudina
on , l, 2 5 . ultra-v i olet , 1 18 .
p
eri o d o f , 2 0 . W ave f ro nt , 24 .
t o rsi o nal , 25 . W av e length , 24 .
trans v ers e, 2 5 . W ei gh t , 2 8 .
Virtual image , 1 1 1 . W o rk , 3 5 , 5 1 .
Vis co si t y , co efli cient o f , 50 W o rki n g s tress , 45 .
Vo lt , 105 .
int ernati o nal , 105 .

X ray 106
Volume, cri t i ca
.
,
l , 69 .
p fi
s eci c, 7 .
Yard , 3
uni t o f , 6
.
Yo ung s
’
modulus 45
.
Volume ela s t i ci ty , 4 3
.
,
.
W att 36 105
, , .
! ero , abs olute, 6 2 .
int ernati o nal 105 .

coeffi ci ent , 6 1
,
in advertisements
a
co nt of bo oks
m
the sa e uthor
a or on kindred sub ects.
j
C OLLEG E PH Y SICS
BY J OH N ORE N R EE D , PH D .
Pro fess or of Phys ics in th e U nivers ity of , D

M ichigan and ean o f the
D epart ment of Literature , S ci ence and th e Arts
A ND KARL EUG E N GU TH E , PH D . .
Prof esso r of Phys ics in th e U nivers ity of M ichigan .
New York, 1 9 1 1 .
Cloth, 6 1 2 P! ” 800, 32 -75 net

Latest repri nt, 1 9 1 3 .
The book is ghly adapted to the actual req uirements of the

th o rou
clas s ro o m o n a
, ccount o f the genera l mo de of pres entation by which
the s tudent is led gra dually fro m a co ns ideratio n of s imple and
familiar phys ica l pheno menaand th e p rinciples and th eories evol ed v
th erefro m to as tudy o f more co mple p heno menaa nd more intrica

x te
pro blems To pres ent the f undamental facts of physics in clear
.
,
co ncis e a nd tea cha ble fo rm that ar angement of topics has been

r
cho s en which in th e e perience o f th e a

, x uth o rs ha s been f ound to ,
lend its elf mo s t readily to as i mple and natura l treatment o f th e s ub
ject as a whole, viz M ec

. h a
:ni cs ( 1 2 5 S o u nd (56 H eat
(9 ! E lectri ci ty and M ag ne tis m ( 1 84 L ig h t ( 5
1 6
Th e treatment of the vario us s ubjects is prefaced with abri ef but
ex plici t s ta tement o f the d iff erent th eo ri es wh ich ha ve co ntri buted
to th e pro gres s o f the science Sp ecia l eff o rt ha

. s a ls o b een made to
bri ng within th e comprehens io n o f the average college s tudent the
res ults o f mod ern th eo ries a nd recent inves ti ga tio ns To this end
.
the electro n theo ry, ra dio activity and radiation have been given
so mewha t more tha n us ual pro minence .
TH E M AC M I LLA N C OM PAN Y
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unctio n with a tex t . The author gives at the beginning a
o f e ch
s ecti o n abrief su mmary o f th e principles use d , foll o wed by caref ully

h
c osen ex ques tio ns referring to th e fo rmula given
amples and . T his
lly to fix th e work in the s tudent s mind
serves very efi ectua
'
’
.
mples in Physics
Ex a
Br D . E .
J ONE S ,
B Sc
. .
Lately Pro fesso r o f Phys ics in th e U nivers ity College o f W ales .
London, 1 88 8 S econd edi tion, 1 893

m
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In addition to the ex amples , of which there are mo re than atho u

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o cc s io n al hints fo r their so lutio n, there are s ho rt ex p lan
ato ry c paragraph s where the auth or s ex perience has

hapters and ’
sh o wn that th ey are need ed It is a good and varied collecti o n o f

.
questions for the student .
TH E M A C M I LLA N C OM PAN Y
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Electricity and Magnetis m
For Students in Eng ineering
B! ROBERT B O
HAR IS N H UGH , iPnD O .
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,
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are developed fro m defi niti o ns and elementar laws wh ich are pur y
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DefinitionsinPhysics 10007111

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DEFINITIONS IN PHYSICS

All ri hts r eserved

AB OU T six years ago th e author wrote apa mp hlet

d elayed unti l it co ul d be thoroughly revi s ed .

