MGT 221: Business Research Methods

Full Marks: 50 Lecture Hours: 75

Course Objectives
The primary aim of this course is to introduce students to the principle of research methods used most
frequentlyby business students. Basic knowledge of these methodological approaches is absolutely
critical to thecomprehension of academic understanding and comprehensive and critical writing which is
an essence of business students. Therefore, the basic objective of this course is to provide knowledge and
understanding of basic principles of business research methods.
Course Description
The course has a preliminary focus on problem identification, theoretical framework development and
hypothesis formulation. The course will then deal with research design issues, measurement, sampling,
data collection andanalysis. This encompasses the overall understanding and application of appropriate
research techniques andresearch statistics, and report writing and presentation skills.
Course Details Unit 1: Introduction LH 20
Meaning of research; Scientific research – features,; Types of research: applied and basic; The
scientificresearch process; Approaches to research; Paradigm shifts – positivist Vs interpretivist
philosophies; Management research – concept, nature, and value in business decision making; Applying
scientificthinking to management problems; Ethical concerns in research.
Qualitative research: Concept, Features, assumptions, Common practices in qualitative research, Methods
of qualitative research: Case study, Ethnography, Grounded theory and phenomenological study(A short
introduction only), Building trustworthiness and credibility in qualitative research, Strength of qualitative
research.

Meaning of research
Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of existing knowledge in a new and creative way so as to
generate new concepts, methodologies and understandings. This could include synthesis and analysis of previous research to the
extent that it leads to new and creative outcomes.

Research = Re and search

Search again and again to find out something new absolutely or by enriching the existing knowledge with
the help of established theories in a systematic and scientific way.
F.N. Kerlinger- Research is a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical
propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena.
Kothari- Research is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment;
the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solutions to a problem.
It can be said that research is a systematic and organized study and analysis of an issue that helps to solve
the problem or develop new theory or add new knowledge in the existing theories.
Common Nature and Features of Research
 1. Objective:
It must answer the research questions by formulating proper hypothesis.
2. Generalizability:
Applicable in the population
3. Free from personal biases
Out of researcher personal perception and judgment and change the date to manipulate result.
4. Systematic
Steps must be interrelated
5. Reproducible
Reliable, same result in same population by same methodology
6. Solution oriented
Probable solution of problem
7. Logical
Inductive and deductive

Types of Research
There are various types of research that are classified according to their objective, depth of study,
analyzed data, time required to study the phenomenon and other factors.

According to its Purpose

Theoretical Research

Theoretical research, also referred to as pure or basic research, focuses on generating knowledge,
regardless of its practical application. Here, data collection is used to generate new general
concepts for a better understanding of a particular field or to answer a theoretical research
question.

Results of this kind are usually oriented towards the formulation of theories and are usually
based on documentary analysis, the development of mathematical formulas and the reflection of
high-level researchers.

For example, a philosophical dissertation, since the aim is to generate new approaches from existing data
without considering how its findings can be applied or implemented in practice.

Applied Research

Here, the goal is to find strategies that can be used to address a specific research problem.
Applied research draws on theory to generate practical scientific knowledge, and its use is very
common in STEM fields such as engineering, computer science and medicine.

This type of research is subdivided into two types:

 1. Technological applied research: looks towards improving efficiency in a particular productive
sector through the improvement of processes or machinery related to said productive processes.

2. Scientific applied research: has predictive purposes. Through this type of research design, we
can measure certain variables to predict behaviors useful to the goods and services sector, such as
consumption patterns and viability of commercial projects.

For example, market research, because by examining consumption patterns, strategies can be developed
for the development of new products and marketing campaigns, etc.
Note: Applied research is usually based on knowledge or results obtained through theoretical research.

In fact, it is common for research projects to first establish the theoretical framework both to
define the field of study and to identify possible theories that could be tested or applied to solve
the specific problem posed in the project.

