ELM Notes

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT
JUNIOR SECONDARY TEACHERS’ DIPLOMA COURSE
PREPARED BY JONATHAN PHIRI
BACHELLOR OF EDUCATION ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT

MWARONA COLLEGE OF EDUCATION (MCE)
TABLE OF CONTENT
YEAR ONE (TERM 1)
UNIT1: EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT……………………………………………005
UNIT2: EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION…………………………………………037
UNIT3: EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP……………………………………………….064
UNIT4: COMMUNICATION IN EDUCATION…………………………………………080
YEAR TWO (TERM 2)

UNIT 1: EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT……………………………………………096
UNIT 2: DELEGATION……………………………………………………………….…119
UNIT 3: PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL…………………………………………….…124
UNIT 4: TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT…………………………………………..135
YEAR 3 (TERM 3)
UNIT 1: EDUCATIONAL PLANNING………………………………………………...139
UNIT 2: CHANGE MANAGEMENT……………………………………………………147
UNIT 3: MANAGEMENT OF CONFLICT AND GRIEVANCES……………………..161
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP & MANAGEMENT Page 2

RATIONALE
The Educational Leadership and Management syllabus aims at equipping trainee teachers with
knowledge, skills and values in educational leadership, management including administration
which will enable them to become competent teachers at Junior Secondary School level.
AIM
This course aims at producing a junior secondary school teacher who is well grounded in
knowledge, skills and values in educational leadership, management including administration.
GENERAL OUTCOMES
1. Demonstrate ability to apply modern concepts, theories, approaches and strategies in
leadership and management.
2. Exhibit leadership and managerial knowledge, skills and values in education
3. Develop knowledge and skills in School monitoring and evaluation.
4. Develop skills in resolving conflicts and grievances in education
KEY COMPETENCES
1. Application of modern concepts, theories, approaches and strategies in educational leadership
and management
2. Application of efficient and effective leadership and managerial skills in education
3. Interpretation and implementation of educational statutes and policies
4. Interpretation of the organizational and administrative structures of the Ministry
Time Allocation for the course: 2 hours per week

ASSESSMENT
The overall score will be 100% comprising Continuous Assessment (CA) = 50% and
Examination (E) = 50%. For a candidate to be awarded a junior secondary teachers diploma,
he/she will be required to pass the following components of the programme.
Continuous Assessment (CA)
 2 Assignments (One in Term 1 and the other in Term 2) - 20%
 1 Test per Term (3 Tests in a year) - 30%

Promotion Examination (E) - 50%

UNIT 1: EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
Unit comes: student teachers are expected to
 Describe the elements of management

 Discuss the functions of a manager
 Evaluate the nature of management principles
 Identify the theories of Educational Management
 Discuss the theories of Educational Management
 Analyze the theories of Educational Management
 Distinguish between functions and roles of a manager
 Analyse Mintzberg’s model of managerial roles
1.1 Management process
Management is the organizational process that includes strategic planning, setting objectives,
managing resources, deploying the human and financial assets needed to achieve objectives, and
measuring results. Management also includes recording and storing facts and information for
later use or for others within the organization. Management functions are not limited to
managers and supervisors. Every member of the organization has some management and
reporting functions as part of their job.
A manager's job uniquely describes the functions of management, which are most commonly
cited as planning, organizing, leading, and controlling, although some managers' jobs identify
additional functions. The process of management is defined by the functions of management,
which are distinct from accounting, finance, marketing, and other business functions. These
functions provide a useful way of classifying information about management, and most basic
management texts since the 1950s have been organized around a functional framework.
Management process involves concepts of planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating,
controlling, staffing, and administering the functions and processes of organizations like schools.
- Planning; the manager should make the best possible forecast of event that may affect
the firm and should draw up plans to guide future decisions.
- Organizing; this managerial function determines the appropriate machines, materials and
human resources necessary to accomplish the planed courses of action.

- Commanding; this managerial function involves the manager‘s critical role to set a good
example and give appropriate direction to subordinates.
- Coordinating; includes activities that bind together all individual efforts and direct them
toward a common objective.
- Controlling; this means ensuring that actual activities are consistent with plans
1.2 Theories of Educational Management
Management theories
- A theory is a system of ideas intended to explain something.
- Management theories are a set of general values that guide the managers to manage the
organization.
- Theories are explanations to assist employees to effectively relate to the business goals
and implement the same (goal/task).
The four types of management theories;

a). Theory of Scientific Management by Frederick Taylor (1856-1915)
b). Administrative Management theory by Henri Fayol (1841-25)
c). Bureaucracy theory of Management by Max Weber (1864-1920)
d). Behavioral theory of management by Elton Mayo (1880-1949)
Theory of Scientific Management
Scientific management is a system analytical of work which originated in the U.S.A. around
1900. The objective of this study was to find the most efficient method of performing any task
and so train workers in that method. Fredrick Winslow Taylor (1856 – 1926) is known as the
fathers of scientific management. Taylor had a simple view about what motivated people at work
―money‖. He felt that workers should get a fair day‘s pay for a fair day‘s work, and that pay
should be linked to the amount produced. Thus he introduced the differential peace system of
paying wages. In short, he thought an organization should exist for the purpose of formal

structure. He pressed emphasis on the planning of the work on technical means. F.W. Taylor
points the following principles of scientific management.
a) Time-study Principle: All productive effort should be measured by accurate time study
and a standard time established for all work done on the shop. Time and motion study is
vital.
b) Scientific-methods-of-work-principle: Management should take-over from the workers,

the responsibility for their methods and train workers accordingly. In other words,
scientifically select and then train, teach and develop the worker.
c) Friendly close cooperation between management and workers. This ensures that all work
is being done is accordance with the new methods. In simple terms, interest of employer
and employees should be fully harmonized so as to secure mutual understanding relations
between them.
d) Work is divided almost equally between management and workers. Separation-of-

planning from-performance principle: Management should take over from the workers
the responsibility for planning the work, and making the performance physically possible.
Planning should be based on time studies and other data related to production, which are
scientifically determined and systematically classified; it should be facilitated by
standardization of tools, implements, and method.
e) Piece-rate Principle: Wages should be proportional to output and their rates based o n the
standard s determined b y time stud y. As a corollary, worker should be given the highest
grade of work, which he is capable. Standard conditions are needed to ensure the task is
more easily accomplished. Establishing fair levels of performance and pay a premium
salary.
f) Functional-Management Principle: The strict application of military principles should be

considered and the industrial organization should be so designed that it best serves the
purpose of improving the coordination of activities among the various specialist.
Implications of Scientific Management Ideas to the Educational System
The implications of Taylor's ideas of management for educators are worth considering. In trying
to emphasize productivity, Taylor and his associate tend to reduce human beings into rational
machine. In a way this action could be a barrier to innovation and the development of one's

skills. The implication of this mechanistic approach to work in schools is that the work of the
teacher will have to be reutilized. Thus the teacher cannot deviate from his prepared lesson notes
to teach or demonstrate other important issues that would have been useful to the students.
Definitely this makes the work of the teacher boring and unexciting. Even in our ministries of
education various approaches or methods are applied in solving different issues or problems,
which would also make Taylor's mechanistic and standardized approach to management difficult
to operate. Also the piece rate principle in being applied many organizations inclusive Mwarona
college of education that divides wage payment system from the full-time lecturers to part time
lecturers.
FW Taylor concentrated on means of increasing productivity not only to increase profits but also
to raise workers‘ pay. He found out that workshop productivity was poor because neither worker
knows what constitutes ‗a fair day‘s work‘. His principles were based on the best method of
doing jobs (he was concerned with techniques). He further stresses that the relationship between
employees and workforce form the most important part of this art of scientific management.
Effective control over performance, the definition of responsibility and effective selection and
training are key factors in maximizing efficiency.
Administrative Management theory
Henri Fayol (1841 – 1925)

The administrative management theory was founded by Henri Fayol (1841-1925). He is a
classical theorist. He came up with the fourteen principles of management. The principles are
categorized in three groups as shown below
A. HUMAN RELATIONS
1. Subordination of individual interest to general interest - This means that individuals

and small groups within the overall school organization should make their need
secondary to those of the school. It is also necessary for the firm to place its interests
second to those of the society in which it operates.
2. Equity or fair play - Loyalty and devotion should be elicited from personnel by a
combination of kindness and justice on the part of the superiors when dealing with
subordinates.

3. Stability of tenure of personnel - This relates to unnecessary staff turn-over which, in

most cases, is due to bad management. Its dangers and costs need to be minimized even
though in some cases it may be inevitable. For example, old age, ill health, retirement,
death which disturbs the human make-up of the firm.
4. Initiative (Workers participation) - This is the thinking out and execution of a plan since
it is one of the keenest satisfactions for an intelligent man to experience. Fayol exhort
Superiors as to sacrifice personal vanity in order to permit subordinates to exercise it.
This principle allows workers to participate in solving of problems and in the running of
the organization. It encourages and enables workers to see their idea carried through to
a successful conclusion or an end result.
5. E’spirit de corps (Spirit of cooperation; team spirit) - This principle signifies that
employees should work as a team and management should not use ‗divide and rule‘
method. Instead Management's task should be to unify divergent groups and individuals.
B. PRODUCTION EFFICIENCY
6. Division of Labor - The main principle for production efficiency is division of labor
(work). This principle is similar to the principle of Charles Babbage presented in ―and the
division of labor‖ where the job is broken down in to its component parts on the basis of
skills required.
Fayol stated the reasons for dividing work and created groups of specialists as:
(i) Increased skill (Learning time reduced)
(ii) Increased efficiency and time loss reduced
(iii) Development of specialized tools.
 The principle applies to all levels of management and emphasis on the production process
with a desire to increase efficiency.

C. ADMINISTRATION
 These principles here deal with the problems of ‗top‘ management ‗administration‘ the
direction of day to day operations and organizations.
7. Authority and Responsibility - Authority which is the right to command should always
be equal to responsibility, which is the obligation or daily to carry out assigned tasks.
8. Discipline - This is respect exhibited by all members of an organization towards the

written policies governing their conduct in the firm. This requires obedience diligence
and a proper attitude on the part of employees and effective leadership on the part of
managers. Good discipline can be achieved by having all agreements/policies between
the school organization and the employed teachers in a clear and fair way.
9. Unity of Command - This principle expresses that orders should originate from one
source only. This implies that channels of communication and that only one superior can
issue orders.
10. Unity of Direction - Workers should observe the right for every plan, there should be an
objective and manager who is responsive for overall direction. Each group of activities
with the same objective must have one head and one plan. The principle refers to the
organization of the body corporate rather than the personnel.
11. Scalar chain (Hierarchy; line of authority) - There should be a clear cut chain of
command running from the top of the organization to the bottom.
12. a). Centralization of authority - This refers to the extent to which concentrated or
dispersed. This means authority has been placed in the hands of a supervisor thus
reducing the authority and responsibility of subordinates.
b). Decentralization of authority - This means increasing responsibilities and authority at
lower levels to make decisions. The desired level depends on the situation nature of the
organization, problem of the department at hand, capabilities of the subordinates in
question.

13. Remuneration of the staff - All staff members should receive compensation that is fair
and motivates them to do good work. The wages paid to employees should be satisfactory
both to the employees and the employer. The method of payment used should be the one
that works out best for the particular situation.
14. Order - This means that a place for everything and everything in its place. This principle
applies to the human elements in an organization. An application of this principle can be
seen by designing an organization chart which shows the place of every person in the
place of every person in the organization and the relationship of each other.
Implications on education
Fayol's fourteen Principles of Management in learning institution
Management prescribed certain strategies for structuring behaviors in organizational life in order
to achieve efficiency and effectiveness. Fayol formulated fourteen principles of management as
follows:
Division of Work: Division of work or specialization increases productivity in the school. The
more skilled the labor and management the higher productivity, because one can work at
activities in which he is most capable. Both technical and managerial skills are required for
efficient performance of organizational duties and this can be achieved through specialization.
Authority and Responsibility: Authority connotes the right to give orders. Authority is therefore
required to control the behavior of the members of staff in the institution, for example, here at
Mwarona, we have the head of academic affairs or all departments whom regarding issues
concerning education affairs is supposed to be approached first before approaching the direct of
the school or the school principle.
These principles of management can be applied in any educational institution even today.
Behavioral theory of management by Elton Mayo
- It is also called the Human Relationship Theory
The turning point in the development of Human relation theory came with the famous
Hawthorne experiments at the Western Electric Company in America (1924-1932) and the
subsequent publication of the research findings. The interpretation of the Hawthorne experiments
generated new ideas concerning the importance of work groups and leadership, communication,
output restrictions, motivation and job design. The theory places much emphasis on the
importance of personnel management, increasing production by rationalization of the work

organization as are the case with the classical approach. It also recognizes the importance of the
formal organizations which will always be present within the formal structure.
Simply, Elton Mayo experiment showed an increase in worker productivity was produced by the
psychological stimulus of being singled out, involved and made to fact important. Hawthorne
effect can be summarized as employees will respond positively to earn change in work
environment, for example, better clean stations, safety boots, etc. Employees are more
productive when they are being studied.
The result showed among other that:
1. Group and individual behaviors were important.

2. Attention should be focused on the supervisory climate and the type of supervision.
3. Informal relationship among workers was discovered
4. Democratic approaches, involvement and participation in the decision-making process
were found to enhance cohesive work groups.
5. Group cohesion, collaboration and the dynamics of the informal organizations were also
revealed. We can therefore recognize two important impacts of the human relations
movement on Educational Administration:
a. Increasing efforts to democratize the practice of educational administration
b. There was growing emphasis on the utilization of concepts from the social sciences such
as anthropology, psychology, sociology and the behavioral elements of economics and
political science.
Five ideas or notions can be derived from the human relations movement:
1. Educational administrators should promote relationships between organizational

members for mutual satisfaction. It is believed that improved teaching and learning is
contingent on high staff morale and harmony.
2. Educational administration should be seen as a service activity that contributes to
effective instructional programs; as a means and not an end in itself.
3. There should be increased emphasis among administrators for participative decision-
making.
4. Within groups, there are identifiable informal subgroups.
5. Groups tend to confer leadership on individuals.
The Human Relations Movement therefore ushered in the era of more democratic and
participative style of administration. Administration sought to attend to the well-being of the
workers and recognized informal relationship as a strategy for the achievement of organizational
goals. New concepts like morale, group dynamics, democratic supervision, personal relations

and behavioral concepts of motivation were integrated into school administration. It therefore
brought about the humanization of management and a sense of flexibility in a bureaucratic
enterprise like the school.
Bureaucracy theory of management

Bureaucracy Definition & Introduction
- According to Gideon‘s (1993) bureaucracy ―is a rule of officials‖.

- Another definition is that it is a type of organization desired to achieve large scale
administration tasks by conducting the work of several individuals in a systematic
function.
- It is a system of government in which most government decisions are taken by the state
officials rather than by electro representatives.
- Bureaucracy is a rule conducted from a desk or an office e.g. by the preparation and
dispatch of written documents or their electronic equivalent in the office.
Bureaucracy is associated with Max Weber, a German Sociologist who studied organizational
structures. He was concerned with the distribution of power among the organizational positions
such as social units most suited for national modern organizations.
Weber made a distinction between authority and power.
He believed that there are three types of power (tradition, charismatic and legal).
Weber constructed an ideal type of bureaucracy and came up with characteristics of bureaucracy
Main Characteristics of Bureaucracies
Weber did not actually define bureaucracy but did attempt to identify the main characteristics of
this type of organization. He emphasized the importance of administration based on expertise
(rules of experts) and administration based on discipline (rules of officials).
 The tasks of the organization are allocated as official duties among the various positions.
 There is an implied clear-cut division of labor and a high level of specialization.
 A hierarchical authority applies to the organization of offices and positions.
 Uniformity of decisions and actions is achieved through formally established systems of

rules and regulations. Together with a structure of authority, this enables the
coordination of various activities within the organization.

