An Investigation of the Bleaching, Smothering, and Decalcification of Reef-Building Corals in

Subequitorial and Tropical Regions Powered by El Niños, Ocean Acidification, and Sea Level
Rising–Results of Climate Change

An Investigation of the Bleaching, Smothering, and Decalcification of Coral Reefs in

Tropical, Equatorial, and Subequatorial Regions Powered by El Niños, Ocean
Acidification, and Sea Level Rising–Results of Climate Change

Submitted by Julia Takla

taklajulia52@gmail.com

Dr. Wnek, Dr. Williams

Advanced Oceanographic Research (AOR)

Marine Academy of Technology and Environmental Science

An Investigation of the Bleaching, Smothering, and Decalcification of Reef-Building Takla 1
Corals in Subequitorial and Tropical Regions Powered by El Niños, Oceanic
Acidification, and Sea Level Rising–Results of Climate Change

A recent categorization of reef-building coral status in the International Union for

Conservation of Nature Red List (IUCN Red List) revealed that 32.8% or about ⅓ of all reef

ecosystems are at an elevated risk for extinction (Carpenter et al., 2018). The Great Barrier

Reefs in Australia, the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands in the U.S., the Coral Triangle in the

Western Pacific, and the Caribbean Reefs, are just a few of the numerous reef-building systems

suffering from bleaching, decalcification, and steep declines in population throughout recent

decades. The deterioration of these coastline protectors has been heavily influenced by a rise in

sea surface temperatures, anthropogenic stressors (greenhouse emissions in particular), ocean

acidification, and other plightful factors.

In the past century, climate change has left an indirect influence on oceanic chemistry,

specifically pH. Approximately ⅓ of atmospheric carbon dioxide is absorbed and dissolved

into the oceans which elevate ocean acidification levels (“Climate Change Indicators: Oceans”,

2022). This affects the balance of minerals in the water, slowing the rate at which coral reefs

generate limestone or calcium carbonate and the growth of coral skeletons (“Climate Change

Indicators: Oceans”, 2022, “Coral Bleaching”, 2011 ). In order for coral reefs to grow, they

must generate this CaCO3 at a rate that is faster than the reef is being eroded (“Coral

Bleaching”, 2011 ). This generation of the coral skeleton is critical to marine mammals as it

builds a three-dimensional coral matrix housing aquatic diversity. The slow decline in skeletal

stability and condition threatens not only a vital habitat for marine life but also coastal

protection.

In addition, coral reefs are uniquely sensitive to chemical changes in an aquatic

environment whether it be rainfall or a slight temperature change which is why they are

particularly vulnerable to climate change. The thickness and chemistry of bands in coral shells
An Investigation of the Bleaching, Smothering, and Decalcification of Reef-Building Takla 2
Corals in Subequitorial and Tropical Regions Powered by El Niños, Oceanic
Acidification, and Sea Level Rising–Results of Climate Change

reflect the particular season or climate at a specific time (“Climate Close Up”, 2005). In the

past, this attribute was employed in paleoclimatological analyses to reveal more about oceanic

conditions. Two chemical characteristics or ratios are used when determining information

surrounding the aquatic environment. The balance of heavy and light oxygen in coral growth

bands is used as a record of rainfall during the growing season (“Climate Close Up”, 2005).

The ratio of strontium and calcium is used to reveal a fluctuation or change in temperature.

These ratios help scientists identify the source of change in coral skeletons whether it be

temperature, oceanic salinity, rainfall, or an amalgamation of these influencing factors

(“Climate Close Up”, 2005). In addition, coral reef shells can reveal information regarding the

intensity of cyclical events such as El Niños. Because climate change can also be indirectly

associated with intense tropical cyclones like El Niños, various meteorological and

environmental changes can be mirrored by the condition and chemistry of coral reef shells.