According to your Depth of Scope

 Exploratory Research

 Descriptive Research

 Explanatory Research

 Correlational Research

According to the Type of Data Used

 Qualitative Research

 Quantitative Research

According to the Degree of Manipulation of Variables

 Experimental Research

 Non-Experimental Research

 Quasi-Experimental Research

According to the Type of Inference

 Deductive Investigation

 Inductive Research

According to the Time in Which it is Carried Out

  Longitudinal Study (also referred to as Diachronic Research)
 Cross-Sectional Study (also referred to as Synchronous Research)

According to The Sources of Information

 Primary Research
 Secondary research

Scientific Research
Application of scientific method to the investigation of relationships among natural
phenomenon or to solve the problem.
The scientific method is the means by which researches are able to make
conclusive statements about their studies with a minimum of bias.
 The systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to increase
understanding of an issue.
 Systematic observation of phenomena for the purpose of learning new facts
or testing the application of theories to known facts.
 It’s an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge
 The research aims to seeking answers to problems through the application of
scientific mythology, which guarantees that the information is reliable and
unbiased.
F.N. Kerlinger“ Scientific research is a systematic, empirical and critical
investigation of propositions about the presumed relationship among the variables.
Sekaran “Research is an organized, systematic, data-based, critical, scientific
enquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the objective of
finding answers or solutions to it.
 Scientific research is a systematic investigation based on theoretical
background.
 It is step by step, logical, organized and critical investigation in identifying
the solutions of problems.
 It investigates pre hypothesized relationship between the variables.
 It presents research methodology as to how data are collected and what
statistical tool will be used.
 It is an interlinked exercise that requires sound experience and knowledge.
Features of Scientific Research
1. Purposiveness : Definite purpose
2. Rigorous: Carefulness, thoroughness and the degree of exactitude
3. Testability: able to develop and test the hypothesis
4. Reliable: repeated similar outcome
5. Validity: results close to reality with certain level of confidence
6. Objectivity: based on actual data rather than subjective or emotional
7. Generalizability: findings have wide applicability
8. Parsimony: simple, logical and economical
9. Systematic, critical, empirical

Process of scientific research

In this context, ‘scientific’ does not necessarily mean ‘science’, but it refers to a
manner of doing research known as scientific research. It is step-by-step, logical,
organized and rigorous method to identify problems, gather data, analyze and draw
valid conclusions about the data.
There are common eight steps in scientific research process:
1. Sensing or realizing the problem:
Actually the researcher is not familiar about the problems but senses them in
terms of what, why and how is happening. The researcher form an idea
about the situation or field in which the research work is to be performed at
the first stage of search.
2. Problem identification:
There may exists various problems under the selected environment and the
researcher try to select the vital problems upon which the research work can
be completed.
3. Theoretical framework:
Theoretical framework is the collection and integration of variables in a
formal linkage in relationship. This aims to identify the variables which are
going to incorporate in the research and analyze the relationship among
them. Framework is prepared on the basis of review of literature.
4. Hypothesis formulation:
 Hypothesis formulation for the study is determined on the basis of
theoretical framework. It is a statement of assumption that predicts the
relationship between and among variables. It is proposed solution of
research question which may be accepted or rejected after test.
5. Research design:
It is a plan or blue print of research procedure to precede the entire research
process ahead. Following activities are designed:
a. Which research designed
b. Population defined(whole population and target population)
c. Sampling procedure and sample size
d. Data collection tools
e. Data analysis tools
f. Reliability and validity
6. Data collection:
It is also called fieldwork is the implementation of research design. Various
techniques of data collection like survey, experiment, observation etc can be
administered.
7. Data analysis:
It is the statistical analysis of collected, edited, coded and tabulate data. It
includes various tests like parametric and non-parametric to come to the
conclusions.
8. Interpretation and generalization:
Interpretation is the process of explaining the numerical finding of research
in the sensible form.
Generalization means to link the research findings with general situation.
Approaches to research
Research approaches are plans and the procedures for research that span the steps from broad
assumptions to detailed methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation. This plan
involves several decisions, and they need not be taken in the order in which they make sense to
us and the order of their presentation here. The overall decision involves which approach should
be used to study a topic. Informing this decision should be the philosophical assumptions the
researcher brings to the study; procedures of inquiry (called research designs); and specific
research methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation. The selection of a research
approach is also based on the nature of the research problem or issue being addressed, the
researchers’ personal experiences, and the audiences for the study. Thus, in this book, research
approaches, research designs, and research methods are three key terms that represent a
perspective about research that presents information in a successive way from broad
constructions of research to the narrow procedures of methods.
In this article, three research approaches are advanced: (a) qualitative, (b) quantitative, and (c)
mixed methods. Unquestionably, the three approaches are not as discrete as they first appear.
Qualitative and quantitative approaches should not be viewed as rigid, distinct categories, polar
opposites, or dichotomies. Instead, they represent different ends on a continuum (Creswell, 2015;
Newman & Benz, 1998). A study tends to be more qualitative than quantitative or vice versa.
Mixed methods research resides in the middle of this continuum because it incorporates elements
of both qualitative and quantitative approaches.