 An impersonal orientation is expected from officials in their dealings with clients and
other officials. This is designed to result in rational judgments by officials in the
performance of their duties.
 Employment by the organization is based on technical qualifications and constitutes a

life-long career for the officials.
Principles of Bureaucracy
 Specialization: This applies more to the job than to the person undertaking the job. This
makes for continuity because the job usually continues if the present job-holder leaves.
 Hierarchy of authority: This makes for a sharp distinction because administrators and
the administered, or between management and workers. Within the management ranks
there are clearly defined levels of authority. This detailed and precise stratification is
particularly marked in the armed forces and in the civil service.
 Systems of rules: This aims to provide for an efficient and impersonal operation. The
system of rules is generally stable, although some rules may be changed or modified with
time. Knowledge of the rules is a requisite of holding a job in a bureaucracy.
 Impersonality: This means that allocation of privileges and the exercise of authority
should not be arbitrary, but in accordance with the laid-down system of rules. In more
highly developed bureaucracies there tend to be carefully defined procedures for
appealing against certain types of decisions. The characteristics of impersonality are the
principle of bureaucracy which most distinguishes it from other types of organizations. A
bureaucracy should not be only be impersonal but be seen to be impersonal.
Criticisms of bureaucracy
Weber‘s concept of bureaucracy has a number of disadvantages and has been subject to
severe criticisms. Some of these criticisms include;
 The over-emphasis on rules and procedures, record keeping and paperwork may
become more important in its own right than as a means to an end.
 Officials may develop a dependence upon bureaucratic status, symbols and rules.

 Initiative may be shifted and when a situation is not covered by a complete set of
rules or procedures, there is a lack of flexibility or adaptation to changing
circumstances.
 Positions and responsibilities in the organization can lead to officious bureaucratic

behavior. There may also be a tendency to conceal administrative procedures from
outside.
 Impersonal relations can lead to stereotyped behavior and a lack of responsiveness to

individual incidents or problems.
Advantages of Bureaucracy
a) The rules and regulations bring about uniformity on discipline in an organization.
b) To some extent the procedures of a bureaucracy are of advantage in the education system
because of the routine procedures found in education e.g. assembly for pupils.
c) It‘s easy to keep records and files because information is written down.
d) A hierarchy of authority promotes order and discipline.
Disadvantages of Bureaucracy
a) It is so traditional and an old system. It tends to resist change and easily become self-
rigidifying and counteract its own purposes.
b) Bureaucracy dislikes deviation; it is based on the assumption of one ―best way‖ of

dealing with problems.
c) Authority is so dominant that most managers are protective of their territory and allow no
individuals to intrude on to it and also they become indispensable, as they are able to
hinder the whole process by withdrawing their goodness when it suits them.
d) There‘s a tendency of departments and units to concentrate on building themselves up

which is called ―empire building‖ even when it is not necessary to build them up. As a
result information does not flow freely to individuals who are outside the department.

 There are also a lot of complications in terms of responsibility. It is often difficult to

know who is supposed to do what and why one is doing something, as a result the
client is not served well.
Implications of Bureaucracy in the School System
The school is established by the society to educate its ones. The school system is characterized
by clear hierarchy of authority in terms of principal – staff – students relationship. It is therefore
characterized by strict rules and regulations. Although, the bureaucratic principles may infuse
rationality and organized procedures into the school system, strict adherence to bureaucratic
principles may adversely affect the efficiency of the system. Since the school is a social system
and service organization, it cannot afford to operate a close system. Thus, the application of
impersonality attributes has to be done with caution. Again, since the school deals mainly with
the production of human goods which are subject to individual differences, the bureaucratic
tenets have been found to be too-rigid-based on rational rules and regulations. The school system
has to be dynamic and flexible.
1.3 Mintzberg role of management
Management functions
- managers are involved in four main functions that form the basis of this text. These are
planning, organizing, commanding and controlling.
Planning; managers have to plan what they want to accomplish and develop specific actions
in order to reach those goals.
Organizing; managers must figure out how many people are needed to get the jobs and tasks
done. They also determine how the job flow happens (who does what). Generally,
we talk about what kind of structure will be put in place to get these tasks done.
Commanding; this managerial function involves the manager‘s critical role to set a good
example and give appropriate direction to subordinates.
Controlling; managers must monitor what‘s going on in their area, to make sure that the goals
or objectives are going to be met. If the goals are not going to be met, then corrective
action can be taken.
The earlier the corrective action is taken, the easier it is to correct.

Management roles
One of the most important pieces of research into the job of a manager comes from Henry
Mintzberg. He is a Canadian academic researcher who has studied management for years. He
believes that a manager‘s work is never really done!
He was the person who categorized the various roles that a manager plays in the organization.
The roles of manager are grouped into three categories, which include interpersonal,
informational and decisional roles.
Mintzberg managerial roles
The sub topic introduces the students to the ten aspects of management as outlined by
Mintzberg‘s model and how they are categorized into three (interpersonal, informational and
decisional), how students use the ideas to manage learning institutions.
- Interpersonal role- (figurehead, leader, liaison)
- Informational role- (monitor, disseminator, spokesperson)
- Decisional role- (resource allocation, negotiator, disturbance handler and entrepreneur)
Minzberg's research indicated that all managers had a similar range of roles, irrespective of their
position in the management hierarchy. However, he did note that their relative importance varied
with position. Indeed, there would appear to be different emphases on different roles within each
of the three general role areas:
- In the interpersonal role area, the role of figurehead tends to be more important at the
senior levels of management, reflecting the greater positional power and weight often
necessary for such duties. By contrast, the leader role is central to supervisors, reflecting
their greater involvement in ensuring the smooth operation of staff relationships.
- In the area of informational roles, again the spokesperson role is more predominant at
the higher levels, for the same reasons as for the figurehead role.
- As far as decisional roles are concerned, it is interesting to note that the entrepreneur role
is seen as equally important throughout the hierarchy. However, there is a clear
differentiation between those of disturbance handler, which is emphasized at the lower
levels (where more, although not necessarily more important, problems arise), and
resource allocator which, by its very nature, is seen more at the middle and senior levels
of management.

These roles can be summarized in the table below;
CATEGORY ROLE ACTIVITY

Informational Monitor Look for and receive information, review papers and
reports, maintain interpersonal contacts and networks.
Disseminator Pass information on to others by phone, in meetings,
memos.
Spokesperson Represent the area or organization to people outside the
area or organization in speeches and reports. Deal with the
media. Make presentations professional or community
events.
Interpersonal Figurehead Perform ceremonial and symbolic duties inside the
organization, receive visitors. Give presentations/awards to
employees.
Leader Supervise direct subordinates, including recruiting,
selecting, motivating, training and leading them.
Liaison Be the conduit (the in-between person) for information
flowing in and out of the organization.
Decisional Entrepreneur Initiate change. Plan new projects, spot opportunities,
identify areas of business development.
Disturbance Take corrective action during crises or operational
handler breakdowns, resolve conflicts amongst staff, adapt to
external changes.
Resource Decide who gets resources, sets the schedule, budget, set
allocator priorities
Negotiator Represent department during negotiations with unions,
suppliers, and generally defend interests.
1.4 Decision making
Decision Making
- Decision is choice made from available alternatives while decision making is a
process of identifying problems and opportunities and then resolving them.
- Individuals at all levels and in all areas of organizations make decisions. They make
choices from two or more alternatives.
- Decision making is particularly cardinal in every aspect of school managers‘ job
because functions which include planning, organizing, staffing, leading and
controlling all involved in decision making.

- Procrastination, the delay by the school management to make decisions can lead to
worse problems.
Implementation
- Implementation involves the conveying of the decisions to the people affected by it.
- The people affected by the decision are more likely to support its implementation if at
all they participated in decision making process than they are just told what to do.
- The real implementers of the decision are workers, hence the need for administrators
to use tools such as delegation, meetings and committees to ensure full participation
in decision making.
- Participants view the outcomes as ours rather than theirs. This helps the
implementation of the decision.
Variations of Decision Making
i. Procrastinators
These people fail to make decisions at the appropriate time and say‘s let us sleepover it,
while pupils are planning a demonstration.
ii. Vacillators
These people make decisions which do not stand a test of time.
iii. Fence –sitters
These people look at and see things happening in the organization. They do not want to take
risks hence do not take part in decision making.

iv. Professors.
These want all the evidence. The evidence comes from members of their standing.
v. Pipe-smokers.
These do not want to think of the problem seriously hence, they relax and choose to do
nothing. The problems will solve themselves.
vi. Impetus.
They are in a hurry in making decisions. There is little concern for facts, feelings and
finances.
Different types of decision making
 NOTE: Decisions maybe classified or categorized in many ways such as by the

organizational level and the degree of structure to the decision
a. Structured decisions
Decisions that occur frequently, they are routine e.g. assemblies at school where you
make announcements, they are definite procedures of handling them.
b. Semi structured decisions

Where only part of the problem has a clear answer, it is not obvious you don‘t know
what will happen next, the outcome of the decision.
c. Unstructured decisions
These involve complex decisions, where the rules governing the decisions are
complicated or unknown, such decisions tend to be made infrequent and rely heavily
on experience, judgement and knowledge of the decision maker.

This is another way the types of decision making can be classified
i. single or individual
 When the school manager determines the cause of action for the destiny of the school.
This decision making is not desirable because others members are passengers.
ii. The minority decision
 When management makes a decision on behalf of the organization. This is top

management which includes the head, deputy head, and heads of departments then
makes a decision on behalf of other members such as teachers, support staff and
students.
iii. Majority decision
 It is democratic because many people are involved in decision making, hence it is

more acceptable than the individual decision.
iv. Consensus decisions
 Participation through talking and agreeing with the decisions. It tends to reduce
conflict.
v. Unanimity decision.
 All agree with the decision made and accept any action.

Barriers to decision
 Tunnel vision.
Taking a narrow perspective especially when you are about to make a decision.
 Inability to handle complexities‘.

Being unable to cope with different types of information at the same time
 Lack of discipline
Not being logical in your thinking. You must have discipline in order to enforce your
decision.
 Lack of creative capacity.
-Unable to generate new ideas, options and alternative paths. Must think of other
possibilities
 Casual evaluation
Failing to assess, must thoroughly assess the strength and weaknesses.
 Indecision.
Avoiding taking a stand- ‗not making a decision is making a decision‘ indecision is the
worst part of management.
Successful decision maker
 Are very clear about objectives.

 Are good listeners‘ and time managers.
 Consider all possible options.
 Consult all those affected by the decision.
 Are flexible before making the decision and firm after the decisions are made.
Decision making process
Decision-making processes involve a series of complex interactions of events. These interactions

will be discussed in detail below in the following stage:

Stage 1: Study carefully the existing situation. An intelligent administrator is always studying
his environment to see what is going wrong and what is being done right. He has to study his
staff. The school head needs to be constantly aware of what is happening in the school. This
requires him to know quite a lot about student's affairs teachers‘ activities and welfare, parents'
opinions about the school and so on.
Specifically, he needs to know such things as students' performance in their studies, teachers
performance in their teaching assignment, availability of teaching aids, catering services in the
school, school discipline and school community relations. It is only when the administrator is
acquainted with the situation himself that he can be in a position to detect problems or
difficulties, which require decisions to be made.
Stage 2: Recognize and define the problem. All decision-making begins with the identification
of the problem in the organization. Once a difficulty or an undesirable situation in the system has
been identified, we can start to think about rectifying the situation or solving the problem. Thus
an effective administrator is always sensitive to organizational actions or behaviors that do not
measure up to the prescribed standards. This means that the administrator must constantly be
alert to issues or situation that might become problems in order to adopt a course of action that
will prevent the problems from developing. The recognition and understanding of the problem
are therefore crucial to the process of decision-making. The way a problem is understood has
immense importance in subsequent analysis and solution. For staff or society as a whole.
Therefore the school administrator has to approach indiscipline with a clear understanding of the
problem.
Stage 3: examine the detailed make-up of the problem in the existing situation. Here
however the administrator has to classify the problem. This means that he has to decide whether
the problem is really unusual or whether it is a new development of a typical difficulty for which
an action pattern has already been developed. More often than not the organization normally
establishes mechanism and procedure for dealing with many problems which can easily be found
in the use of existing school regulations.
Precisely the administrator needs to know the jurisdiction of the problem, that is to say, is the
problem within his ability or has it been left to the board of governors to solve? For instance, if a
school administrator expels a student from the school, will he be willing to accept the
responsibility for the decision? If a decision is not within the jurisdiction or capacity of the
administrator to take it will be better not to take it at all.
Stage 4: decide on the criteria for resolving the problem: when we have finished describing,
analyzing and specifying the problem, then as decision makers, we must decide on what
constitutes an acceptable resolution. What are the criteria for the acceptability of a decision? In
other words, on that variables, or factors will you base your decisions? Are these variables

acceptable to your staff members? What are the minimum objectives to be achieved? What is
good enough? It is advisable for the decision-makers to rank the criteria with their possible
outcome along a continuum from minimally satisfying to maximally satisfying. As a general
rule, the criteria we use to judge the decision must be consistent with our organizational goals
(i.e. school rules and regulations).
Stage 5: develop a plan of action. This stage is to identify the alternative methods available for
tackling the problem, evaluating the cost and consequences of each alternative and selecting the
one offering the most advantageous combination of cost and consequences. What are the
different things that I can do? How much will each cost? What are likely to be the result? Which
should I choose as the best? The administrator develops his plan of action basing it on a
simplified picture of reality. That is., he chooses the factors that he regards as most relevant and
crucial, he is able to come to general conclusions and then take action.
Stage 6: initiate the plan of action. Stage 6 is complementation: that is establishing an

organization to carry out the policy, programme or decision chosen. Allocating resources to it,
and motivating people to carry it out. The other thing we do in the implementation stage is to
establish controls to monitor the performance of the plan, evaluate its degree of achievement and
determine the reasons for any deviation from expected consequences.
The Process of Decision-Making in a school
Decision-making processes involve a series of complex interactions of events. These interactions

will be discussed in detail below in the following stage:
Stage 1: Study carefully the existing situation. An intelligent administrator is always studying
his environment to see what is going wrong and what is being done right. He has to study his
staff. The school head needs to be constantly aware of what is happening in the school. This
requires him to know quite a lot about student's affairs teachers activities and welfare, parents'
opinions about the school and so on. Specifically, he needs to know such things as students'
performance in their studies, teachers performance in their teaching assignment, availability of
teaching aids, catering services in the school, school discipline and school community relations.
It is only when the administrator is acquainted with the situation himself that he can be in a
position to detect problems or difficulties, which require decisions to be made.
Stage 2: Recognize and define the problem. All decision-making begins with the identification
of the problem in the organization. Once a difficulty or an undesirable situation in the system has
been identified, we can start to think about rectifying the situation or solving the problem. Thus
an effective administrator is always sensitive to organizational actions or behaviors that do not
measure up to the prescribed standards. This means that the administrator must constantly be

alert to issues or situation that might become problems in order to adopt a course of action that
will prevent the problems from developing. The recognition and understanding of the problem
are therefore crucial to the process of decision-making. The way a problem is understood has
immense importance in subsequent analysis and solution. For staff or society as a whole.
Therefore the school administrator has to approach indiscipline with a clear understanding of the
problem.
Stage 3: examine the detailed make-up of the problem in the existing situation. Here
however the administrator has to classify the problem. This means that he has to decide whether
the problem is really unusual or whether it is a new development of a typical difficulty for which
an action pattern has already been developed. More often than not the organization normally
establishes mechanism and procedure for dealing with many problems which can easily be found
in the use of existing school regulations. Precisely the administrator needs to know the
jurisdiction of the problem, that is to say, is the problem within his ability or has it been left to
the board of governors to solve? For instance, if a school administrator expels a student from the
school will he be willing to accept the responsibility for the decision? If a decision is not within
the jurisdiction or capacity of the administrator to take it will be better not to take it at all.
Stage 4: decide on the criteria for resolving the problem: when we have finished describing,
analyzing and specifying the problem, then as decision makers, we must decide on what
constitutes an acceptable resolution. What are the criteria for the acceptability of a decision? In
other words, on that variables, or factors will you base your decisions? Are these variables
acceptable to your staff members? What are the minimum objectives to be achieved? What is
good enough?
It is advisable for the decision-makers to rank the criteria with their possible outcome along a
continuum from minimally satisfying to maximally satisfying. As a general rule, the criteria we
use to judge the decision must be consistent with our organizational goals (i.e. school rules and
regulations).
Stage 5: develop a plan of action. This stage is to identify the alternative methods available for
tackling the problem, evaluating the cost and consequences of each alternative and selecting the
one offering the most advantageous combination of cost and consequences. What are the
different things that I can do? How much will each cost? What are likely to be the result? Which
should I choose as the best? The administrator develops his plan of action basing it on a
simplified picture of reality. That is., he chooses the factors that he regards as most relevant and
crucial, he is able to come to general conclusions and then take action.
Stage 6: initiate the plan of action. Stage 6 is complementation: that is establishing an

organization to carry out the policy, programme or decision chosen. Allocating resources to it,
and motivating people to carry it out. The other thing we do in the implementation stage is to

establish controls to monitor the performance of the plan, evaluate its degree of achievement and
determine the reasons for any deviation from expected consequences. Reasons for the success or
failure hay' e to be identified. If the decision has been a failure, then corrective action must be
taken.
- Decision-making has become such a crucial test of administrative effectiveness that the
success of administrators is judged by the soundness and appropriateness of their
decisions.
Summarized presentation of decision making process
1. Identification of a problem
2. Identification of decision criteria
3. Allocation of weight criteria
4. Development of alternatives
5. Analyze of alternatives.
6. Selection of alternatives.
7. Implementation of the alternative.
8. Evaluation of the decision effectiveness
Benefits of quality decisions
1. Winning confidence/trust of subordinates and other stakeholders

2. There is effective achievement of goal/ objectives
3. Minimised conflict in the work place
4. Enhanced promotional prospects
5. Enhanced self-confidence and self-motivation
6. Gives individual pride and satisfaction
7. Catalyst for team work and cooperation among workers.
8. Justified expenditure or certain programmes and projects.