According to the First Global Scientific Assessment published by UNESCO, a

prediction that coral reefs in 29 reef-containing World Heritage sites will no longer exist as

functioning coral reef ecosystems because of intense bleaching that has become more

pronounced in recent years (“Coral Reefs, 2021). These mass coral bleaching episodes have

become the most visibly evident characteristic of their deterioration. The color a coral posses is

a result of millions of pigment-producing zooxanthellate residing in coral polyps (Marsh, et al.,

2006). This occurs due to a warm-water coral-algae symbiotic association that exists between a

specific genus of dinoflagellates called Symbiodinium (Hoegh-Guldberg, 2017). This

partnership is sensitive to slight physical and chemical parametrical fluctuations in a tropical or

subtropical region. Periods of high and low temperature, light exposure, and even limited

exposure to toxins catalyze a breakdown for corals and the zooxanthellae (Hoegh-Guldberg,
An Investigation of the Bleaching, Smothering, and Decalcification of Reef-Building Takla 3
Corals in Subequitorial and Tropical Regions Powered by El Niños, Oceanic
Acidification, and Sea Level Rising–Results of Climate Change

2017). This, in turn, reduces the brown symbionts which lead to the subsequent bleaching

effect of the coral host (Hoegh-Guldberg, 1999). This reduction in coral ecosystem

pigmentation has been monitored over the more recent decades with satellite technology as a

source of data. The decline in such coloration has begun since the early 1980s when the

temperature began increasing more significantly. Therein is where an association was drawn

between climate changes and reef-building coral paling. When the algae are expelled from a

coral tissue, this coral is more subject to mortality which compromises the ecological and

purposes coral reefs serve.

In addition to decalcification and bleaching, coral reefs also suffer as a result of

sediment deposition or sedimentation as a consequential factor of climate change. Because the

heating of the atmosphere causes sea levels to rise, this leads to sedimentation runoff for reefs

located near land-based sources of sediment (“How Does Climate Change”, 2015). A reduction

in water quality can cause fast reproduction of harmful algae, create a conducive environment

that can harvest disease, impede coral growth and reproduction, and cause changes in food

structures on the reef (“Pollution Can Smother”, 2011). The resuspension and deposition of

sediment in nutrient-rick water exert detrimental to lethal effects on coral reefs (Fabricius, et

al., 2002). Managing and limiting the rate at which sea level rises and thus, the sedimentation

that occurs can minimize the lethal effect on reef-building corals.

Another indirect effect of climate change is a rapid increase in the frequency of tropical

cyclones which can prove to be a foe to coral reef systems. According to climate change

projections, upper tropospheric temperatures will spike significantly in the 21st century

(Knuston, 2022). These high temperatures are detrimental catalysts for hurricane

intensification. Recent research conducted by the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory

An Investigation of the Bleaching, Smothering, and Decalcification of Reef-Building Takla 4
Corals in Subequitorial and Tropical Regions Powered by El Niños, Oceanic
Acidification, and Sea Level Rising–Results of Climate Change

created model simulations of greenhouse warming influences on hurricane frequency and

intensity. These models suggest a general incline in both factors. This result appears to be

consequentially negative for coral reefs. The higher winds that are associated with powerful

storms generate wave movement that can topple entire coral heads or shift sand which can

smother or scour coral colonies (“Hurricanes: Friend or Foe”, 2012). Especially vulnerable

branching corals include staghorn and elkhorn which can easily be broken and reduced to

rubble during intense tropical storms. Despite this, if coral fragments come to rest in an area

optimal for reattaching to the seafloor, they may regenerate a coral colony by means of

fragmentation (“Hurricanes: Friend or Foe”, 2012). However, this may not always be the case

given conditions are unfavorable and may ultimately lead to the reef structure's deterioration or

destruction.

Over the past three decades, ultraviolet light exposure has markedly magnified to a

much greater extent than ever anticipated. An increase in gas emissions associated with ozone

depletion in the atmospheric layer leads to higher levels of radiation being emitted and

absorbed into oceans, lands, and sometimes reflected (depending on the type of wave: UV-A,

UV-B, or UV-C). Absorption of high ultraviolet light by coral skeletons can cause tissue

damage correlating with the intensity of UV light. However, some corals have adapted to this

atmospheric shift by trapping and harnessing photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) (Reef,

et al., 2009). Research conducted in 2009 by members of the Center for Marine Studies, the

Australian Research Council (ARC), and the Center of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies have

shown that a unique property of the calcium carbonate skeletons of coral reefs seems to absorb

downwelling ultraviolet light while simultaneously reflecting the PAR radiation to the

overlying tissue (Reef, et al., 2009). In other words, the intensification of UV exposure may
An Investigation of the Bleaching, Smothering, and Decalcification of Reef-Building Takla 5
Corals in Subequitorial and Tropical Regions Powered by El Niños, Oceanic
Acidification, and Sea Level Rising–Results of Climate Change

lead to the adaptation of corals to a certain extent but can still cause a breakdown of the tissue

if exposed in higher amounts.