Often the distinction between qualitative research and quantitative research is framed in terms of
using words (qualitative) rather than numbers (quantitative), or better yet, using closed-ended questions
and responses (quantitative hypotheses) or open-ended questions and responses (qualitative interview
questions). A more complete way to view the gradations of differences between them is in the basic
philosophical assumptions researchers bring to the study, the types of research strategies used in the
research (e.g., quantitative experiments or qualitative case studies), and the specific methods employed in
conducting these strategies (e.g., collecting data quantitatively on instruments versus collecting
qualitative data through observing a setting). Moreover, there is a historical evolution to both approaches
—with the quantitative approaches dominating the forms of research in the social sciences from the late
19th century up until the mid-20th century. During the latter half of the 20th century, interest in
qualitative research increased and along with it, the development of mixed methods research. With this
background, it should prove helpful to view definitions of these three key terms as used in this article:

Qualitative Research Definition

Qualitative research is an approach for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or
groups ascribe to a social or human problem. The process of research involves emerging
questions and procedures, data typically collected in the participant’s setting, data analysis
inductively building from particulars to general themes, and the researcher making
interpretations of the meaning of the data. The final written report has a flexible structure. Those
who engage in this form of inquiry support a way of looking at research that honors an inductive
style, a focus on individual meaning, and the importance of reporting the complexity of a
situation.

Quantitative Research Definition

Quantitative research is an approach for testing objective theories by examining the relationship
among variables. These variables, in turn, can be measured, typically on instruments, so that
numbered data can be analyzed using statistical procedures. The final written report has a set
structure consisting of introduction, literature and theory, methods, results, and discussion. Like
qualitative researchers, those who engage in this form of inquiry have assumptions about testing
theories deductively, building in protections against bias, controlling for alternative or
counterfactual explanations, and being able to generalize and replicate the findings.

Mixed Methods Research Definition

Mixed methods research is an approach to inquiry involving collecting both quantitative and
qualitative data, integrating the two forms of data, and using distinct designs that may involve
philosophical assumptions and theoretical frameworks. The core assumption of this form of
inquiry is that the integration of qualitative and quantitative data yields additional insight beyond
the information provided by either the quantitative or qualitative data alone.

These definitions have considerable information in each one of them. Throughout this book, we will
discuss the parts of the definitions so that their meanings will become clear to you as you read ahead.

Paradigm shifts – positivist Vs interpretivist philosophies

A research paradigm is a philosophical framework that your research is based on. It offers a pattern of
beliefs and understandings from which the theories and practices of your research project operate.
A research paradigm consists of ontology, epistemology, and research methodology.
1.  Ontology answers the question: “What is reality?” That is, does a single reality exist within your
research? An example of an ontological question would be: “Does God exist?” There are two
possible realities (or ontologies) in response to this question: “Yes, God exists,” or “No, God
does not exist.”
2.  Epistemology is the study of knowledge. It answers the question: “How is it possible to know
reality?” Epistemology incorporates the validity, parameters, and methods of acquiring
knowledge. An example of an epistemological question would be: “How is it possible to know
whether God exists or not?”
3. ●  Research Methodology answers the question: “How do we go about discovering the answer
or reality?” This includes the process of data collection and analysis. Research methodology
should outline how you conduct your research and demonstrate that the findings are valid.

Together, ontology and epistemology comprise research philosophy.

Research philosophy combined with research methodology comprises a research paradigm.

There are two major paradigms are the positivist paradigm commonly known as
positivism and the interpretivism or constructivist paradigm commonly known as
interpretivism.