Brainstorming Model
- Brainstorming is a group activity technique. It is designed to generate lots of ideas for

solution of a problem. The underlying principle is that the greater the number of ideas
generated, the possibility that a quality solution will be found.
- Brainstorming is a commonly used tool by academics researchers and business teams.
- It is a technique, generally used in a group setting, to quickly generate a large number of

ideas about a specific problem or topic. It can help you:
 Encourage creative thinking and generate enthusiasm

 Encourage participation and building on the ideas of others
 Avoid the "paralysis of analysis" by not evaluating ideas
There are four basic rules in brainstorming.
a. Focus on quantity: If lots of ideas are generated it will be easy to produce a radical and
effective solution.
b. Reserve criticism: Don‘t comment on any ideas.First accept all,at a later stage judge.
c. Welcome uniusual ideas: To get a good and long list of ideas,unusual ideas are welcomed.
d. Combine and improve ideas: Good ideas may be combined to form a single better idea.
How to do it:
The goal of brainstorming is to generate ideas. Before you start, make sure everyone in your
group understands the importance of postponing judgments until after the brainstorming session
is completed.
- Write the problem or topic on a blackboard or flipchart where all participants can see it
- Write all ideas on the board and do as little editing as possible
- Number each idea for future reference
- There are several brainstorming techniques: structured brainstorming, free-form

brainstorming, or silent brainstorming

In structured brainstorming (One-at-a-time method):
 Solicit one idea from each person in sequence

 Participants who do not have an idea at the moment may say .pass.
 A complete round of passes ends the brainstorming session
 The advantage of structured brainstorming is that each person has an equal chance to
participate, regardless of rank or personality
 The disadvantage of structured brainstorming is that it lacks spontaneity and can
sometimes feel rigid and restrictive
In unstructured (or Open-door) brainstorming:
 Participants simply contribute ideas as they come to mind.

 The advantage of free-form brainstorming is that participants can build off each other‘s
ideas. The atmosphere is very relaxed.
 The disadvantage of free-form brainstorming is that the less assertive or lower ranking
participants may not contribute.
-NOTE; an ideal approach is to combine these two methods. Begin the session with a few
rounds of structured brainstorming and finish up with a period of unstructured brainstorming.
In silent (or Write-it-down) brainstorming:
 Have participants write ideas individually on sticky-back notes or small slips of paper.
 Collect the papers and post them for all to see.
 The advantage of silent brainstorming is that it prevents individuals from making
disruptive .analysis. Comments during the brainstorming session and provides
confidentiality. It can help prevent a group from being unduly influenced by a single
participant or common flow of ideas.
 The disadvantage of silent brainstorming is that the group loses the synergy that comes
from an open session.
-NOTE; Silent brainstorming is best used in combination with other brainstorming techniques.

- The result of a brainstorming session is a list of ideas. If this list is too long, the group
can boil it down using one of the decision-making tools such as SWOT analysis or
SMART.
Advantages
* Many ideas can be generated in a short time.

* Requires few material resources.
* The results can be used immediately or for possible use in other projects.
* Is a ―democratic‖ way of generating ideas.
* The concept of brainstorming is easy to understand.
Disadvantage
* Requires an experienced and sensitive faciliator who understands the social psychology of
small groups.
* Requires a dedication to quantity rather than quality.
Shy people can have difficulties in participating.
* May not be appropriate for some business or international cultures.
Points to remember about Brainstorming:
Never judge ideas as they are generated. The goal of brainstorming is to generate a lot of ideas in
a short time. Analysis of these ideas is a separate process, to be done later.
Do not quit at the first lull. All brainstorming sessions reach lulls, which are uncomfortable for
the participants. Research indicates that most of the best ideas occur during the last part of a
session. Try to encourage the group to push through at least two or three lulls.
Try to write down all of the ideas exactly as they were presented. When you condense an idea to
one or two words for ease of recording, you are doing analysis. Analysis should be done later.

Encourage outrageous ideas. While these ideas may not be practical, they may start a flow of
creative ideas that can be used. This can help you break through a lull.
Try to have a diverse group. Involve process owners, customers, and suppliers to obtain a diverse
set of ideas from several perspectives.
Delphi model/technique
The Delphi method is a structured communication technique or method, originally developed as

a systematic, interactive forecasting method which relies on a panel of experts. The experts
answer questionnaires in two or more rounds. The Delphi technique was developed at the Rand
Corporation in the 1950s, it is a widely used and accepted method for achieving convergence of
opinion concerning real-world knowledge solicited from experts within certain topic areas.
Predicated on the rationale that, ―two heads are better than one, or...n heads are better than one‖.
The Delphi technique is designed as a group communication process that aims at conducting
detailed examinations and discussions of a specific issue for the purpose of goal setting, policy
investigation, or predicting the occurrence of future events. Common surveys try to identify
―what is,‖ whereas the Delphi technique attempts to address ―what could/should be‖ (Miller,
2006).
In the literature, Delphi has been applied in various fields such as program planning, needs
assessment, policy determination, and resource utilization in schools. Delbecq, Van de Ven, and
Gustafson (1975) specifically indicate that the Delphi technique can be used for achieving the
following objectives:
1. To determine or develop a range of possible program alternatives;

2. To explore or expose underlying assumptions or information leading to different
judgments;
3. To seek out information which may generate a consensus on the part of the respondent
group;
4. To correlate informed judgments on a topic spanning a wide range of disciplines, and;
5. To educate the respondent group as to the diverse and interrelated aspects of the topic (p.
11).
- Managers in organizations often need to take decisions based on consensus. They need team
members to discuss, debate, and decide on a mutually agreeable conclusion. Though group
decision making is a powerful tool, it has its disadvantages

Vital points under the Delphi Technique (DT)
 This is a qualitative technique of decision making forecasting.

 The objective of the Delphi technique is to predict future situations by integrating the
independent opinions by experts. The DT provides a systematic method of eliciting
the opinion of experts.
 It eliminates committee activity among the experts all together and replaces it with a
carefully designed program of sequential individual interrogations.
 The main objective of DT is to avoid direct confrontation of experts.
 The lack of direct confrontations is accomplished by having an intermediary provide
the experts with a sequential series of questions concerning the forecasting along with
the control written feedback to each experts.
 While it has limitations, the DT eliminates the psychological problems involved when
working in a group, it eliminates persuasion by others with authority and power an
inclusion to close one‘s mind, and abiding by the majority opinion.
 The Delphi technique appears to be a highly useful in generating preliminary insights
into highly unstructured or undeveloped subject areas such as manpower planning.
.
The Administrative Model (Bounded Rationality Model or Administrative Man Model)
- It is a satisfying strategy. The complexity of most organizational problems and the

limited capacity of the human mind make it virtually impossible to use an optimizing
strategy on any but the simplest problems. Herbert Simon (1974) was first to introduce
the strategy of satisfying (searching for satisfactory; alternatives rather than optimal
ones). This is a situation whereby there is a reliance on both theory and experience in
decision making. Decision making involves the achievement of a goal.
- Herbert A. Simon defines rationality in terms of objective and intelligent action. It is
characterized by behavioral nexus between ends and means. If appropriate means are
chosen to reach desired ends the decision is rational.
- Rationality demands that the decision maker should properly understand the alternative
courses of action for reaching the goals.
- He should also have full information and the ability to analyze properly various
alternative courses of action in the light of goals sought.
- There should be a desire to select the best solutions by selecting the alternative which
will satisfy the goal achievement.

- Bounded by rationality model is based on the concept developed by Herbert Simon. This
model does not assume individual rationality in the decision process.
- It is an optimizing strategy. It assures that decisions should be completely rational; it

employs an optimizing strategy by seeking the best possible alternative to maximize the
achievement of goals and objectives. Instead, it assumes that people, while they may seek the
best solution, normally settle for much less, because the decisions they confront typically
demand greater information, time, processing capabilities than they possess. They settle for
bounded rationality in decisions. This model is based on certain basic concepts.
a. Sequential attention to alternative solution;
Normally it is the tendency for people to examine possible solution one at a time instead
of identifying all possible solutions and stop searching once an acceptable (though not
necessarily the best) solution is found.
b. Heuristic;
These are the assumptions that guide the research for alternatives into areas that have a
high probability for yielding success.
c. Satisfying;
Herbert Simon called this ‗satisfying‘ that is picking a course of action that is satisfactory
or ―good enough‖ under the circumstances. It is the tendency for decision makers to
accept the first alternative that meets their minimally acceptable requirements rather than
pushing them further for an alternative that produces the best results.
Satisfying is preferred for decisions of small significance when time is the major
constraint or where most of the alternatives are essentially similar.
Thus, while the rational or classic model indicates how decisions should be made (i.e. it
works as a prescriptive model). It falls somewhat short concerning how decisions are
actually made (i.e. as a descriptive model).

1.5 School Monitoring and Evaluation
Evaluation
Evaluation is a process by which determines whether the education system is achieving its
objectives or not. It involves the process of gathering, interpreting, recording and using
information about pupils‘ responses to educational tasks (Lambert, 1996). It requires teachers to
make judgements about pupils‘ responses measured against some standard of expectation. This
standard can either be norm-referenced (i.e. set by the expected average performance of the age
group) or criterion-referenced (set by what the objectives of learning are, i.e. what skills,
knowledge, attitudes and understanding are to be achieved).
Purpose of evaluation
 The main purpose of evaluation is to test that the children have acquired prudence,
attitudes, interests, skills, qualities, and abilities, etc. to what extent.
 It helps in knowing the weaknesses and goodness‘s of students.
 Through evaluation, necessary knowledge is imparted for the classification and
promotion of pupils.
 Through evaluation help is sought in providing proper educational and vocational
guidance to students.
 Another purpose of evaluation is also to measure skill and success of teachers of teachers.
 NOTE; In short, it can be said that the important purpose of evaluation is to keep
maximum dynamic for the all round development of children.
- J.M. Wright Stone ―Evaluation is relatively a new technical term, use of which has been done
for traditional tests of notion of measurement and for expressing more widely than
examination.
A teacher should have a thorough knowledge of the teaching methodologies, content and
evaluation. Evaluation helps to
(a) determine the readiness of the pupils,
(b) recognise the difficulties the pupils may be facing and remedy them, and
(c) assess the teacher‘s own rate of progress and the effectiveness of his/her methods. The
insights gained from evaluation will help the teacher to sustain (maintain), develop or
improve the teaching (hence the learning), not just for the present pupils but for future
ones as well.

Teachers often assume that assessment is there to assess the level of learning and understanding
of the learners. However, assessment is two-fold:
(a) Teacher assessing own performance
The teacher can evaluate how effective his/her own teaching is by considering the following
aspects:
 Preparation Did you assess your pupils‘ previous knowledge correctly? Were your resources
adequate? Could you explain difficult new concepts easily, e.g. relating them with concrete
examples that the learners could identify?
 Presentation Was your lesson lively enough to get and keep the learners‘ attention? Were
you able to ask questions and involve the learners in the learning process? Were you able to
observe those learners who could not keep up with the rest of the class?
 Conclusion Did you conclude your lesson by drawing attention to the importance of the
learning material? Did you give time for questions and independent study? Were you
available to assist learners during independent study?
(b) Assessing learners’ performance
The kind of information we need to assess learners‘ learning and development:
 The knowledge and understanding of the learners
 The learners’ skills, e.g. can they apply skills like observation, communication, application,
synthesis, etc. It is difficult to score how well a learner has mastered these skills.
 The process of learning – is the learner able to take information and utilise it in life
experiences where they live and work?
Evaluation can take either of two forms: (1) the more formal contexts and procedures, including
written, timed tests and examinations, marked under strict conditions. (2) The less formal
settings, including reading pupils‘ work and listening to what they have to say (their opinion) or
unobtrusively observing the pupils‘ actions and noting whether certain personal traits or abilities
appear to have changed over time.

Functions of evaluation
According to Lambert (1996), the generally agreed roles of evaluation in education are:
a) Providing feedback to teachers and pupils about progress in order to support future learning.
This is the formative role of evaluation.
b) Providing information about the level of pupils‘ achievement at points during and at the end
of their school career. This is the summative role of evaluation.
c) Providing the means for selection by qualification. This is the certification role of evaluation.
d) Contributing to the information on which judgements are made concerning the effectiveness
or quality of individuals and institutions in the system as a whole. This is the evaluative role
of evaluation.
Types of evaluation
Micro-evaluation This involves the myriad evaluative decisions which the teacher makes as
he/she interacts with the pupils during the lesson; the continuous use of feedback to enhance
learning, e.g. ‗Good attempt, Chanda‘, ‗That‘s a bright idea, Mwaba‘, ‗You can do better,
Gerald‘, etc. Micro-evaluation has the primary purpose of sustaining and developing the teaching
for the benefit of the present pupils.
Macro-evaluation This is the evaluation that the teacher will make when the series of lessons is
completed. An impression of the overall effectiveness of a larger sequence of teaching and how
it might be improved before it can be used with another set of pupils is obtained. Macro-
evaluation aims to benefit pupils in some future learning situation, either the present pupils on a
subsequent course or other pupils learning from improved version of the present course.
Monitoring
Monitoring is the regular observation and recording of activities taking place in a project or
program. It is a process of routinely gathering information on all aspects of the project. To
monitor is to check on how project activities are progressing. It is kind of observation.
Monitoring provides information that will be useful in:

 analysing the situation in the school and its projects

 determining whether the inputs in the project are well utilised;
 identifying problems facing the school or project and finding solutions;
 ensuring all activities are carried out properly by the right people and in time
 using lessons from one project experience on to another; and
 determining whether the way the project was planned is the most appropriate way of
solving the problem at hand
Evaluate education management performance at school level
Applications of educational management in academics and evaluations

Educational management can be implemented through
- classroom management
- curriculum management
- Evaluate management
*So that school can produce better performance of students in the form of academic
achievements, sports achievements, co-curricular achievements
Management in all businesses and organizational activities is the act of getting people together to
accomplish desired goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively.
Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an
organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or effort for the purpose of
accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human
resources, financial resources, technological resources and natural resources.
As organizations; schools can be viewed as systems. Management can also be defined as human:
teacher‘s action, including design: curriculum, to facilitate the students‘ production of useful
outcomes from a system. This view opens the opportunity to manage oneself, and to manage
others
The role of the school administrator also involves evaluating staff and students. He reports on
the performance of teachers, support staff and students. To do this effectively, he needs to
monitor the activities of his subordinates and clients. Supervision is also inclusive in the duty of
the principal in evaluation.
When the performance by the administrators is effective, even the members of staff will put in
their best effort for they know they are being monitored, thus, the general quality of the school
will improve inclusive of students‘ performance.