During the years of 2008-2019, approximately 14% of the world’s coral reefs suffered

extinction as a result of the numerous effects of climate change (Treisman, 2021). A projected

90% could be eliminated by the year 2050 if global heating persists. Such examples of reef

ecosystems already harmed include the Great Barrier Reef, Melinjo Island Reefs in Indonesia,

Pacific Ocean reefs, Honolulu Bay reefs, and nearly ⅔ of the Caribbean reefs. These events

have occurred because of an amalgamation of various factors including thermal stress,

acidification, sedimentation, storm patterns, and precipitation. The intensification of these

factors has been exacerbated in more recent decades which calls into action more vehement

persistency to reduce such effects.

Coral reefs offer numerous benefits whether ecological, environmental, or even

economic. They provide protection for coastal areas by reducing the power of waves hitting the

coast, they habitat thousands of diverse marine species, and they massively contribute to

fishing and tourism industries across the globe. The ridges of some reefs have protected coasts

by defending against tsunami-prone areas and many people in coastal communities in Latin

America are dependent on their resources for their livelihood. According to recent statistics,

​25% of all marine life relies on reefs for sustenance and habitation (Florian, 2021). Protecting

these sacred reefs is a pivotal approach to restoring one of the damages of climate change.

Various technology over the past few years have been employed by scientific and

geographic research institutions to analyze and map out solutions to these problems. Scientists

have been using high-resolution satellite imaging techniques and advanced analytics to create

mosaic depictions of the world’s coral reefs. The innovative project, Allen Coral Atlas, is an
An Investigation of the Bleaching, Smothering, and Decalcification of Reef-Building Takla 6
Corals in Subequitorial and Tropical Regions Powered by El Niños, Oceanic
Acidification, and Sea Level Rising–Results of Climate Change

example of a revolutionary coral conservation tool powered by Arizona State University. They

have assisted local and national governments in mapping out conservation plans to protect

reef-barrier systems across the globe. Institutions from Carnegie Institution for Science,

Arizona State University, the University of Queensland, and the National Geographic Society

have joined together to design and augment solutions to coral reef bleaching and smothering

complications over recent years. The Allen Coral Atlas has been able to track benthic

composition in depths shallower than 10m and geomorphic zonation for 20m or shallower

(Singh, 2019).

A more recent adaptation of the Allen Coral Atlas is its merge with the Coral Reef

Watch data on sea temperature patterns from US National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA). With the synthesis of these two geographic and technological tools,

trends of climate change and coral reef progression can be analyzed simultaneously with the

new embedded data. This new merger allows for climate-induced changes and coral reef data

to coalesce into one database, facilitating the comparison and analysis of these two parameters.

Advancement in these specific oceanographic fields can encourage precision of accuracy in

coral reef analysis and propel conservatory systems to limit the harm to reef ecosystems.

Although more than 25 coral reef species are considered threatened or endangered, the

restoration of these aquatic invertebrates is not beyond reach. Their critical importance and

benefits make conservatory efforts a necessity as human society makes a change into a more

environmentally-friendly approach to daily encounters. Continuous effort is a pivotal and

achievable component in the future protection of fundamental marine habitats like

reef-building corals.
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Corals in Subequitorial and Tropical Regions Powered by El Niños, Oceanic
Acidification, and Sea Level Rising–Results of Climate Change

References

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Extinction ... - Science.” One-Third of Reef-Building Corals Face Elevated Extinction

Risk from Climate Change and Local Impacts, Science,

https://www.science.org/doi/pdf/10.1126/science.1159196.

“Climate Change Indicators: Oceans.” (2022, 1 Aug.)Climate Change Indicators, Environmental

Protection Agency, https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/oceans.

“Climate Close-up: Coral Reefs.” (2005, 23 Dec.) Paleoclimatology:Climate Close-Up, NASA

Earth Observatory,

https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/Paleoclimatology_CloseUp/paleoclimatology_

closeup_2.php.

“Coral Bleaching and Ocean Acidification Are Two Climate-Related Impacts to Coral Reefs.”

(2011, 4 Apr. ) How Is Climate Change Affecting Coral Reefs?, National Marine

Sanctuaries,

https://floridakeys.noaa.gov/corals/climatethreat.html#:~:text=Ocean%20acidification%2

0slows%20the%20rate,storms%3B%20and%20altered%20ocean%20circulation.