The scientific quantitative and the qualitative research method are used while
conducting business and management research. The scientific quantitative research
method reflects to positivist paradigm and the qualitative research method reflects
the interpretivist paradigm.
Positivism
Positivists believe that social scientist can and should use the same methods and
approaches to study the social world as “natural” sciences such as biology and
physics to investigate the physical world. It means the research conducted
considering to the natural setting rather than perception and interpretation of the
people is known as positivism. Positivism paradigm interprets only phenomena
which we know through our senses like smell, light, happening, tasks etc.
positivism is associated with quantitative research. The main elements of the
positivist paradigm include:
 A positivism research is more objective rather than subjective statement.
 Value free contexts.
 The use of precise and objective measures usually associated with
quantitative data.
 Researcher remains separate from the subjects
 It believes in testing and experimenting to prove or disprove hypothesis.
 It helps to create new theory by putting facts together to generate laws or
principles
 Method include experimental studies, re-analysis of secondary data,
structured questionnaires and structured interviews.
 The implication of scientific research method with inductive reasoning.
Interpretivism
It is associated with qualitative research. It is used to obtain an understanding of an
individual perspective. Interpretive proposes that there are multiple realities, not
only realities of phenomena and these realities can differ across time and place. An
interpretivist research aims to see the world through the eyes of people being
studied, allowing them to put multiple perspectives of reality. The main elements
of the interpretivist paradigm are:
 A subjective world where people experience physical and social reality in
different ways.
 Researchers becomes fully involved with individual subjects.
  Flexible research process which flows from the materials provided by
participations
 Method include ethnography, participant observation, focus groups decision,
and depth interview and generally inductive reasoning is used.

The term “paradigm shift” was coined by the American philosopher Thomas Kuhn
(1922- 1996). It is one of the central concepts in his hugely influential work, "The
Structure of Scientific Revolutions," published in 1962.

Management research – concept, nature, and value in business decision

making
Research explains unknown facts, applications of theory from which we build knowledge
and new theories and decides about its application. Management research refers to the act
of study of various dimensions of organizational problems and finding out the managerial
tools of techniques so that problems can be solved with the use of such ideas. Managerial
research studies minutely, objectively, and scientifically on the problems and suggests the
management improve in management procedure so as to solve the management problems.
It is systematic development and acquisition of knowledge and is tailored to specific
management needs to answer managerial problems within a time frame. It can be said
that research that is conducted to solve the problem which is related to planning,
organizing, directing, and controlling is known as management research.
According to Zikmund, “Management research is the systematic and objective process of
gathering, recording and analyzing data for aid in making business decisions.”
According to V.P. Michael, "Research in management is a systematic activity directed towards
investigating managerial or business problems, which may result in or discovery of management tools for
problem solving and decision making."

From the analysis of the above definitions, we can say that management research is such
research that is conducted to identify and analyses the problem and develop managerial
tools to make decisions for solving managerial problems.
Nature of management research

Even though management research is also social science research but its problems and
issues are different than the issues related to other subjects. Thus, it is different than other
research. Those qualities that differentiate management research from other research are
given below:
1. Transdisciplinary: Management research draws knowledge combining the
information of various subjects. It means management research should consider the
varied nature of information and data from a large area of subjects like; strategy,
structure, environment, sociology, anthropology, etc.

2. Commercial advantages: management research is conducted to solve particular

problems of individual organizations. Thus, management research focuses on the
commercial advantages of a business organization.

3. Practical: The findings found from the management research must respond to the
issue or problem of the business organizations. Thus, it must be practically
applicable.

4. Double hurdle: Management research has the problem of theory and practice.
Knowledge creation is made by academia and research is governed by the world of
practice. Thus, there is always a hurdle of balancing them.

Value of management research in business decision making

The researcher drives every aspect of major decision-making. The prime managerial value of business research is
that it reduces uncertainty and explores opportunities by providing information that helps to improve the decision of
the business. Research provides supports in the following dimensions of decision making
1. Identify problems:
Business research helps to determine the nature of situations or identify the existence of problems in the organization
Business research is used as a scanning tool to provide information related to ences within an organization and its
impact environment. It scams the environment and helps to identify potential problems that may take place in the
organization. It helps them to understand new situations like a change in socioeconomic, legal condition, tural
situation and know the impact of suchenvironment in the organization.
2. Diagnosing and assessing problems and opportunities:
After identifying the problems or potential opportunities, the researcher diagnoses situations so as to clarify the
situation. The manager should gain insight into the underlying factors causing the situation. If there is a problem, they
need to specify the problems and causes. If an opportunity is found, they need to explore, clarity and refine the nature
of the opportunity. If multiple opportunities are seen the research should be conducted to set the priorities. The
researcher may undertake qualitative and quantitative analysis so that they can understand the practical courses of
action.
3. selecting the best course of action:
After the identification of problems and opportunities, research is often conducted to obtain specific information that
will aid in evaluating the alternatives and in selecting the best course of action. For example: if a manufacturer wants
to establish a spinning mill in Butwal or Kathmandu then he/she needs to conduct research to evaluated and select
the best alternative. The course of action is evaluated through the use of various performance criteria i.e market
potential, cost factors, sales, etc. objective information generated by research to forecast environmental occurrences
may be the foundation for selecting a particular course of action. After evaluating the alternatives research suggests
the best alternatives to the manager along with the cause of selection and procedures for implementing it.
4. Implementing a course of action:
The best plan may also fail if it is not properly implemented. A manager can undertake the research to find
out the tactics to implement the course of action. Research provides real information regarding the situation
so that the manager can prepare various subsidiary plans to implement a course of action. For example: if
Butwal is selected as the best place then the manager can decide about financial plan HR plan, technology
plan so as to implement the best alternatives
5. Evaluating the course of action
Evaluation refers to the precise and objective measurement and appraisal of the action whether it can achieve the
goal of the project or program. After the execution of the course of action research serves as a tool to inform
managers whether planned activities are properly executed and achieved the results as expected. In other words,
managers may use evaluation research to provide feedback for evaluation and control of strategies and tactics