Summary
In this unit, we are exposed to the theory of educational management. The various concepts
related to Educational management are identified and discussed in detail. In this vein,
educational management is said to be a social process that involves planning,
organization, coordinating, controlling, unifying formally and informally organized groups,
motivating and integrating ideas to achieve organizational goals. Therefore, as a process,
educational management, from the foregoing, begins with planning of goals and objectives.
Then strategies are developed that will help in attaining and achieving the objectives. The
educational manager then has to coordinate the activities of the work force to accomplish set
goals through selection, controlling, organizing, staffing, directing and decision-making.
The educational manager has also to use monitoring and evaluation as the tool for checking
progress.
Self-assessment
1. What is educational management?

2. Give two reasons why decision making is important.
3. List three categories of the mintzberg role.
4. What is the importance of monitoring and evaluation.

UNIT 2: EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
Unit outcomes: student teachers are expected to
 Discuss the statutes governing the provision of education in Zambia since

independence
 Identify statutory bodies in the Ministry of Education
 Justify the need for educational policies
 Distinguish between management and administration
 Analyse education administration in Zambian schools
 Explain administrative and organisational structures of the Ministry of Education.
 Discuss school organisation and management
 Discuss classroom organisation and management
 Discuss positive effects of the school-community partnership.
2.1 Administration & Management
Administration is
- The processor activity of running an organization or a business.

- The range of activities connected with organizing and supervising the way that an
organization or institution functions.
- The management of any office, business, or organization.
 Whichever organization or institution; formal or informal aims at the successful
accomplishment of all its collective goals. Henceforth, administration and management
play a critical role in the accomplishment of collective goals of any given organization.
For example, a school as an institution or organization has to employ administration and
management if it has to function accordingly.
 Administration and management has to be at play always if an institution or organization
has to function or run normally.
- Administration is simply the art of managing any organization. Therefore through
administration, management is done.

What is educational administration?
 This is a social process which is involved in the arrangement of human and material
resources in programs of education as well as putting these resources into good use in
order to achieve set educational objectives (Ngaroga, 2006).
 Basic objectives of educational administration are:
- To provide a learner with proper atmosphere and desirable conditions to bring about
complete development in physical, intellectual, emotional, moral, and social (PIEMS)
aspects of human life.
- To provide continuous professional development to educational practitioners so that they
develop professionally and be worthy of, and equal to tasks entrusted to them with main
focus on what the learner will benefit at the end.
- To develop abilities and skills in educators such as teachers, by providing links between
ideas and tested scientific knowledge on the one hand and practical problems and existing
conditions on the other.
 What are the functions of school administration?
The major and basic function of school administration is to implement educational programs.
However, other functions are:
- Planning school programs in line with the school‘s objectives, the resources available, the
priorities, the strategies of implementing the programs and evaluation procedures.
- Mobilization of funds, procurement of general school materials as well as school
budgeting.
- Obtaining or sourcing and developing staff, for example, indicating the staff needs of the
school to DEBS or PEO, ensuring that staff are properly deployed and motivated in
school, collaborating with the education officials on matters of discipline, promotion,
transfers and all general matters affecting staff in school.
- Steering pupil personnel services such as selection and orientation of pupils; guidance
and counselling of pupils; providing pupils with adequate motivation in all school
activities such as learning and extra-curricular (co-curricular) activities; establishing and
maintaining high standards of discipline.
- Maintaining of effective interrelations with the community and external agencies such as
parents‘ associations, nongovernmental and faith based organizations as well as school
committees.
- Determining the organizational climate and working relationships in school.
- Evaluating the quantity and quality of results achieved in school.
- Bring about change and development in school as well as shaping to a large extent, the
image and prestige of the school.
 What do administrators such as the head teacher do in school?
An administrator is a manager since he/she provides management in school. The work of an
educational administrator revolves around:

- Planning.
- Decision-making.
- Organizing.
- Communicating.
- Co-ordinating.
- Motivating.
- Budgeting.
- Evaluating.
- Monitoring.
Management
Management is an integral part of the people-organization relationship. It is essentially an

integrating activity that permeates or cuts across each and every part of the operations of an
organization or an institution such as a school.
Management is the utilization of physical and human resources through co-operative efforts in
order to realize the established aims of any given organization or institution. However,
management in education in tells the running of educational institutions such as schools and
colleges.
What is management then?

- Management is a special term and subject to many interpretations. It has a variety of
definitions according to different authors, out of which some are:-
1. Holt (1987) defines management as a way of getting things done through others, a
process that is employed to accomplish organizational or institutional goals or
objectives.
2. Donnelly et al (1992) looks at management as the process undertaken by one or more
individuals to coordinate the activities of others so as to achieve results not achieved
by one individual acting alone.
3. Mullins (1999) states that management involves people looking beyond themselves
and exercising formal authority over the activities and performance of other people.
From the sampled definitions, management can be simply regarded as being:-

- Within a structured organizational setting;
- Directed towards aims and objectives;
- Done through the efforts of other people;
- The use of systems and procedures.

Administrative and organizational structures of the Ministry of Education
Many writers have used the term administration to mean management. According to Ramsey
(1999:20), administration is a generalized type of human behavior found in an organization.
Administration is a process through which decisions are reached. Administration is the process
of directing and controlling life in any social organization such as schools or in an industry.
Difference between administration and management
The difference between administration and management is rather very thin. However while
management is the process of working with and through groups or individuals to accomplish
organizational goals, administration is concerned with directing and controlling life in a social
system. The second difference is that administration deals with establishing a policy that guides
decision-making laws and regulations. Management deals with implementation of laws and
regulations.
Educational administration and educational management
From the above definition, it is quite clear that educational administration and educational
management are applied fields of study. Educational management is an applied field of
management. One can therefore deduce that educational management refers to the application of
theory and practice of management to the field of education or educational institutions. The same
concept applies to education administration. According to Okumbe (1999), educational
administration is a process of acquiring and allocating resources for the achievement of
predetermined educational goals.
ADMINISTRATION MANAGEMENT
-It involves planning, organizing, -it comprises of directing and controlling

directing and controlling the resources of a group of one or more people or entities
an organization in order to achieve a set for the purpose of coordinating and
of organizational goals. harmonizing that group towards
accomplishing a goal.
-It is an established hierarchy of -it is an art, and science. It is a practice

individuals who report to levels of of bringing a group of individuals
hierarchy above them, work with the together to create an end product that is
individuals on their level, and direct those greater than the sum of its parts.
below them.
-It takes all the important decisions of the -It makes decisions under the boundaries

organization. set by the administration.
-It represents the owners of the -It is a group of persons, who are
organization. employees of the organization, it is
collectively known as management.
-The Administration is found in -Management can be seen in the profit

government and military offices, clubs, making organization like business
hospitals, religious organizations and all enterprises.
the non-profit making enterprises.
-Administration focuses on making the -Management focuses on the managing
best possible utilization of the people and their work.
organization‘s resources.
-It is itself the set of policies or the -Management is the process that applies
process which sets the guidelines to run the policies set up by the administration
an organization or firm or even the in practice to run the respective firm or
government./it is the supreme authority of organization. / it is the process that
an organization that determines how each ensures all the policies are determined by
and every aspect of the organization the administration are executed in the
should act. practical scenario perfectly.
-Administration constitutes of -Management constitutes of managers.

administrators.
2.2 Governance, & School and Classroom organisation
1. Organizational Structure of Schools in Zambia

2. Roles and Responsibilities of School Administration and other Members of the School
Community
3. Administrative Structure of the MoGE & Statutory bodies as well as Regulatory bodies
4. The functions of Parent-Teachers Associations (PTAs) and Education Boards
5. Statutory Bodies in the Ministry of General Education of Zambia
6. Tools for Teachers

Organizational Structure of Schools in Zambia
The Zambian organizational school structure has seen a number of changes since independence
with the view to make more effective and responsive to the country‘s needs.
At start, the most Zambian organizational structure of school was the Zambia primary course
(ZPC) which was made up of lower primary course (grade 1 – 4) and the upper primary course
(grade 5 – 7), and also Zambia secondary course made up of junior secondary (grade 8 – 9) and
the senior secondary (grade 10 – 12). However, there was a change to Zambia Basic Education
Course (ZBEC) made up of lower basic (grade 1 – 4), middle basic (grade 5 – 7) and upper basic
(grade 8 – 9), and High School (grade 10 – 12). The later did not fully take root on the Zambian
organizational structure of schools, because some schools mostly mission and private still
maintained the primary and secondary organizational structure of schools (1-7 and 8-12).
Currently, the Zambian education system has resorted to follow the primary and secondary
school form of organization structure of schools, but with the inclusion of Early Childhood
Education (ECE) at primary section. However, not all primary schools in Zambia have
introduced Early Childhood Education due to a number of hindering situations. Mostly Early
Childhood Education was offered by the private sector of education not public sector of
education.
Currently, the government of Zambia has seen great importance to have early childhood section
to the primary section of education. This prompted the Ministry of General Education to
introduce early childhood education in some schools despite having a number of challenges. The
government started the implementation of ECE in public schools by deploying ECE teachers for
the first time in the history of Zambian education in order to offer ECE to deserving children
though in a few selected schools.
It is the desire of the Zambian Ministry of General Education that all primary schools
incorporates the ECE section in order to fully realize and implement the currently approved
organizational structure of schools, which is (ECE, 1-7, 8-9, 10-12). This is one reason why
some schools were made to operate as combined schools having classes from ECE through to
grade 12. The whole ECE, 1-7, 8-9, 10-12 organizational structure of schools was implemented
with the rolling out of the new Zambian education curriculum.
How do the two clearly notable Zambian organizational structures of schools which are (1-9, 10-
12 and ECE, 1-7, 8-9, 10-12) compare?
- The 1-9, 10-12 organizational structure of schools is the previous one known as basic and
high school education structure which saw all Zambian public primary school operating
as basic schools as well as trying to change all Zambian public secondary schools to
operate as high schools with classes starting from grade 10 to grade 12 only. While the
current organizational structure of schools upholds the primary and secondary setup of
education system but with the incorporation of early childhood education part at the
primary section. The current organizational structure of schools runs as ECE, 1-7, 8-9,
10-12. There is early childhood education section, lower primary section (1-4), upper
primary section (5-7) which collectively operates as primary section of education, and
also the junior secondary section (8-9), then senior secondary section (10-12) which
collectively runs as secondary section of education.
- The 1-9, 10-12 organizational structure of schools implies that grades 1-9 will run as
basic school led by a basic education head teacher, and/or primary education head teacher
if its grades are 1-7. This was collectively referred to as the basic school. While, the
school running as grade 10-12 or 8-12 be under the leadership of a high school head
teacher or a secondary school head teacher respectively.
- The Zambian government‘s view through the Ministry of General Education is to have
schools operating as primary and secondary separately. However, we still have schools
operating as primary on paper but some having classes ranging from ECE through to
grade 9, ECE through to grade 7, grade 1 – 9, and grade 1 – 7. The ideal setup was to be
ECE through to grade 7, to run as primary school and be managed by a primary school
head teacher, while grade 8 through to grade 12, to run as secondary school under the
leadership of one person as a secondary school head teacher.
Roles and Responsibilities of School Administration and other Members of the School
Community
The school as an institution is a full community and is managed by a team of staff but under the
overall leadership of a head teacher. Each office in the management of the school has roles and
responsibilities that have to be in play by the holding person if it has to effectively and
successfully operate. Each officer or member of the school community has to carry out certain
duties attached to his or her office in order to contribute to the smooth running of the school as
an institution, The roles and responsibilities of members in the school community are in some
cases interactive, and that the list may not be exhausted, but some of them are outlined below;
Roles and responsibilities of:
(i) School Head teacher.

- Overseer of the school – presides on all school programs.
- A manager and helper in the school.
- A leader in the school and the surrounding community.

- An adviser to parents, teachers, pupils and other stakeholders such as NGOs, on

general educational and social matters in school.
- A financial manager or controlling officer in the school.
- A provider of resources required in the school.
- A main guide and counsellor in the school.
- A public relations manager or officer in the school and for the school.
- A spokesperson for the school.
(ii) School Deputy Head teacher.

- Acts as school head teacher and performs duties of the head teacher in the absence of
the head teacher.
- To perform all or any roles of the head teacher once delegated by the head teacher to
do so, whether the head teacher is in school or not.
- Helps the head teacher to run the school as well as maintaining discipline in the
school.
- In-charge of all academic programs in school.
- In-charge of record keeping such as school registers in school.
- The key helper or assistant to the head teacher in the overall management and
administration of the school.
(iii) Senior teacher.
- To monitor and supervise class teachers in school.

- To perform duties of deputy head teacher and/or head teacher in their absence or as
delegated to do so.
- To manage and supervise a certain section of a school e.g. lower primary or upper
primary in order to keep check of the smooth running of a school as a whole.
- To link and/or bridge the gap between the top administration and the class teachers in
school.
(iv) A teacher.
- To be a resource person for pupils in class and in school.

- A standards officer for all programs for pupils in the classroom.

- To assess pupils performance in class.

- To serve as a classroom record keeper, e.g. do registration of pupils in class.
- Maintains discipline amongst pupils in the classroom.
- To be a role model to pupils in class and in school.
- To physically teach the pupils all the required subjects and morals in class.
- A peace keeper amongst pupils in the classroom.
- To perform all duties in school when delegated by head teacher, deputy head teacher
and senior teacher.
(v) Prefects.
- To assist the school head teacher and other teachers to maintain discipline among
pupils.
- To assist in organizing school activities such as extra-curricular activities and enforce
school daily routine programs.
- To assist in school record keeping such as taking roll-call on pupils.
- To link fellow pupils to school administration.
- To be extra eyes and ears of the head teacher and teachers in school and even in the
surrounding community.
(vi) Monitors.
- To assist the school head teacher, other teachers and class teachers to maintain
discipline among pupils in the classroom.
- To serve as a classroom prefect.
- To assist in organizing school activities such as extra-curricular activities and enforce
school daily routine programs for their class, e.g. maintaining class cleanliness.
- To assist the class teacher in class record keeping such as taking roll-call on pupils in
class during lessons or organized study times.
- To be a class representative on the school council.
- To link fellow pupils in class to the class teacher and even the school administration.
- To be extra eyes and ears of the head teacher and class teacher in the classroom at all
times.
- To communicate all school programs to the class as directed by the class teacher.
- To organize, coordinate and monitor the class in all school programs when the class
participates.
- To be the class watch ‗dog‘.
(vii) Other pupils (learners) in school.
- To follow all school rules

- To attend classes and learn in all the allocated subjects.
- To maintain discipline in school by fostering self-discipline at all times (in and out of
school).
- To act as school ambassadors to the other schools and surrounding communities.
- To maintain cleanliness in class ad school at all times.
- To participate in all school programs as required by the school authority at all times.
- To produce good results academically always.
- To improve the image of the school always by carrying a good name of the school.
- To claim ownership of the school and be proud of their school always.
- To avoid vandalizing school property, and report any damages promptly to school
authorities.
(viii) Non-teaching staff.
0These are mostly referred to as auxiliary (helper) staff, hence their main role and
responsibility in school is to help in the smooth running of the school. They have to
perform duties in their assigned areas of operation. The areas of operation may be:
- Accounts.
- Registry.
- School security.
- Water and sanitation.
- Tuck shop.
- School library.
- Clerical and office orderly.
- Secretarial.
- General works.
Non-teaching staff are mostly supervised directly by the head teacher or deputy head teacher.
However, they can be assigned immediate supervisors by the head teacher.

School Committees
School committees can either be macro or micro (major or minor). Macro committees are
statutory while micro committees are at school level local arrangement.
Macro school committees are established by a District Education Board, or a Municipal

Education Committee for areas under municipal councils and City Education Committee for
areas under city councils. However, at present situation in Zambia, the macro school committees
are not fully established in the education system as there are still some legislation that are still
being put in place to fully support the implementation of such school committees.
Micro school committees are the ones in operational in Zambian schools as they are established
at the discretion of the school head teacher. Such committees include; sports committee,
discipline committee, social and distress committee, finance and project committee, academic
committee, examinations committee, timetable committee, staffroom committee, security
committee and many more as per the school requirement.
The school committees will function specifically based on their sphere of operation as directed
by the head teacher in school.
The school committees may operate on the following basic principles:
- To hold not less than two meetings in a school calendar term.