“Coral Reefs and Climate Change.” (2021, Mar.) IUCN Issues Brief, IUCN,

https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-brief/coral-reefs-and-climate-change.

Fabricius, K.E., and E. Wolanski. (2002, 25 May) “Rapid Smothering of Coral Reef Organisms

by Muddy Marine Snow.” Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, Academic Press,

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0272771499905383.
An Investigation of the Bleaching, Smothering, and Decalcification of Reef-Building Takla 8
Corals in Subequitorial and Tropical Regions Powered by El Niños, Oceanic
Acidification, and Sea Level Rising–Results of Climate Change

Florian, Zandt. (2021) “Coral Reefs Are Dying. This Is Where They Are Most Affected.” The

Ocean: World Economic Forum,

https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/10/ecosystem-biggest-coral-reef-regions-climate-

change-world-ocean-asia.

Hoegh-Guldberg, O. (1999). Coral bleaching, climate change and the future of the world's coral

reefs. Mar. Freshw. Res. 50, 839–866. doi: 10.1071/MF99078

Hoegh-Guldberg, Ove, et al. (2017, 27 May)“Coral Reef Ecosystems under Climate Change and

Ocean Acidification.” Frontiers in Marine Science, Frontiers,

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2017.00158/full.

“How Does Climate Change Affect Coral Reefs?” (2015, 3 Mar.)National Ocean and

Atmospheric Administration, NOAA's National Ocean Service,

https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coralreef-climate.html.

Hurricanes: Friend or Foe to Coral Reefs?, (2012, 7 June) Florida Keys National Marine

Sanctuary,https://floridakeys.noaa.gov/whatsnew/around/2012/hurricanes.html#:~:text=T

he%20high%20winds%20of%20a,rubble%20during%20a%20severe%20storm.

Knuston, Tom. (2022)“Global Warming and Hurricanes.” Geophysical Fluid Dynamics

Laboratory, https://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/global-warming-and-hurricanes/.

Marsh, Jamie, and Hailey Zanga. “Coral Reef Colors.” A Students Guide to Tropical Marine

Biology, Keene State College Students,

https://pressbooks.pub/tropicalmarinebio/chapter/coral-reef-colors/#:~:text=Coral%20Pol
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Acidification, and Sea Level Rising–Results of Climate Change

yps&text=Millions%20of%20zooxanthellae%20live%20inside,corals%20get%20their%2

0beautiful%20colors.

“Pollution Can Smother Coral Reefs, Lower Water Quality, and Make Corals More Susceptible

to Disease.” (2011, 4 Apr.) How Does Pollution Impact Corals?, Florida Keys National

Marine Sanctuary,

https://floridakeys.noaa.gov/corals/pollution.html#:~:text=When%20sediment%20and%2

0other%20pollutants,food%20structures%20on%20the%20reef.

Reef, Ruth, et al. (2009, 25 Nov. ) “Coral Skeletons Defend against Ultraviolet Radiation.” PloS

One, U.S. National Library of Medicine,

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2776492/.

Singh, Ishveena. (2019) “How Satellite Imagery Is Being Used to Map Coral Reefs Worldwide.”

GeoAwesom, https://geoawesomeness.com/allen-coral-atlas-satellite-imagery-map-reefs/.

Treisman, Rachel. (2021, 5 Oct.)“A New Report Shows Just How Much Climate Change Is

Killing the World's Coral Reefs.” New Jersey Public Radio, NPR,

https://www.npr.org/2021/10/05/1043372978/global-coral-reef-loss-report-climate-chang

e-warming-oceans.
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Acidification, and Sea Level Rising–Results of Climate Change

Appendix:

Figure 1: Diagram depicting the various parameters influencing coral reefs as a result of
climate change such as thermal stress, sedimentation, frequency of storms, runoff,
current variations, and ocean acidification.

Figure 2: Coral skeletal rings/spirals are affected by

oceanic chemistry, tidal changes, UV exposure,
atmospheric changes, and many more factors.
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Corals in Subequitorial and Tropical Regions Powered by El Niños, Oceanic
Acidification, and Sea Level Rising–Results of Climate Change

Figure 3: The results of the Allen Coral Atlas new geographic tool which can gauge benthic
composition and zonation more accurately than in previous years.

Figure 4: Map of reef-building corals in tropical and subtropical regions. A significant

percentage of these coral habitats are being threatened as a result of climate change.