Applying Scientific Thinking in Management Problems

Scientific thinking is that mode of thinking about any scientific subject, content, or problem in which the thinker
improves the quality of his/her thinking by skillfully taking a change of the structures inherent in thinking and
imposing, the intellectual standard upon them.

Various managerial problems required to be solved by the managers more concretely. The
market competitiveness is high, and the requirement of the customers are also frequently
changing. Thus, a manager requires analyzing the problems more scientifically and
systematically. Therefore, manager also started to follow scientific tenets while undertaking
research in various operational and functional problems like marketing, HR, operation, and
production.

1. Direct observation of phenomena:

Rather the collecting information from secondary sources managers started to collect first-hand information through
observation or interview.

2. Clearly defined variables, methods & procedures:

Management researchers used to define the dependent, independent moderating, and

intervening variables. Methods of measuring them and procedures of undertaking the research
are defined and operationalized.

3. Use of theories:

Management researchers nowadays do not undertake research based on observation/ thought but use basic thought
like ontology, epistemology, etc. It guides the researchers to undertake research systematically.

4. Empirically testable hypothesis:

Nowadays, the researcher develops the hypothetic statement either based on observation or previous
studies/ theories. Those statements show the relationship between various variables. Such statements
are tested using mathematical tools and confirm the relation/ reject the relationship of variables.

5. Statistical justification of conclusions:

Conclusions drawn from the studies are drawn from the use of statistical tools. Statistically found findings are
compared or related to the previous theories/ study findings and conclusions are drawn using researchers' logic and
statistical findings. So, management researcher justifies their conclusions using statistical tools.

6. Self-correcting process:

Managers develop systems that will automatically correct the deficiencies.

Thus, after World War II, management researchers also apply scientific thinking while conducting research for solving
management problems. Expect more accurate and objective solutions from the researcher. To provide such accurate
and objective solutions, management researchers also started to use scientific thinking in management problems.

Scientific thinking in dealing with management problems began with the publication of the book The Principles of
Scientific Management in 1011 by Frederick Winslow Taylor, an industrial engineer of Bethlehem Steel Plant,
Philadelphia, USA, which was voted one of the most influential books on management of the 20th century by the
Fellows of Academy of Management, the USA in 2001. Taylor, being a mechanical engineer, used scientific thinking
to solve management problems relating to wastage control and to increase in efficiency and productivity of an
enterprise (Freedom).

Similarly, behavioral and social scientists such as Elton Mayo, Abraham Maslow, Douglas McGregor,
RensisLikert, David McClelland, etc. during the 1950s onwards used scientific thinking by combining
knowledge of psychology, sociology and anthropology with strong observation, research, and
communication skills to solve organizational problems by examining individuals, groups and
organizational behavior.

Many more researchers on management are now using scientific thinking and methods in conducting
research studies so as to solve several different management problems relating to operations, marketing,
finance, and human resources, faced by modern organizations. As such, several management theories,
principles, techniques and methods have been developed to overcome business and management
problems. Therefore, management researchers have to develop scientific thinking skills to conduct
worthwhile research for finding new and emerging issues of management.

Elements of Scientific Thinking

Scientific thinking includes the following elements:

• Point of View: a frame of reference, perspective, and orientation.

• Purpose: goals, objectives, and functions.

• Question or Issue: clear and precise vial question or problem. Information: relevant data, facts evidence,
observations, experiences, and reasons.

• Interpretation and Inference: conclusions and solutions through proper interpretation and inference.

• Concepts: theories, definitions, laws, principles, and models.

• Assumptions: Presuppositions and axioms (a rule or principle that people may accept as true).