- The chairperson or coordinator even any delegated member of the committee may
convene a special meeting at any time if needs be.
- A quorum at any meeting must two thirds or more of the total membership of the
committee.
- Minutes of any committee meeting convened have to be documented and kept as well
as a copy be given to the head teacher.
Administrative Structure of the MoGE & Statutory bodies as well as Regulatory bodies
The Ministry of General in Zambia is clearly organized administratively from the ministry
headquarters to a school.
The Minister of Education who is appointed by the republican President is mandated to oversee
all the operations of the ministry on behalf of his/her appointing authority who is the president.
The minister of education has to be a member of parliament (elected by Zambian citizens in a
particular constituency or just nominated by the President through his constitutional powers).

Despite being a politician, the Minister of General Education is the overseer of the Ministry with
the main duty of directing government policy in the Ministry. However, the Minister of General
Education in Zambia is assisted by his/her deputy Minister in performing some if not all the
duties through delegation.
From the Deputy Minister of General Education we have the Permanent Secretary who is the
highest civil servant in the Ministry, though he/she as well as his/her Deputy, are as well
appointed by the Republican President. The Permanent Secretary has the mandate to manage all
the human and material resources in the Ministry of General Education. The Permanent
Secretary ensures that all move according to plan and that all the government policies are
correctly and fully implemented by assigned officers in the Ministry of General Education. The
permanent Secretary becomes the overseer of the Ministry of General Education when the
president dissolves cabinet and mostly this happens during general elections time.
The administrative structure of the Ministry of general Education starts with the Minister at
headquarters through to a pupil at a school. However, there are a number of members as well as
stakeholder such as organizations and line ministries that take part in one way or the other in the
smooth running and/or management of the Ministry of General Education at any given level of
operation. Below is summarized administrative structure of the Ministry of General Education in
Zambia which shows the key members of the ministry.
The Minister of General Education
The Deputy Minister of General Education
Permanent Secretary (PS)

Deputy Permanent Secretary
Directors
Provincial Education Officer (PEO)
Principal Education Standards Officer (PESO)
Senior Education Standards Officers District Education Board Secretary (DEBS).
(SESO) Subjects
District Education Standards Officer (DESO)
Education Standards Officer General Inspections (ESO.GI)
Education Standards Officer Education Standards Officer

Open and Distance Learning Special Education
School Head Teacher (Primary or Secondary School)

Deputy Head Teacher
Head of Department (HOD) Subject Area (Secondary School) Senior Teacher (Primary
school)
Subject Teachers Class Teacher

Prefects
Monitors
Pupils
The Ministry of General Education in Zambia is also assisted in its smooth running and
management, by auxiliary Bodies and Staff. The auxiliary bodies are Education Boards and
Parent-Teachers‘ Association (PTA). The auxiliary staff are, all other officers not mentioned
under the administrative structure and all non-teaching members of staff in schools.
The functions of Parent-Teachers Associations (PTAs) and Education Boards
The PTA is responsible for participation in the smooth running of education programs at school
level while the Education Boards are part of running education programs at school, district and
provincial levels. Their main and general aim is to see to it that all educational programs are well
and effectively executed at any given level of the education sector in Zambia.
The functions of the PTA are:
- Organizing of meetings for the purpose of raising funds for construction of school
buildings and running of co-curricular activities in school.
- Provision of physical facilities through self-help efforts in school.
- Banking, monitoring as well as accounting of all funds raised in school.
- Solving of many of pupils problems in school and/or community.
- Securing the co-operation of parents.
- Acquainting parents on school aims, methods and aspirations.
- Opening channels for two-way communication between the homes and the school issues
affecting pupils.
- To be a link to the school and the community.

- To lobby for any form of support from stakeholders and/or well-wishers for the smooth
running of the school.
- To spearhead infrastructure development in the school.
- To develop school by-laws.
- To come up with fundraising ventures for the school.
- To mediate between teachers and parents on any disputes and/or matters affecting the
smooth running of the school.
- To create a friendly and enabling school environment for all the teachers to effectively
carry out their duties.
- To help maintain discipline in the school.
The functions of Education Boards at provincial district or school level are:
- To receive grants or grants-in-aid from government or other organizations.

- To prepare and submit to relevant authority such as the Minister, estimates of revenue
and expenditure for approval.
- To administer grant or grants-in-aid in respect of the province, district and school needs
with regards to the approved estimates of expenditure or budget.
- To submit to relevant authority such as the Minister, plans for the development or
promotion of education at any respective level for approval and execute plans once
approved.
- To render advice to the Minister of General Education on the expansion of existing
education institutions such as schools and/or establishment of new ones.
- To fulfil any other functions as the Minister of Education may prescribe in conformity
with the government policy.
The Ministry of General Education in Zambia is managed and coordinated by statutory bodies
(Established by an act of Parliament) and regulatory bodies (Established by Ministry of General
Education guidelines). The main statutory bodies in the Ministry of General Education in Zambia
are the Teaching Service Commission of Zambia (TSCZ) and Teaching Council of Zambia
(TCZ). While the regulatory bodies are many as they also include the two main statutory bodies,
Education Boards, Trade Unions (Teachers Unions) as well as Parents-Teachers Associations
(P.T.A) and Teachers Associations (Head teachers Association and Subjects Associations).
Statutory Bodies in the Ministry of General Education of Zambia
There are mainly two statutory bodies in the Ministry of Education, namely the Teaching Service
Commission of Zambia (TSCZ) and the Teaching Council of Zambia (TCZ). These two statutory
bodies were established under separate acts of parliament.

Teaching Service Commission of Zambia (TSCZ) and Teaching Council of Zambia (TCZ)
Acts of Parliament
- Acts of Parliament establishing the TSCZ and TCZ have been enacted in such a way that
there is no conflict in core functions
- Teaching Service Commission: Commission established under article 123 (2) of the
Constitution of Zambia. Modes of operation specified in the Commission‘s Act Cap 259
of the Laws of Zambia. The Constitution of Zambia (Amendment No. 2 of 2016
establishes 16 Commissions, including the Teaching Service Commission
- Teaching Council of Zambia: The Teaching Profession Act No 5 of 2013
Mandates for the Teaching Service Commission of Zambia (TSCZ) and Teaching Council
of Zambia (TCZ)
The Teaching Service Commission of Zambia (TSCZ)
“to appoint persons to hold or act in offices constituted for the Republic of Zambia, to confirm
appointments, to exercise disciplinary control over such persons and to remove any such persons
from office…‖
Teaching Service Regulation Cap 259 of the Laws of Zambia
Functions of the Teaching Service Commission of Zambia (TSCZ)
The functions of the TSCZ are to:

- Appoint on probation and confirm officers in appointment
- Appoint officers on acting appointments and promotions
- Employ officers on contract
- Renew and terminate contracts
- Second officers to other institutions
- Exercise disciplinary control over employed staff;
- Remove any such persons from office if they fail to deliver to the expected standard;
- Transfer officers to other government agencies;
- Granting of unpaid leave
- Salary scale up-grading and staff re-grading;
- Retire people if they are of age;
- Act as an appellant body of the Teaching Service

The Teaching Council of Zambia (TCZ)
―… to provide for the regulation of teachers, their practice and professional conduct and provide
for the accreditation and regulation of colleges of education…‖
Teaching Profession Act No.5 of 2013 of the Laws of Zambia
The Core Functions of the Teaching Council of Zambia (TCZ) are:

 Register teachers and all education practitioners;
 Certify teachers by issuing them with practicing certificates;
 Regulate professional conduct of teachers;
 Accredit colleges of education both public and private;
 Approve teacher training programs;
 Register student teachers who meet entry requirements
 Raise and sustain the character of the teaching profession and declare any particular
teaching practices as undesirable so as to increase confidence of the public in teachers;
 Promote, protect and advance the general interest of teachers;
 Collaborate with the teacher unions on Conditions of Service and remuneration of
teachers;
 Promote Continuing Professional Development (CPD), e.g. adherence to professional and
moral conduct of teachers;
 Promote Continuing Professional Development (CPD), e.g. adherence to professional and
moral conduct of teachers;
 Create awareness of protecting the public against unsound teaching practices;
 Investigate allegations of professional misconduct and impose sanctions as may be
necessary.
Regulatory Institutions/Bodies
Their main purpose is to see to it that all education programs in Zambia at all levels are smoothly
and effectively carried out. They also keep check of all the players involved in the running of
education so that they do the right thing at all times. The regulatory institutions and/or bodies in
the Ministry of General Education include the following among others:
- The Teaching Service Commission of Zambia (TSCZ).
- The Teaching Council of Zambia (TCZ).
- Education Boards.
- Teacher Unions (Trade Unions).
- Parent-Teachers Associations (PTA).
- Head Teachers Association.
- Subject Teachers Associations.

The Teaching Service Commission of Zambia and the Teaching Council of Zambia are already
discussed above because they function both as statutory and regulatory bodies of the Ministry of
General Education. Also the Education Boards and Parents-Teachers Associations have been
already discussed. The only to be looked at here are the Teacher Unions, and Teachers
Associations.
Teacher Unions (Trade Unions)
The teacher Unions are organizations that mediate, monitor, promote teachers‘ interests as well
as guiding teachers as they serve in the Ministry of Education. The Trade Unions also function as
professional bodies for teachers. Hence forth, their roles are as trade unions and as professional
body.
Roles of a Teacher Union
1. As a Trade Union
- To fight and/or lobby for better salaries and other terms and conditions of service for
teachers from their employers or agents.
- To protect individual teacher members from victimization and undue harassment by the
employers or agents.
- To unite teacher members regardless of tribe, sex, religion and race.
- To participate in discussions on strategies for socio-economic development of the
country.
2. As a Professional Body
- To organize in-service courses or professional development for teacher members.
- To keep teacher members well informed of the various educational issues, programs and
policies through media publications or discussion forums.
- To contribute to curriculum development in the Ministry of General Education.
- To actively participate in the management of education as members of Education Boards
in the ministry of general education.
- To educate teacher members on all matters of the teaching profession.
In Zambia at present there are five (5) Teacher Trade Unions with just the same mandate but
competing for teacher membership in the Ministry of General Education. The following are
the Teacher Unions in Zambia:

1. Zambia National Union of Teachers (ZNUT).

2. Secondary Schools Teachers Union of Zambia (SESTUZ).
3. Primary Education Teachers Union of Zambia (PETUZ) formerly known as BETUZ.
4. Professional Teachers Union of Zambia (PROTUZ).
5. National Union of Public and Private Educators of Zambia (NUPPEZ).
Tools for Teachers
Teachers are required to have certain tools for them to function effectively in their delivery of
services. These tools for teachers will provide guidelines and proper direction to teachers as they
serve in the Ministry of General Education. The major among the many tools for teachers are:
- The Education Act.
- The general Orders.
- The public Service Regulations.
- Code of Ethics for teachers.
2.3 Justify the need for educational policies
- A policy is typically described as a deliberate plan of action to guide decisions and

achieve rational outcome(s).
- Thus an educational policy is a deliberate plan of action to guide decisions and achieve
rational outcomes in the education sector.
In an environment characterized by low education attainment and inequitable access to
education, developing countries have typically implemented education policy reform to improve
access to education, in general, and also to expand coverage among poorer households. Such is
the rationale for significant additions to budgets for primary education, construction programs,
and many compensatory programs targeted at the poor. Efficiency considerations are also
important. A substantial body of literature has emerged over the last three decades on the rate of
return to education. While the methodology has come under scrutiny, there is general consensus
that the returns to primary schooling are high, thus suggesting that spending could be switched
from higher to lower education levels. Some reforms are designed to improve public finances.
Cost recovery schemes, for example, are designed to supplement government revenues when
rapid education expansion has created significant pressure on the budget. The resources raised
may also be used to improve quality and boost demand for education. In fact, some advocates of
user fees (with waiver schemes built into certain proposals) have supported the institution of cost

Analyzing the Distributional Impact of Reforms recovery on the grounds that such a scheme may
improve quality and increase demand without significantly raising cost barriers. Meanwhile,
some reforms, such as voucher schemes, aim to create a market-oriented environment that
encourages competition between public and private schools, enhances school quality, reduces
costs, and adds to the choices available to students. Vouchers are also designed to allow students
access to higher quality private education.
Management and institutional reforms, such as decentralization programs, are designed to
improve efficiency, accountability, and responsiveness in education service provision. These
reforms follow from the assumption that centralized systems often are not able to respond
efficiently and adequately to local needs. Decentralization reforms are meant to encourage local
participation and ultimately improve coverage and quality. Sosale (2000) has suggested that the
strengthening of the private sector role in noncompulsory education is also aimed at releasing
public resources for allocation to the compulsory basic education level.
Finally, political pressures from within and outside a country have profound effects on
educational policies, such as Free Primary Education or Education for All. The call for Education
for All and for measures to meet the Millennium Development Goals in the international
community has been particularly influential. In Zambia we have had three education policies that
have controlled the education system since independence. These include;
- Education Reforms of the 1977

- Focus on Learning
- Educating our Future
Policies may have intended and unintended outcomes.
Intended Effects
The intended effects of a policy vary widely according to the organization and the context in
which they are made. Broadly, policies are typically instituted to avoid some negative effect that
has been noticed in the organization, or to seek some positive benefit. Standard curriculum
policies in government schools provide an example of how organizations attempt to avoid
negative effects. For example, localization of the Zambian curriculum, this has ensured that
learners are skilled with the surviving skills, for example in Nyimba where they‘re a lot of
bananas, banana farming has been inculcated to increase their knowledge, and same goes for
areas where there is a lot of fish, etc.

Unintended Effects
Policies frequently have side effects or unintended consequences. Because the environments that
policies seek to influence or manipulate are typically complex adaptive systems (e.g.
governments, societies, large companies), making a policy change can have counterintuitive
results. For example, the re-entry policy instead of solving low completion rates of girls who go
pregnant, it has led to many of them been careless. The policy formulation process typically
includes an attempt to assess as many areas of potential policy impact as possible, to lessen the
chances that a given policy will have unexpected or unintended consequences. Because of the
nature of some complex adaptive systems such as societies and governments, it may not be
possible to assess all possible impacts of a given policy
-Why need education policies;
 Schools are complex organizations that have many moving parts.

 Parents trust schools to keep their children
 Policies express power of the state to pronounce certain things then legitimise them
 Policies confer privilege and full state backing as well as financial support.
 Avoid financial exploitation by private schools.
 Outline the procedures of licensing schools
2.4 Effects of school-community partnership;
1. Schools can get goods and services from the wider community such as labour
2. Schools act as a centre for various agencies that work through them to uplift the living
standards of the local community e.g. Health centres for vaccinations, political rallies and
church gatherings
3. Schools act as role models e.g. Introduction of new farming techniques.
4. Schools act as agents of change and development e.g. conducting sensitisation meetings
5. School serve as consultants for communities. E.g. in case of new policies.
6. Communities are ready to offer education to their children e.g. in practical skills
7. Vandalism is minimised as the community has ownership of the school.
8. Teachers feel accepted by the communities and therefore are comfortable to carry-out their
work.
9. Communities know and appreciate the problems of the school and so will come in to find
solution together with the school authorities.
10. There is enhancement of community development.