To w ri te ab ook of this ki nd is neith er an eas y no r

a pleas ant tas k most cases th e only sati s facto ry

I ts concep t mus t be evol v ed by aback ward p roces s ,

and can b ecome cl ear only after we h av e learned all

th e a utho r h a s no t ma d e any attemp t t o ﬁ nd t he

i mpo rtant the relati on might h ave become i n o ur

Many writers of hav e tri ed to ﬁ nd a

ti ty a mo re famili ar name a nd t hus ha

th e mind s o f th e stud ents Fo r ex amp le the d eﬁ

ni ti o n o f d iff erence o f p o tent ial us uall y begi ns It

i s to co unteract th e bad i nﬂuence wh ich l oos e st ate

in whi ch th e d imensi o ns on the t wo si d es are no t

Frequently th e sa em terms are us ed by d iff erent

a choi ce mus t be mad e whi ch wi ll aro us e th e orit i

cis m o f thos e wh o prefer to use th e term f o r some

Ano ther matter left to th e i nd i vi d ual j ud gment

tem f or o ur sci ence is n o thin g but an a

cep t tha t th e d eﬁ ni ti on of ma ss ha s b een d eferred

un til that offorce h as been gi ven whi ch in h is

Op i n i o n , i s amore fun d amental con cep t th an that o f

be built up starti ng either with electros tatic quant i

t i es o r with magnetosta ti c co ncep ts . B o th meth o d s

ing such quanti ties as current r esis tance and po ten

t ial d iﬁ erence t o p res ent b oth f o rms o f d eﬁ ni ti o n

Th e scope of ab ook o f thi s kind is d etermi ned by

th e p resent v olume i s intend ed t o be used i n co n

ti ons of qua nti ti es whi ch a re menti o ned o nly i n mo re

adv anced co urses are incl ud ed . I t was als o tho ught

It i s i nev i table that much will be f ound op en t o

and erro rs will be highl y app reciated . I t i s hop ed

F U NDAM ENTAL DE FINI TIONS

whi ch treats o f th e g ener a l p rop erti es o f b o d ies i n

S uch are th e co ncep ts of ex tensi on ( sp ace, with i ts

The c oncepts of ex tensio n are closely related to such f unda

Th e use of alo gi cally developed y

A physical law f requently ex presses merely aproporti onality

t i o nali ty f acto r f orms a new phy si cal co ncept whi ch is o f ten

ameans f or the measurement o f thi s new p hysi cal quanti ty .

( ) e Fund amental Assump ti ons ( Ax io ms ) . 1

p hy s i calp h en o men a t ak e p lace a n d al l b o d i es are ,

l o cated i n a three d imen s i o nal sp ace ; ( 2) all natu

ra l phenomenareq ui re t ime f or t h ei r o ccurrence .

l . Fundamental uni ts are th e uni ts o f arbi trarily

Thus all units i n mechanics are ex press ed i n ter ms of th ose

degree of temperature uni t permeability (76 ) and uni t

W eights and Measures at Sevres France The unit , .

i s called agram (g ) one millig ram (mg ) g;

The uni t of mass i n the E nglish sys te m i s th e

One p ound g . In en gineeri ng a unit o f

as th e mass of o ne p o und . Th e names p rop os ed f or

The standards are called th e i nternati onal kilogram and

nati onal ki lo gram are kept at the B ureau of Sta ndards i n

Washi ngton, D C They are called the Ameri can prototyp es

V3 . The uni t o f length in th e metric system is th e

The unit is called acentimeter ( cm) One meter (m) .

1 00 cm o ne kil o meter (km)

meter (mm) cm o ne mi cron (u) , mm .

Two Ameri can co pies of th e meter (American prototyp es)

The unit of length in the s o -c