• Implications and Consequences: logical results.

According to Paul and Elder, Scientific thinking results in the following elements:

• Clearly and precisely formulating vital questions and problems.

• Collecting and evaluating relevant data and information.

• Drawing well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, and testing them against relevant criteria and
standards.
• Thinking open-mindedly, recognizing and assessing assumptions, implications, and practical
consequences.

• Effectively communicating in proposing solutions to complex problems.

Ethical considerations in research are a set of principles that guide your research
designs and practices. Scientists and researchers must always adhere to a certain code
of conduct when collecting data from people.

The goals of human research often include understanding real-life phenomena, studying
effective treatments, investigating behaviors, and improving lives in other ways. What
you decide to research and how you conduct that research involve key ethical
considerations.

These considerations work to

 protect the rights of research participants

 enhance research validity
 maintain scientific integrity

There are several ethical issues you should always pay attention to in your research
design, and these issues can overlap with each other.

You’ll usually outline ways you’ll deal with each issue in your research proposal if
you plan to collect data from participants.

Ethical issue Definition

Voluntary Your participants are free to opt in or out of the study at any point in time.
participation

Informed consent Participants know the purpose, benefits, risks, and funding behind the study before they
agree or decline to join.

Anonymity You don’t know the identities of the participants. Personally identifiable data is not
collected.

Confidentiality You know who the participants are but you keep that information hidden from everyone
Ethical issue Definition

else. You anonymize personally identifiable data so that it can’t be linked to other data by
anyone else.

Potential for harm Physical, social, psychological and all other types of harm are kept to an absolute
minimum.

Results You ensure your work is free of plagiarism or research misconduct, and you accurately
communication represent your results.

Qualitative Research

A research that is concerned with subjective phenomena is known as qualitative research. The main aim of
qualitative research is to get depth knowledge and explained the issue or subject rather than finding the solution or
coming to conclusions. It, generally, explains the issues and makes it easier to understand the issue to the general
people. The research uses; survey, interview types of tools while conducting qualitative research. Generally, it is
conducted to understand the response of the people. Qualitative research is substantially used in the study of social
science research. Qualitative research collects data from the individual, organizations, books, and other written
documents, environment, media, and events. Qualitative research is used in market segmentation, development of
the concept of advertisement, new product development, etc. Following tools may be used in qualitative research:

• Content analysis • Comparative analysis • Conversation analysis • Grounded theory • Discourse analysis, etc.

Features of Qualitative Research

Instead of trying to arrive at a singular definition of qualitative research, you might consider five features that are
discussed below:

1. Studying the meaning of people's lives, under real-world conditions:

Qualitative research first involves studying the meaning of people's lives under real-world conditions. People will be
performing in their everyday roles or have expressed themselves through their own diaries, journals, writing, and
even photography independent of any research inquiry. Social interactions will occur with minimal involvement by
artificial research procedures, and people will be saying what they want to say, not limited to responding to a
researcher's pre-established questionnaire. People will express their opinions independently. Qualitative research
analyses their opinions so that the results of research drawn is under the real-world situation.

2. Representing the views and perspectives of the people:

Qualitative research differs because of its ability to represent the views and perspectives of the participants in a
study. Capturing their perspectives may be a major purpose of a qualitative study. Thus, the events and ideas
emerging from qualitative research can represent the meanings given to real-life events by the people who live them,
not the values, preconceptions, or meanings held by researchers.
3. Covering the contextual conditions within which people live:
Qualitative research covers contextual conditions-the social, institutional, and environmental conditions within which
people's lives take place. In many ways, these contextual conditions may strongly influence all human events.
4. Contributing insights into existing or emerging concepts that may help to explain human social behavior:
Qualitative research is not just a diary of everyday life. Such a function would be an ordinary version of real-world
events. On the contrary, qualitative research is driven by a desire to explain these events, through existing or
emerging concepts. Qualitative research can be the occasion for developing new concepts. The concepts might
attempt to explain social processes used to provide potentially useful explanations and to form a platform for new
inquiries.
5. Striving to use multiple sources of evidence rather than relying on a single source alone:
Qualitative research strives to collect, integrate, and present data from a variety of sources of evidence as part of any
given study. The variety will likely follow to study a real-world setting and its participants. The complexity of the field
setting and the diversity of its participants are likely to warrant the use of interviews and observations and even the
inspection of documents and accidental effects that cause incorrect results.
Assumptions of Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is undertaken based on certain assumptions. Those assumptions are given below:
1. Interaction:
The key philosophical assumption of all types o qualitative research is that reality is constructed by
individuals interacting with their social worlds. It is assumed that meaning is set based on people's
experiences and this meaning is mediated through the investigator's own perceptions. The key concern is
understanding the phenomenon of interest from the participants' perspectives, not the researchers.
2. Fieldwork:
0The researcher physically goes to the people, setting, or institution (the field) to observe or record behavior in the
natural setting. Data collection methods include interviews, observations, and documents.
3. Descriptive:
Qualitative research is descriptive in nature. The researcher is interested in the process, meaning, and understanding
gained through words or pictures. Typically, the findings are in the form of themes, categories, typologies, concepts,
tentative hypotheses, or even theory. The product of qualitative research is richly descriptive, Words and pictures are
used to convey the results of the research rather than numerical figures.
4. Inductive:

The process of qualitative research is inductive. The researcher builds abstracts, concepts,
hypotheses, and theories from details rather than testing existing theories. Often qualitative
studies are undertaken if there is a lack of theory or existing theory fails to adequately explain the
situation. There are, thus, no hypotheses to be deduced from theory to guide the investigation.
Qualitative researchers build theory from observations and understandings gained from the field.

5. Multiple realities:

Social activities are not the outcomes of a single event but they are the outcomes of interactions of various
events and situations. So, qualitative research assumes that all those social events are the outcomes of
multiple realities.

6. Multiple perspectives:

It includes the voices of various informants whose situations are different. So, it covers the multiple perspectives of
mulåple people. Thus, the findings of qualitative research remain more realistic.

7. Verification:

It assumes that accuracy of information involves verifying the information with

informants or triangulating among different sources of information.
Common Practices in Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is different than quantitative research. Some of the common practices used while conducting
qualitative research are given below:

1. Flexible design:

Qualitative research uses flexible research rather than fixed research designs. Qualitative research tries to strengthen
a study's validity, selecting the samples to be studied, and being concerned with generalizing. The qualitative
researcher should work more in the field and the situation of the field might be different than what we expect
previously, so researcher can change/ moderate the research design when it is essential.

2. Field-based data:

Field-based data captures the contextual conditions as well as participants' perspectives. The result is drawn from
fieldwork and considering the diaries, journals, writings, photographs, or other past works performed by the
participants.

3. Use of non-numeric data:

Qualitative research analyses the subjective information obtained from interviews focus group discussions,
observations, etc. Analysis of such data can be made using various computer software and other statistical and
logical techniques..

4. Different interpretations:

Qualitative data may be in written and visual forms. Qualitative research relates to the
combination of orientations as well as methodological choices. Taking advantage of the
richness of the combination qualitative research can customize its opportunities. Three
conditions may contribute to the combination, the potential multiplicity of interpretations
of the human beings; the potential uniqueness of these events and the methodological
variations available within qualitative research. Each condition can involve extreme
choices, often involving philosophical and not just methodological considerations.

Methods of Qualitative Research

A qualitative approach is a general way of thinking about conducting qualitative research. It describes, either explicitly
or implicitly, the purpose of the qualitative research, the role of the researcher(s), the stags of research, and the
method of data analysis. Several generally are considered while undertaking qualitaåve research.
1. Case studies:
In a case study, the researcher explores a single entity or phenomenon ('the case') bounded by time and activity
(e.g., a program, event, institution, or social group) and collects detailed information through a variety of data
sources. The case study is a descriptive record of an individual's experiences and/or behaviors kept by an outside
observer. Case studies are conducted to find out the solution to the problems of an organization but its findings can
not be generalized.
2. Ethnographic studies:
The ethnographic approach to qualitative research comes largely from the field of anthropology. Originally, the idea of
a culture was tied to the notion of ethnicity and geographic location, but it has been broadened to include virtually any
group or organization. In ethnographic research, the researcher studies an intact cultural group in a natural setting
over a specific period of time. A cultural group can be any group of individuals who share a common social
experience, location, or other social characteristics of interest. Ethnography is an extremely broad area with a great
variety of practitioners and methods. However, the most common ethnographic approach is a participant observation
as a part of field research. Typically the ethnographer involves in the culture as an active participant and records
extensive field notes.
3. Phenomenological studies:
Phenomenology is considered a philosophical perspective as well as an approach to qualitative methodology. It has a
long history in several social research disciplines including psychology, sociology, and social work. Phenomenology
is a school of thought that emphasizes a focus on people's subjective experiences and interpretations of the world.
That is, the phenomenologist wants to understand how the world appears to others. In a phenomenological study,
human experiences are examined through the detailed description of the people being studied. The goal is to
understand the 'live experience of the individuals. This approach studies over a small group of people intensively for
a long period of time.
4. Grounded theory:

Grounded theory is a qualitative research approach that was originally developed by Glaser and Strauss in the
1960s. The selfdefined purpose of grounded theory is to develop a theory about phenomena of interest. This is not
just abstract theorizing, instead, the theory needs to be grounded or rooted in observation -- hence the term grounded
is used Grounded theory is a complex iterative process. The research begins with the raising of generative questions
that help to guide the research but are not intended to be either static or confining. As the researcher begins to gather
data and core theoretical concepts are identified. Tentative linkages are developed between the theoretical core
concepts and the data. This early phase of the research tends to be very open and can take months. Later on the
researcher is more engaged in verification and summary. The effort tends to evolve toward one core category that is
central.

5. Field research:

Field research can also be considered either a broad approach to qualitative research or a method of gathering
qualitative data. The essential idea is that the researcher goes into the field to observe the phenomenon in its natural
state. As such, it is probably most related to the method of participant observation. The researcher typically takes
extensive field notes that will be subsequently coded and analyzed in a variety of ways so as to reach a conclusion.

Building Trustworthiness and Credibility into Qualitative Research

Three qualities are required for building the trustworthiness and credibility of qualitative research. They are given
below:

1. Transparency:

The first quality for building trustworthiness and credibility is that qualitative research should be done in a publicly
accessible manner, The research procedures should be transparent. This first quality means that you must describe
your qualitative research procedures so that other people can review and understand them. All data should be
available for inspection. The general idea is that others should be able to scrutinize your work and the evidence used
to support your findings and conclusions. The scrutiny can result in criticism, support, or refinement. Moreover, any
person, whether a peer, a colleague, or a participant in your qualitative research studies, should be able to undertake
such examinations.

2. Methodicness:

Being methodic means following some orderly set research procedures and minimizing careless work-whether a
study is based on an explicitly defined research design or on a more informal with more rigorous field routine. Being
methodic also includes avoiding unexplained bias or deliberate change in the natural settings in carrying out
research. Finally, being methodic also means bringing a sense of completeness to a research effort, as well as cross-
checking a study's procedures and data.

3. Adherence to Evidence:

A final quality is that qualitative research should be based on an explicit set of evidence. For many studies where the
goal is to have participants describe their own decision-making processes, the evidence will consist of participants'
actual language as well as the context in which the language is expressed. In these situations, the language is valued
as the representation of reality. Such a function differs from situation to situation in which studies are dominantly
concerned with people's behavior. Under this latter circumstance, participants' words are viewed as "self-reports"
about their behavior.

Regardless of the kind of data being collected, a study's conclusions should be drawn in reference to those data. If
there are multiple perspectives, analysis should make sense from each perspective and so test the evidence for
consistency across different sources with deliberate efforts made to seek out contrary cases to strengthen the
findings even more.

Strengths of Qualitative Research

Generally, qualitative research is considered a subjective analysis and just helps to

explain the terms. But it has a number of strengths. they are given below..

1. Issues can be examined in detail and in-depth:

Any issues that is not clear yet, such issues will be taken by the researcher for his/her study so that the
issues will be defined clearly and factors that are responsible for such issues will be developed.

2. Open interview:

Interviews are not restricted to specific questions and can be guided/ redirected by the
researcher in real-time. In qualitative research, respondents can express their views freely so
that respondents' open ideas can be collected.

3. Flexible framework:

The research framework and direction can be quickly revised as new information
comes. As the situation or environment changes, the framework of research. can
be changed and a new framework, as per the changing environment, can be
implemented.
4. Capture human behavior:

The data based on human experience is more powerful and sometimes more compelling than quantitative data.
Human behavior can more effectively capture by qualitative research than by quantitative research.

5. Finding the complexities:

Complexities about the research subjects or topics are discovered by the qualitative researcher but are often missed
by more quantitative studies. The quantitative researcher only considers the seen facts but the qualitative researcher
analyses to the cause behind the scene. Thus, qualitative research can find the complexities of human behavior.

6. Transferable:

Data usually are collected from a few cases. or individuals. So, the findings of qualitative research cannot be
generalized to a larger population. However, findings can be transferred to another setting for further investigation.