The Roles of the School to the Community
The following are the roles of the school to the host community or the society at large.
1. Provision of Education. The school assisted the community to train the children and young
pupils on how to write basic literacy/numeracy. The curriculum used for the children by the
school lay emphasis on the need and problems of the community and on how to assist the
children contributes their quota to the development of the community.
2. Preservation of Community Culture. In the school also, the children are taught the
community norms, values culture, tradition, beliefs. Apart from teaching the children all these,
school also ensure its transmission from one generation for another. School also carries out
research to improve on good culture of the community and to discourage the children from the
bad or anti-social character.
3. Provision of Facilities for Community Use. The school provides and makes available some
school facilities for community use when needed by the community.
Some of the facilities made available for the community are the school playing ground (for
community rallies, socials, religious and other activities), school halls and classrooms (for
receptions and entertainments as well as for adult and continuing education classes‘), school
vans/buses (for social outings). However there must be some rules governing the use of the
school facilities by the community to ensure proper use. And also as vaccination centers when
there is an outbreak, such as the cholera outbreak that was experienced in Zambia early 2018 and
schools were closed and some of them where used as vaccination centers.
4. Provision of Means of Livelihood to Members of the Community. The school provides a

means of livelihood to members of the community by employing them as teachers,
administrative officers, day/night guards, drivers, cleaners, gardeners or any other available
position qualified for by the member of the community. The payment received for the service (s)
rendered to the school are used as a means of livelihood and to cater for their own immediate and
extended family.
5. Manpower Supply. There are various categories of manpower needed by the community to
serve in the various sectors of the economy, for example, Medical Doctors to provide medical
service, Lawyers to provide legal service, Bankers to provide banking service, Teachers/Lectures
to teach in schools, Engineers to serve in the engineering units of the country, Computer
Scientists to take care of the internet service and other information technology service of the
country, etc. There are so many other services needed to sustain the country which are provided
by the school. Without these manpower supplies in quality and quantity, there cannot be any

meaningful growth and development in a country. The school provides these, after giving the
required training that makes them qualified and competent.
6. Assist in Community Development Programme/Service. Members of the school play active

role in some project embarked on by the community. The school students are engaged in various
projects embarked the community. Examples of community development projects are – road
construction, road maintenance, they also render community service to the community where the
schools are situated, and they serve as members of Road Safety Corps, Civil Defense Corps,
Man-O-War, Red Cross Society etc.
The Roles of the Community to the School
The community in appreciation of the roles of the school to the community and for mutual co-
existence performs the following functions to the school.
1. Provision of Funds. The community generates funds for the development of the school
through special levies. Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) levies, donation by old students
association, religious groups‘, non-government organization, philanthropist etc.
2. Provision of Land. The community makes available landed property (either freely or at a
reduced price) to erect school structure of various categories and also for gardening and farming
purposes.
3. Maintenance of School Plant. Various artisan groups within the community such as
carpenters, bricklayers, mechanics, etc assist in installation, maintenance and repair of school
physical facilities at a reduced rate as at when needed and they are called upon.
4. Provision of Facilities. The community provides physical facilities which members of the
school make use of. Examples of the physical facilities; provided by the community are public
library, which assist the student to pursue academic excellence, community halls which are used
by the school for teaching and learning and social activities, hospitals and clinics which are used
as first aid in case of the need to refer to a specialist or other hospitals.
5. Provision of Accommodation The community provides residential accommodation to both the

staff and the students of the school. Most schools now have no befitting accommodation for their
staff or even their students. This makes the school and/or the staff concerned explores
opportunity of getting an accommodation in the community where the school is situated or
nearby communities.

6. Provision of Scholarship. The communities make provision for scholarship to brilliant or

indigent brilliant students or both of them depending on the fund available.
Some well-meaning individuals (who appreciate education and educated citizens) within the
community, e.g. Philanthropists Religious groups, etc. also awards various scholarship schemes
to assist students within the community in primary, secondary or institution of higher learning.
The scholarship may cover school fees, books, others or all.
Factors Influencing School – Community Relationship
It is necessary for the school head to be familiar with the factors influencing the school
community relationship to facilitate cordial relationship between the school and the community.
Some of the factors are discussed below.
i. The Location of the School. The location of a school within the community goes a long way in
influencing the school - community relationship. For example parents are more likely to visit a
school more frequently if it is located at the heart/centre of the community than if a school is
located at the outskirt of the community. A school that is also attractive, safe, accessible with
opportunity for future expansion will enjoy patronage by the community members. However, if
the location of the school is at the outskirt of the town, the school head can use his
initiative/power to be organizing meetings and activities which will be bringing members of the
community into the school at regular intervals to see the school, know what the school has and
school‘s needs.
ii. Facilities Available. The type of facilities available in the school will determine the level of
cordial relationship the school receives from the community. For example, a school that has a
good hall for conferences/wedding receptions, classroom for adult education/extra mural studies,
playground for community rallies and meetings and make it available for community use at a
subsidized/lower rate will enjoy more cordial relationship between the school and the community
because, the community benefits from the use of these facilities and will want good relationship
to continue to be able to continuing to enjoy the facilities, but where these facilities are not
available for community use or available at expensive rate, the school community relationship
cannot be/may not be as cordial as when those facilities are available for community use at no
cost or at subsidized rate.
iii. Communication. Effective communication between the school and the community at all time
will enable community members to assist the school and give them good advice. It is compulsory
that the school head should integrate members of the community into the school system by
giving them feed-back on school activities through effective communication. The school head
must communicate effectively with the various governing/regulatory/voluntary agencies
Governing Board, PTA, and Old Student Association members in the community regularly. In a

situation where there is poor communication between the school and community, the result is
unhealthy or poor school- community relationship.
iv. Leadership Style. The type of leadership style adopted by the school head will go a long way
in enhancing positively or negatively the relationship between the school and the community.
For example, a school head that adopts democratic leadership style will enjoy better cordial
school-community relationship because he will be approachable and listen to community view at
all times than the school head that adopted autocratic/laissez-faire leadership style. This is
because, the school head that adopted democratic leadership style will involve people in his
administration and consult with them and other members of the community if need be, before
arriving at major decisions. This strengthens mutual understanding between the school and the
community. However the school head that adopts autocratic leadership style does not consult
with people or community members before arriving at decisions. He decides single- handedly
and enforce his opinion on people. This situation creates a gap and distance between the school
and the community and also create suspicious environment. The school head that adopted laissez
faire is also the uncared type, who shows no concern for the work force and the community will
not also enjoy the full support of the workers neither will he be able to create/maintain cordial
relationship between the school and the community. It is only the school head that adopts
democratic leadership style that enjoys the full support and maximum cooperation of the
community.
v. Attitude of School Staff. The attitude/behavior of the school head and his staff toward the
members of the community will either enhance their relationship or otherwise.
If the school head and the staff are accessible to and approachable, friendly and fair in dealing
with the members of the community, there will be a cordial relationship, but if they make
themselves inaccessible and or unapproachable, unfriendly to the members of the community,
the community will be hostile to them and confrontational because of the type of attitude and
behavior they put up against the community and this will not enhance good/cordial relationship
between them. However, for the school to enjoy cordial relationship with the community there is
the need for the school head and the staff to project good image of the school through their own
good attitude and behavior towards the community members.
Challenges in fostering school community relationships
1. School curriculum is often alien to the community, it is also too academic.

2. School creates a cultural gap between those that have gone to school and those that have
not. Die to this there is rural urban migration.
3. When community has no idea of what is taking place in the school they will not come in.
- The school and the community are interdependent on each other, as the school benefits
from the community, so does the community from the school.

The Role of School Head in School - Community Relationship
To achieve the set goals for schools, healthy relationship is a must between the school and the
community. Therefore, the school head needs to ensure that there is love, understanding, trust,
mutual trust between the school and the community. To ensure this, the school head need to take
the following measures:
i. He should establish a functional PTA. The head should make the PTA a functional one rather
than making it an income generating association alone. The members will be allowed to have a
say/contribution in the running of the school. For example, they can be involved in the school
promotion exercise, maintenance of discipline in the school, school plant and management. If the
school head can allow a functional PTA, it will facilitate healthy relationship between the school
and the community, but when he/she refuses to make the PTA functional, there is the likelihood
of having various crises between the school and the community.
ii. He should be accessible. The school head must make himself accessible to members of the
community such the PTA chairman or other executive, the parent, the chiefs, religious leaders
and members of old student association and other visitors that may visit the school occasionally
from the community. The school head must be a good listener, nice, humble, and approachable,
to enhance and sustain healthy relationship between the school and the community.
iii. He should involve members of the community in the school activities. Members of the
community where the school is located must be involved in the school activities, because the
school is within the community, hence the need for the school head to involve the members of
the community in the school activities. For example, members of the community should be
allowed to play active role in the school‘s sporting activities and socials such as: end of the year
get-together, founder‘s day, Christmas carol, valedictory service, and other social activities of the
school. This type of involvement will enhance cordial relationship between the school and the
community.
iv. He should make himself available. The school head must make him/her self available to the
members of community, the parents, PTA executives, old students group, chiefs and religions
leaders. He should not be the type that administer in absence or have a lot of bureaucratic
procedures before he can be seen by members of the community. A school head that makes
himself available at all times will attend to the community needs timely and he/she will enjoy the
support and healthy relationship from the community
v. He should avoid realistic politics in the community: the school head and staff members
should avoid taking part in the political activities in the community to avoid bad blood between
the school and the community, the school head should ensure that he/she do not represent any

political party within the school to achieve some political goals. This will enable the school head
to be neural on all issues at all time.
Conclusion
The school is a social unit formally established by members of the society to transmit the societal
culture to younger generation. The community is a group of people living together and sharing
the same social, economic and cultural interests. School – community relationship is the type of
relationship that exists between the school and the society. There is need to ensure cordial and
healthy relationship between the school and the community because none of the two can exist in
isolation and both will benefit more if there is cordial relationship between them. When there is
no cordial relationship between the school and the community, the goals of the school will not be
achieved as expected and the community will not also enjoy the benefit expected from the
school. For the parties to enjoy themselves the school head must ensure cordial relationship
between the school and the community by establishing a functional PTA, having good attitude
towards members of the community, being accessible and involving community members in
school activities.
Summary
In this unit, we have discussed the meaning of administration and the role of administration in
the society, we are able to see that administration are those activities that are related to
general operations and services of an institution and that there is no best way of
administration, the situation at hand should determine the type of administrative approach to
adopt. We also discussed the meaning of educational administration and ways to ensure
educational effectiveness and educational development.

Self-assessment
1. Define educational administration
2. what is the difference between administration and management
3. list two functions of education boards at provincial level.
4. -Why is it necessary for mutual relationships to exist between the school and the
community?

UNIT 3: EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP
 Explain theories of leadership

 Discuss leadership styles
 Discuss the qualities of an effective leader
 Identify professional and personal characteristics of a teacher
 Discuss the roles and functions of a teacher in the classroom, school and the
community
3.1Theories of Leadership
Summary
“Great Man” Theories:
Great man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent, that great leaders are born,
not made. These theories often portray leaders as heroic, mythic and destined to rise to
leadership when needed. The term great man was used because, at the time, leadership was
thought of primarily as a male quality, especially military leadership (See also, Ololube, 2013).
Trait Theories:
Similar in some ways to great man theories, the trait theory assumes that people inherit certain
qualities or traits make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories often identify particular
personality or behavioral characteristics that are shared by leaders. Many have begun to ask of
this theory, however, if particular traits are key features of leaders and leadership, how do we
explain people who possess those qualities but are not leaders? Inconsistencies in the relationship
between leadership traits and leadership effectiveness eventually led scholars to shift paradigms
in search of new explanations for effective leadership. One key idea that led to new thinking
about leadership was behavioral theory.

Contingency Theories:
Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that
might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to
this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations. Success depends upon a number of
variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the followers, and aspects of the situation.
a. Fred Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
Fiedler‘s Theory centers on the area of leadership style. He states that the same type of
leadership style may not be exercised but the style of leadership applied would depend on one
particular occasion/situation.
Thus the style of leadership is contingent or dependents on the interaction between personal
characteristics of the individual and the circumstances or the situation/environment.
Behavior= F (P x E)
Behavior is a function (personal characteristics and the environment)

This would depict features of the environment which influence behavior and features of behavior
that influences that person. These are many but can be categorized into 3 contingencies:-
Possible Contingencies
1. Leader-Member Relationship- the nature of the relationship between the leader and the
members of the group determines the kind of leadership to exercise. The degree of
confidence, Trust, and respect subordinates have in their leader.
2. Task Structure-How structured is the task- what is the nature of the task? Some tasks
are clearly defined and easy to follow. Example: Cut a tree and make sure the tree does
not fall on the neighbor‘s house. This task is very clear. Example 2. Write the best essay
for Educational Leadership and Management. WHICH IS BEST? Not easy to determine.
If the task is vague and the objective is not very clear, followers will find it a problem to
do what is required.
3. Power Position-The degree of influence the leader has over power variables such as
hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, etc? i.e what is the leader‘s power in a group? This
might be weak or strong. Example: the authority of the Deputy Head acting is not very
strong as that of the confirmed Headmaster who holds the post in a given school. Fiedler
suggests that all the 3 possible contingencies must be considered collectively.

How can one understand contingency style?
 If circumstances are intermediate, the style of leadership will be participative

 If the circumstances are unfavorable, the leader will adopt directive leadership style
 If the circumstances are favorable, the style of leadership is democratic.
b. Situational Leadership of Contingency Theory (Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard)
This is associated with two American names Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard. They say that one
who is in leadership must take into account the maturity or readiness of the followers. They
focused on the followers because it is them who reject their leaders?
They defined Readiness as the extent to which people have the ability and willingness to
accomplish a specific task.
Maturity of the followers means
(a) those that are able to do the task

(b) those that are willing to do the task.
Hersey and Blanchard used the two leadership dimensions i.e task and relationship behaviors.
However, they combined them into four specific leader behaviors. As described below:
1. Telling- the leader defines the roles and tells people what, how, when, and where to do
various tasks. It emphasizes directive behaviour.
2. Selling-the leader provides both directive behaviour and supportive behaviour.
3. Participating-the leader and follower share in decision making, with the main role of the
leader being facilitating and communicating.
4. Delegation- the leader provides little direction or support.
s/n Able willing Leadership Style
1 No No Telling( Explanations and discussion)
2 No Yes Selling( Explain task requirement
3 Yes No Participating( Involve followers in owning the task
4 Yes Yes Delegate( Pass on authority and responsibility)
SOURCE: Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model
EXAMPLE
Introduction of user fees
If the students are not able and not willing= selling

c. Path-Goal Contingency theory (Robert House)
The path-goal theory is a little easier to comprehend than the Fiedler‘s model. House‘s theory is
based on the idea that a follower‘s motivations are based on three assumptions:
 If effort is given, the goal can be achieved (expectancy)
 If the goal is achieved there will be reward (instrumentality)
 The reward is considered valuable (valance)
Leaders must be able to provide their followers assurance for their expectations. Differences in
the characteristics of followers, the type of situation, and the leader‘s style will all play in a role
in the effectiveness of the group to achieve their goals.
The Path-Goal theory identifies four styles leadership:
 Directive- this leader provides direct and authoritative communication to his/her

followers. This is ideal for followers who may have less knowledge or experience.
 Achievement-Oriented- this leader sets high expectations for followers. He/she will
challenge their subordinates and show confidence in their ability to achieve good results.
 Participative-the leader works with his or her followers, considering their ideas and
listening to them.
 Supportive-this leader come alongside his/her followers showing care and concern for
their needs and well being
Each of these styles can be effective or ineffective depending on the situation and on the abilities
and needs of followers. According to House, leaders do have the ability to change styles and
leaders should attempt to change to best serve their followers.
Behavioral Theories: Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great
leaders are made, not born. Rooted in behaviorism, this leadership theory focuses on the actions
of leaders, not on mental qualities or internal states. According to this theory, people can learn to
become leaders through teaching and observation.
Douglass McGregor's theory X and Y
Theory X
Theory X is an assumption that indicates that human beings are naturally lazy and that they must
be compelled for them to work. The following are the assumptions

1. Employees dislike work and will try to avoid it. For example, if a teacher was given an
opportunity they would rather not go to class.
2. Employees prefer to be controlled and directed.
3. Employees seek security and not responsibility.
4. Employees must be intimidated by managers in order to perform
5. Employees are motivated by financial rewards.
Theory Y
It is an assumption that indicates that human beings are naturally good and that they will perform
their duties as given. The following are the assumptions under this theory
1. Employees view work as a natural part of life. There is an inherent belief that we are born to
work. Work is viewed as an integral part of survival.
2. Employees prefer limited control and direction. Were possible employees do not want to be
controlled?
3. Employees will seek responsibility under proper work conditions.
4. Employees perform better in work environments that are none intimidating.
5. Employees are motivated by many different means. Including work itself.
Participative Theories:
Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input
of others into account. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group
members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making
process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of
others.
Management Theories: Management theories (also known as ―Transactional theories‖) focus

on the role of supervision, organization, and group performance.
These theories base leadership on a system of reward and punishment. Managerial theories are
often used in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded; when they fail, they
are reprimanded or punished.
Relationship Theories: Relationship theories (also known as ―Transformational theories‖) focus

upon the connections formed between leaders and followers. These leaders motivate and inspire
people by helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task.
Transformational leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also want each
person to fulfill his or her potential. These leaders often have high ethical and moral standards.

Adair’s Functional Theory/Action Oriented Leadership
John Adair was an English Professor who was teaching in a military institution.
He developed a theory of Action Centered Leadership.
He argues that a leader is appointed in order to get the task done with the cooperation of
individuals.
(a) TASK- Identify the task and the task has to be very specific with defined objectives. Then
budget for it and mobilize resources to accomplish that task.
(b) THE TEAM- Involve the members of the group, communicate with them, let them have the
loyalty of a team and must provide feedback.
(c) INDIVIDUAL- the leader must indicate individual roles and their expectations. This will
make individuals be involved and be satisfied. He will make them feel recognized and
experience some sense of growth.
Adair‘s kind of leadership is called Action Centered Leadership. In other words, it is called the 3
circles approach.
Show ADDAIRS 3 circles approach diagrammatically here.
The Team Oriented Approach is very common in management i.e. without looking at the
objectives of the company (task) the leader concentrates on the needs of the team. The task is lost
sight of.
CONCLUSION- The essence of the Action Centered Leadership is that a leader must attend to
all the three without bias towards any of the above.
3.2 Types of leadership styles
In 1939, a group of researchers led by psychologist Kurt Lewin set out to identify different styles
of leadership. While further research has identified more specific types of leadership, this early
study was very influential and established three major leadership styles. In the study,
schoolchildren were assigned to one of three groups with an authoritarian, democratic or laissez-

fair leader. The children were then led in an arts and crafts project while researchers observed the
behavior of children in response to the different styles of leadership.
Style is the consistent pattern of behaviour a person uses in an attempt to influence the behaviour
and action of other. Leadership style is the manner and approach of providing direction,
implementing plans and motivating people.
Autocratic leadership (Dictatorship)
Authoritarian leaders, also known as autocratic leaders, provide clear expectations for what
needs to be done, when it should be done, and how it should be done. There is also a clear
division between the leader and the followers. Authoritarian leaders make decisions
independently with little or no input from the rest of the group.
Researchers found that decision-making was less creative under authoritarian leadership. Lewin
also found that it is more difficult to move from an authoritarian style to a democratic style than
vice versa. Abuse of this style is usually viewed as controlling, bossy, and dictatorial.
Authoritarian leadership is best applied to situations where there is little time for group decision-
making or where the leader is the most knowledgeable member of the group. This is ideal in
military, emergency and disaster management situations.
Characteristics of an Autocratic leader.
1. Consciousness of his or her position.

2. Little faith in staff members
3. Fondness for giving order and directives enforced.
4. Preference to dominate the thinking of other and commanding and expecting compliance.
5. Fondness of checking on staff.
6. Sensitivity for criticism
7. Aggression when challenged.
Benefits of Autocratic Leadership
Autocratic leadership can be beneficial in some instances, such as when decisions need to be
made quickly without consulting with a large group of people. Some projects require strong
leadership in order to get things accomplished quickly and efficiently.
Have you ever worked with a group of students or co-workers on a project that got derailed by
poor organization, a lack of leadership, and an inability to set deadlines? If so, chances are that
your grade or job performance suffered as a result. In such situations, a strong leader who utilizes
an autocratic style can take charge of the group, assign tasks to different members, and establish
solid deadlines for projects to be finished.

In situations that are particularly stressful, such as during military conflicts, group members may
actually prefer an autocratic style. It allows members of the group to focus on performing
specific tasks without worrying about making complex decisions. This also allows group
members to become highly skilled at performing certain duties, which can be beneficial to the
group.
Downsides of Autocratic Leadership
While autocratic leadership can be beneficial at times, there are also many instances where this
leadership style can be problematic. People who abuse an autocratic leadership style are often
viewed as bossy, controlling, and dictatorial, which can lead to resentment among group
members.
Because autocratic leaders make decisions without consulting the group, people in the group may
dislike that they are unable to contribute ideas. Researchers have also found that autocratic
leadership often results in a lack of creative solutions to problems, which can ultimately hurt the
performance of the group.
While autocratic leadership does have some potential pitfalls, leaders can learn to use elements
of this style wisely. For example, an autocratic style can be used effectively in situations where
the leader is the most knowledgeable member of the group or has access to information that other
members of the group do not.
Participative Leadership (Democratic)
Lewin‘s study found that participative leadership, also known as democratic leadership, is
generally the most effective leadership style. Democratic leaders offer guidance to group
members, but they also participate in the group and allow input from other group members. In
Lewin‘s study, children in this group were less productive than the members of the authoritarian
group, but their contributions were of a much higher quality.
Participative leaders encourage group members to participate, but retain the final say over the
decision-making process. Group members feel engaged in the process and are more motivated
and creative.
Characteristics
1. Power is decentralised and the leader respect individuals thoughts, opinion and freedom.
2. The leader involves the employees in determining roles and task.
3. The leader faces conflicts calmly and helps employees to find solutions.
4. Employees are involved in decision making which increases job satisfaction.
5. The leader give criticism and praise objectively, and hence there is less intergroup conflict.
6. It is ideal in repetitive of rote work leading to higher production in a short time.

7. The leader consults and finds solutions to the problems instead of pointing fingers.
8. It promote self-motivation.
Characteristics of Democratic Leadership
Some of the primary characteristics of democratic leadership include:

 Group members are encouraged to share ideas and opinions, even though the leader
retains the final say over decisions.
 Members of the group feel more engaged in the process.
 Creativity is encouraged and rewarded.
Benefits of Democratic Leadership
Because group members are encouraged to share their thoughts, democratic leadership can leader
to better ideas and more creative solutions to problems. Group members also feel more involved
and committed to projects, making them more likely to care about the end results. Research on
leadership styles has also shown that democratic leadership leads to higher productivity among
group members.
Downsides of Democratic Leadership
While democratic leadership has been described as the most effective leadership style, it does
have some potential downsides. In situations where roles are unclear or time is of the essence,
democratic leadership can lead to communication failures and uncompleted projects. In some
cases, group members may not have the necessary knowledge or expertise to make quality
contributions to the decision-making process.
Democratic leadership works best in situations where group members are skilled and eager to
share their knowledge. It is also important to have plenty of time to allow people to contribute,
develop a plan and then vote on the best course of action.
Laissez-faire (Delegative) leadership
It is a French term meaning leave it be. It is also referred to as 'free rein'. It is a permissive
leadership style in which a leader uses very little power thus giving subordinates a high degree of
independence in their operations.
Researchers found that children under delegative leadership, also known as laissez-fair
leadership, were the least productive of all three groups. The children in this group also made
more demands on the leader, showed little cooperation and were unable to work independently.

Delegative leaders offer little or no guidance to group members and leave decision-making up to
group members. While this style can be effective in situations where group members are highly
qualified in an area of expertise, it often leads to poorly defined roles and a lack of motivation.
Works well in an organisation. Where individuals are very skilled and experienced self-starters.
It is ideal among scientist and ceremonial aids.
Characteristic of a laissez-faire leader
1. Anyone can volunteer to do something whenever they feel inspired to do so.

2. The leader does not provide motivation or direction
3. The leader largely depends on subordinates to set their own goals and the means of
achieving them.
4. There is one way of determining success or failure due to poor interpersonal
communication.
5. Leaders provide the tools and resources needed
Benefits
- Laissez-faire leadership can be effective in situations where group members are highly
skilled, motivated and capable of working on their own. While the conventional term for
this style is 'laissez-faire' and implies a completely hands-off approach, many leaders still
remain open and available to group members for consultation and feedback.
Downsides of Laissez-Faire Leadership
- Laissez-faire leadership is not ideal in situations where group members lack the
knowledge or experience they need to complete tasks and make decisions. Some people
are not good at setting their own deadlines, managing their own projects and solving
problems on their own. In such situations, projects can go off-track and deadlines can be
missed when team members do not get enough guidance or feedback from leaders.
Charismatic leadership
It is based on people faith and devotions to certain individuals who have demonstrated an
unusual ability to lead through eloquent speeches and deeds of heroism for the welfare of the
group. The leader has legitimatized authority through overwhelming devotion by their followers.
The leaders are adored and loved. Whatever the leader says is accepted as dogmatic truth in most
cases. Such leaders are both authoritarian and democratic. Beyond their own self-interest and
control the own followers by direct emotional appeals which excite devotion and strong loyalties.

Usually surface in politics, religion, or during war times and have ideological rather than an
administrative approach. No fixed hierarchy of officials and legal rules to govern the
organisation.
Transactional leadership
It is based on legitimate authority within the bureaucratic structure of the organisation. Team
member or employees agree to totally obey the leader when they take on a job. The leader
organises the subordinated work efficiently as emphasis is on clarification. The leader sets a
reasonable target and provides advice and necessary resources to achieve goal and objectives.
Transformational leadership
Transformation implies change. Thus transformational leadership involves changing the attitude.
It involves bringing in new values and attitudes. It is distinguished from Transactional
Leadership which works on promises (Do this, and I will do that for you tomorrow).
This kind of leadership is generally symbolized by 4 major features.
(a) Inspirational- What ought to be? What could be? What ought to be implies values. Leaders
should be able to inspire their subordinates‘ by putting up what could be done.
(b) Stimulating- to recognize problems and to solve them with their own resources.
(c) Supportive- Paying attention to individual efforts, giving incentives e.g. appreciating certain
behaviors portrayed by followers.
(d) visionary- must posses a vision of what need to be done. A vision is a mental image of what
is desirable.
- Visionary is sometimes called charismatic-however; charismatic leadership is not the same as
transformational leadership. Transformation leadership has been found to be very useful in
industries/business world.
Examples of Transformational Leaders
Two outstanding leaders singled out in the USA were: Martin Luther King and John F Kennedy.
They used their vision in leadership to inspire a lot of people. Transformational leadership will
get ordinary people do extra-ordinary things.

Bureaucratic Leadership
Bureaucratic leadership is where the manager manages "by the book¨ Everything must be done
according to procedure or policy. If it isn't covered by the book, the manager refers to the next
level above him or her. This manager is really more of a police officer than a leader. He or she
enforces the rules.
This style can be effective when:

 Employees are performing routine tasks over and over.
 Employees need to understand certain standards or procedures.
 Employees are working with dangerous or delicate equipment that requires a definite set
of procedures to operate.
 Safety or security training is being conducted.
 Employees are performing tasks that require handling cash.
This style is ineffective when:

 Work habits forms that are hard to break, especially if they are no longer useful.
 Employees lose their interest in their jobs and in their fellow workers.
 Employees do only what is expected of them and no more.
Varying Leadership Style
While the proper leadership style depends on the situation, there are three other factors that also
influence which leadership style to use.
1. The manager's personal background. What personality, knowledge, values, ethics, and
experiences that the manager have? What does he or she think will work?
2. The employees being supervised. Employees are individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds. The leadership style manager‘s use will vary depending upon the
individual employee and what he or she will respond best to.
3. The company. The traditions, values, philosophy, and concerns of the company will
influence how a manager acts
Qualities of an Effective leader (school administrator)
The following are some of the imperative qualities which a school administrator must possess in
order to achieve an efficient school administration.
i. Must be tactical: The school principal should be able to map out strategies on ―what to
do‖ should a problem occur, i.e. he must be pro-active and anticipate what might happen.

He must think a heard of time. He must anticipate problems which might reduce learning
and quickly provide solutions to these the school administrator needed some tactics to
deal with the subordinates under his/her direct control in the school e.g the teaching and
the nonteaching staff, and the superior office at the ministry of education level whom the
school head is responsible to. He must be tactical in dealing with the political office
holders; he must not be confrontational in his approach at any time.
ii. Capable of making decisions quickly: The school administrators are confronted with
many issues to decide on, some or many of which require urgent, he decides on
personnel, circulars, students and co-curricular matters on daily basis. He must be versed
in accurate facts and figures on issues relating to school enrolment, student-teacher ratio,
drop-out-rate, school facilities etc., and must also be able to cope with the daily tasks as
the head of the school.
iii. Good delegation of responsibilities and authorities: the school head has so many
functions that he cannot single-handedly handle everything alone. To avoid a vacuum,
there is need to adequately involve every member of staff in the administrative machinery
of the school by delegating various responsibilities backed by authorities to avoid
unnecessary problems and avoidable delays. As a matter of fact, democratization of
school administration should be encouraged as this is an avenue for training future
leaders/heads of schools.
iv. Resourceful: the school head must at all times be looking for better way(s) of doing a
particular job. He/She must be looking for new ways of working, tapping new ideas,
suggestions and must be willing to assist others with his/her wealth of experience.
Resources such as books, teaching aids, etc should be available and these resources
should be directed towards learning. Users should have access to these resources. Thus
availability of resources should be one of the priorities if the school is to be effective.
v. He/She must have good human relations: there is need for school head to maintain
peace and good relationship between the school and various groups in the school as well
as between the school and the host community.
vi. Personnel: The school principal need dedicated teachers. Those who know the subject
content, those who give home works regularly. He has the responsibility to supervise and
evaluate the staff in the school. He must ensure that there are opportunities for personal
development among teachers. He must encourage in-service training as these will help in
subject mastery and acquisition of new teaching techniques.

vii. Quality Assurance: Making sure there is quality in what goes on in the school i.e.
Making sure LEARNING is the first priority (Focus on Learning 1992) states that the
primary aim of the school is learning for pupils and teaching for teachers.
viii. Communication: Is another important element of effective schools. Communication

of values, ethos (i.e. the philosophy/culture of the school which includes social, academic
and the spiritual aspects)
-He must communicate through actions e.g. he must teach and practice management by
walking not management by sitting. Need for one who is seen around walking, picking
some information here and there and using that information for school improvement.
ix. Coordination: Putting together all that goes on in the school- home works, teaching
resources, in-service training, sports and club activities, etc.
-The school principal has the responsibility of organizing and coordinating all these
activities which focus on learning.
x. Policies: He should formulate school based policies and implement them e.g. time
management, discipline procedures, homework checks, testing, etc He must set clear
goals for his school.
3.3 Professional and personal characteristics of a teacher
Professional characteristics of a teacher
 Autonomy
 Status and prestige
 Power
 Body of knowledge
 Institutional training
 Licensed practitioners
Personal characteristics of a teacher
 Inculcates discipline as a habit/nature

 Self-motivated
 Ignites/motivates learners to develop passion for knowledge, innovation and creativity
 Focuses on morality and values with subject knowledge

Roles of a Teacher in the classroom and school
 Disciplinarian
 Mediator of Learning
 Parent substitute (in-loco-parents)
 Judge
 Confidant
 A surrogate of middle class values
 Giving praise for effective learning
Roles of a Teacher in the Community
 Assumes leadership in different areas of expectations and needs.

 Take the front role implanting green environment sustenance by planting trees
 Sensitizes the public on health messages through drama, music.
 Bridge of middle class values (morality) through his/her speech, manners, modesty,
prudence, honesty, responsibility, friendliness, etc.
 NOTE that the community and especially in the rural areas, looks at the teacher for
guidance and sometimes even for help. A teacher is seen as one of the people and for the
people and should behave accordingly.
 Manager

Summary
In this unit, we have looked at leadership, leadership theories and leadership styles. One of the
major generalizations is that stress should be on transformation rather than transactional
leadership. Transformational leadership calls for commitment of leaders as well as followers.
Leadership is about vision. Knowing where we are going and communicating that with others.
Vision is the mental image of some desired future state which seems to be achievable‖ A leader
should be vision inspired. Value- i.e. what ought to be. Values are central in leadership. The
leader needs to communicate organizational values such as honesty, integrity. The school culture
should be promoted. Importance of collaboration in leadership- especially in decision making.
This does not take away from the leader the right to make decisions; but there is need for
discussion before he finally decides on the issue. Need for leadership density- having as many
leaders as possible in an organization. This should be encouraged. Leadership should include
both the masculine and feminine features. In other words, a good leader must not live entirely
according to theory x nor theory y kind of leadership. He must combine both X and Y
personalities that is softness and harshness of some kind.
Self-assessment
1. Define leadership
2. State the difference between theory X and theory Y
3. List two advantages of democratic leadership style

UNIT 4: COMMUNICATION IN EDUCATION
 Discuss effective channels of communication

 Types of communication
 Purpose of communication in Education
 Apply the principles of communication in the school
 Assess the barriers to effective communication
 Discuss ways of overcoming barriers to effective Communication
4.0 Background
Communication is very important function to manage any organization whether it is small or

large. In other words, nothing happens in management until communication takes place.
The word communication has been derived from Latin ward ―communis‖ which means common.
Thus communication means sharing of ideas is common. It can be defined as exchange of facts,
ideas, opinions or emotions between two or more persons to create a common ground of
understanding. Communication is the process of passing information & message from one
person to another.
4.1 Process of Communication
Process of communication in Education
NOISE
SENDER ENCODING MESSAGE CHANNEL DECODING RECEIVER

FEEDBACK
Communication process involves sender, transmission of message through a selected channel,
receiver and the feedback. The specific steps in communication process are described below :
(a) The Sender of the Message:
Communication begins with the sender, who has a thought or an idea which is then encoded in a
way that can be understood by both the sender and the receiver. While it is usual to think of
encoding a message into the English language, there are many other ways of encoding, such as
translating the thought into computer language.
(b) Channel for Transmission of Message :
The information is transmitted over a channel that links the sender with the receiver. The
message may be oral or written, and it may be transmitted through a memorandum, a computer,
the telephone, the telegram or television. Television of course, also facilitates the transmission of
gestures and visual clues. At all times two or more channels are used. In a telephonic
conversation, for instance, two people may reach a basic agreement that they later confirm by a
letter. Since many choices are available, each with advantages and disadvantages, the proper
selection of the channel is vital for effective communication.
(c) The Receiver of the Message:
The receiver has to be ready for the message so that it can be decoded into the idea. A person
thinking about an exciting cricket match may pay insufficient attention to what is being said
about an inventory report, thus increasing the probability of a communication breakdown.
The next process is the decoding, in which the receiver converts the message into thoughts.
Accurate communication can occur only when both the sender and the receiver attach the same
or atleast similar meanings to the symbols that compose the message. Thus, it is obvious that a
message encoded into German requires a receiver who understands German. Less obvious, and
frequently overlooked, is the fact that a message in technical or professional jargons requires a
recipient who understands such language. So communication is not complete unless it is
understood. Understanding is in the mind of both the sender and the receiver. Persons with
closed minds will normally not completely understand messages, especially if the information is
contrary to their value system.
(d) The Feedback:
To ensure that the message has reached the intended receiver correctly, the communicator has to
get feedback from the receiver about the message. Feedback ensures that the process of

communication has intact taken place. The feedback provides learning opportunities to the
sender and the receiver because it mirrors the consequences of the behavior. In addition, if the
behavior has been found to be incongruous with the message it opens avenues to make
corrections wherever necessary. Without feedback it would be difficult to ascertain whether
communication has been received as indicated or not.
In organizational settings feedback is essential. Each employee needs to know where he stands
and the organizational expectations, so that he can adjust his behavior. Similarly, all
organizations need some feedback from employees on their policies and practices in order to
make improvements whenever necessary.
All organizations have mechanisms to seek and receive feedbacks because the overall viability
depends to a large extent on the sharing of information. However, it is often noticed that the
efforts of a management to plan and establish reliable and formalized systems of feedback are
often defeated because of the widespread tendency of people to establish informal channels and
also because of various sources of distortions. Since most of the feedback in organizations is
work related, the system should be improved and made more effective.
4.2 Types of communication
-Broadly there are two types of communication: verbal and non verbal communication
Non-verbal communication
 Through signs & symbols.

 Non-verbal can go without verbal communication.
 Verbal can‘t go without non-verbal communication
Verbal communication
The communication functions as the means by which the activities in the organization are
coordinated to achieve the organizational goals. It is also the means by which behavior is
modified, change is effected, information is made productive & goals are achieved. Whether it is
with a business enterprise, a family, educational institution or trade exhibition, the transfer of
information from individual to another is absolutely essential. There are two main types of
communication in every organization – formal & informal communication.

Formal communication1
Formal communication refers to official communication which takes place through a chain of
commands. It flows in formally established channels & is concerned with work related matters.
Members of the enterprise and expected to communication with one another strictly as per
channels laid down in the structure.
The formal communication may be divided into three categories which are given as follows:
a) Downward Communication:
 Under this system, the flow of communication from the top management downward to be
operating level.
 It may also be called a communication from a superior to a subordinate. It follows the
line of authority from the top to the bottom of the organization hierarchy.
 Downward communication consists of plans & policies, orders and instructions,
procedures & rules etc.
b) Upward Communication:
 It means the flow of information from the lower levels of the organization to the higher
level of authority.
 It passes from subordinate to superior as that from worker to foreman, foreman to
manager.
 From manager to general manager & so on.
 This communication includes opinions, ideas, suggestions, complaints, grievances,
appeals, reports etc.
 It is very important as it serves as the feedback on the effectiveness of downward
communication.
 Management is able to know how well its policies, plans & objectives are followed by
those working at lower levels of the organization.
 It keeps the management informed about the progress of the work & difficulties faced in
performance.
 On the basis of upward communication, the management revises its plans & policies &
makes further planning.
c) Horizontal Communication:
 The transmission of information and understanding between people on the same level of
organization hierarchy is called the horizontal communication.

 This type of communication is also known as lateral or sideward or crosswise

communication.
 Usually, it pertains to inter departmental managers working at the same level of
organization or among subordinates working under one boss.
 Horizontal communication speeds up information and promotes mutual understanding.
 It enables the managers working at the same level to exchange information and co-
ordinate their activities without referring all matters to the higher level of management.
 The horizontal communication is generally of an informal nature. Whenever a
departmental head requires some information from another departmental head, he tends
to contact him directly. However, this type of communication can be oral or written.
Informal communication
 There is also a great deal of informal communication in an organization.

 This communication flows through informal channels and may or may not be work
related.
 Informal communication cuts through the formal organizational structure. Most of us are
familiar with the term ‗grapevine‘ used to describe a network of informal
communication.
 We use this type of communication with our family or friends.
 Three types of informal communication: lateral, diagonal & grapevine
Lateral communication
 Found among members working at the same level.

 Ex. Peer group.
 Most effective form of communication.
 Barrier of subordinates or boss is not present here.
 The horizontal information flow that occurs both between and within departments. The
purpose of lateral communication is coordination
Diagonal communication
 The path is mixture of vertical and horizontal movement.

 In large communications various departments need communication support from each
other.

Grapevine communication
 Also called as ―backbiting‖ or ―backstabbing‖.

 A backstabber is a colleague or an employee who acts like a friend in public but
badmouth you in private.
 Grapevines are present in all organizations. In fact, in large organizations, there are many
grapevines moving up, down and across departments.
 Grapevines flourish because communication is a natural human tendency. People who
know each other in the organization talk together informally. One thing they have in
common is the organization they work for, so they talk about the happenings in the
organization.
 Grapevines carry two types of information: work related and people related. Employees
want to know what is going on in the organization. When they are not kept informed
through formal channels, they seek information from the grapevine.
 Likewise, they are curious about the people they work with.
 Grapevine carry the type of personnel information not generally communicated through
formal channels. Employees get to know plans, promotions, punishments, etc, much
before they are formally announced. Informality however, reduces uniformity of
communication and sometimes false or distorted news is circulated.
 Some employees consider the grapevine their main source of information. It is fast- they
get information quickly and more information is given than is normally included in
formal downward communications, which are often written and may originate from
someone they do not know personally. Manager often become frustrated with grapevines,
particularly when they carry incorrect information. But grapevines exist; managers
cannot stop them. Managers can, however, increase the accuracy of the grapevine by
feeding it correct information. And they can try to reduce the relevance placed on
grapevines by making certain that formal communication is complete and timely.
4.3 Purpose of communication in Education
In its broadest sense, the purpose of communication in education is to effect change to influence
action towards achieving the goals of the enterprise. Communication is essential for the internal
functioning of the enterprises, because it integrates the managerial functions. Especially,
communication is needed to:
 establish and disseminate goals of an enterprise,
 develop plans for their achievements,
 select, develop and appraise members of the organisation,
 lead, direct, motivate and create a climate in which people want to contribute,
 control performance,

 Develop rapport with various agencies and organisations concerned with the business
enterprise.
Importance of Communication
Communication is an indispensable part of the process of management. The success of an

enterprise depends upon the effective of communication. Communication plays an important role
in the working of an institution and especially the school system. The importance of effective
communication is as follows;
1. Basis of Decision-Making and Planning. Communication is essential for decision-making

and planning. It enables the management to secure information without which it may be possible
to take any decision. The quality of managerial decisions depends upon the quality of
communication. Further, the decisions and plans of the management need to be communicated to
the subordinates. Without effective communication, it may not be possible to issue instructions
and orders. Effective communication helps in proper implementation of plans and policies of the
management. Empower people to make decisions and develop ownership of educational
processes
2. Smooth and Efficient Working: Communication makes possible the smooth and efficient
working of an enterprise. It is only through communication that the management changes and
regulates the actions of the subordinates in the desired direction.
3. Facilitates Co-ordination: Management is the art of getting things done through others and
this objective of management cannot be achieved unless there is unity of purpose and harmony
of effort. Communication through exchange of ideas and information helps to bring about unity
of action in the pursuit of common purpose. It binds the people together and facilitates co-
ordination. It enable communities and civil society to engage with educational issues at the
school level, raise issues with educational providers and promote accountability of provision and
promote public engagement with educational reform programs
4. Increases Managerial Efficiency: Effective communication increases managerial efficiency.

It is rightly said that nothing happens in management until communication takes place. The
efficiency of a manager depends upon his ability to communicate effectively with the members
of his organization. It is only through communication that management conveys its goals and
desires, issues instructions and orders, allocates jobs and responsibility and evaluates
performance of subordinates.

5. Sound Industrial Relations: Effective communication creates mutual understanding and

trust among the members of the organization. It promotes co-operation between the employer
and the employees. Without communication, there cannot be sound industrial relations and
industrial peace. It is only through communication that workers can put in their grievances,
problems and suggestions to the management.
6. Helps in Establishing Effective Leadership:

Communication is the basis of effective leadership. There cannot be any leadership action
without the effective communication between the leader and the led. Communication is
absolutely necessary for maintaining man to man relationship in leadership. It brings the
manager (leader) and the subordinates (led) in close contact with each other and helps in
establishing effective leadership.
7. Motivation and Morale: Communication is the means by which the behavior of the
subordinates is modified and change is effected in their actions. Through communication
workers are motivated to achieve the goals of the enterprise and their morale is boosted.
Although motivation comes from within yet the manager can also motivate people by effective
communication, e.g., proper drafting of message, proper timing of communication and the way
of communication, etc.
8. Effective Control: Communication acts as a tool of effective control. The plans have to be
communicated to the subordinates, the actual performance has to be measured and
communicated to the top management and a corrective action has to be taken or communicated
so as to achieve the desired goals. All this may not be possible without an efficient system of
communication.
9. Job Satisfaction: Effective communication creates job satisfaction among employees as it

increased mutual trust and confidence between management and the employees.
The gap between management and the employees is reduced through the efficient means of
communication and a sense of belongingness is created among employees. They work with zeal
and enthusiasm.
10. Democratic Management: Communication is also essential for democratic management. It

helps to achieve workers‘ participation in management by involving workers in the process of
decision-making. In the absence of an efficient system of communication, there cannot be any
delegation an decentralization of authority.
11. Public Relations: In the present business world, every business enterprise has to create and
maintain a good corporate image in the society. It is only through communication that
management can present a good corporate image to the outside world. Effective communication

helps management in maintaining good relations with workers, customers, suppliers,

shareholders, government and community at large.
Other needs for communication in education include;
 increase public awareness of educational rights and make the uptake of educational
services more likely, both for children and adults improve the quality of policy
formulation,
 may lead to social change
 improve educational service delivery and policy implementation
 involve the voices of the marginalised groups, to make educational provision relevant to
their needs

4.4 Apply the principles of communication in the school
 Principle of clarity of language; a communication possesses clarity when it is expressed

in language and transmitted in a way that can be comprehended by the receiver. Clarity
requires a literature approach to language and familiarity with language patterns of the
learners.
 Principle of organizational facilities i.e. conferences, meetings, suggestions, etc.
 Principle of motivation; the learners cannot listen or read with understanding unless they
concentrate. Listening infits and starts, listening inattentively or ignoring or skimming
out written words show slack in understanding. Adherence to the need for attention will
gradually overcome certain barriers to communication, inattention, loss of transmission
and poor attention. Motivation on the part of learners will increase the quality of learning
and they will certainly feel encouraged for their efforts
 Principle of priority; can be used when selecting what a school really needs as opposed to
desires. In can be used hand in hand with the SWOT analysis.
 Principle of formality, suitability, combined with informality.
 Principle of consistency; consistency in the members of staff, for example not changing
the mathematics teacher frequently.
 Principle of adequacy; enough teaching materials i.e. text books.
 Principle of two way communication; the learner takes the role of the receiver and the
teacher the role of the sender and vice versa.
 Principle of simplification; a teacher may use simplified ways of communication that the
learners are familiar with.
 Principle of selecting an effective communication channel: means that will make the
learners or audience understanding without difficulties.
 Principle of feedback
 Principle of listening ability. This includes;

-stop talking- you cannot listen if you are consistently talking

-put the listener at ease.
-put the talker-listener at ease
-show the talker you are listening
-hold your temper
-be patient
-go easy on arguments and criticism
-ask questions
1. Stop talking. You cannot listen if you are talking. For example, Polonius in Hamlet said:
"Give every man thin ear, but few thy voice."
2. Put the talker at ease. Help a person feel free to talk. This is often called a permissive
environment
3. Show a talker that you want to listen. Look and act interested. Do not read your mail while
someone talks. Listen to understand rather than to oppose.
4. Remove distractions. Don't doodle, tap, or shuffle papers. Will it be quieter if you shut the
door?
5. Empathize with talkers. Try to help yourself see the other person's point of view.
6. Be patient. Allow plenty of time. Do not interrupt a talker. Don't start for the door or walk
away.
7. Hold your temper. An angry person takes the wrong meaning from words.
8. Go easy on argument and criticism. These put people on the defensive, and they may clam up
or become angry. Do not argue: Even if you win, you lose.
9. Ask questions. This encourages a talker and shows that you are listening. It helps to develop
points further.

10. Stop talking. This is first and last, because all other guides depend on it. You cannot do an
effective listening job while you are talking.
4.5 Assess the barriers to effective communication
There are certain elements in communication which create barriers in effective communication.
These barriers maybe grouped as under;
Barriers to Effective Communication
A school administrator has no greater responsibility than to develop effective communication

(Pauley, 2010). Why then does communication break down? On the surface, the answer is
relatively simple. I have identified the elements of communication as the sender, the encoding,
the message, the medium, the decoding, the receiver, and the feedback. If noise exists in these
elements in any way, complete clarity of meaning and understanding does not occur. The author,
George Bernard Shaw wrote, ‖The greatest problem with communication is the illusion that it has
been accomplished‖ (Shaw, 2011). Four types of barriers (called ―noise,‖ see Figure 1) are
process barriers, physical barriers, semantic barriers, and psychosocial barriers (Eisenberg,
2010).
Process Barriers
Every step in the communication process is necessary for effective and good communication..
Blocked steps become barriers. Consider the following situations:
• Sender barrier. A new administrator with an innovative idea fails to speak up at a meeting,
chaired by the superintendent, for fear of criticism.
• Encoding barrier. A Spanish-speaking staff member cannot get an English-speaking

administrator to understand a grievance about working conditions.
• Medium barrier. A very upset staff member sends an emotionally charged letter to the leader
instead of transmitting her feelings face-to-face.
• Decoding barrier. An older principal is not sure what a young department head means when he
refers to a teacher as "spaced out."

• Receiver barrier. A school administrator who is preoccupied with the preparation of the annual
budget asks a staff member to repeat a statement, because she was not listening attentively to the
conversation.
• Feedback barrier. During a meeting, the failure of school administrators to ask any questions
causes the superintendent to wonder if any real understanding has taken place.
Because communication is a complex, give-and-take process, breakdowns anywhere in the cycle

can block the transfer of understanding.
Physical Barriers
Any number of physical distractions can interfere with the effectiveness of communication,
including a telephone call, drop-in visitors, distances between people, walls, and static on the
radio. People often take physical barriers for granted, but sometimes they can be removed. For
example, an inconveniently positioned wall can be removed. Interruptions such as telephone
calls and drop-in visitors can be removed by issuing instructions to a secretary. An appropriate
choice of media can overcome distance barriers between people.
Semantic Barriers
The words we choose, how we use them, and the meaning we attach to them cause many
communication barriers. The problem is semantic, or the meaning of the words we use. The same
word may mean different things to different people. Words and phrases such as efficiency,
increased productivity, management prerogatives, and just cause may mean one thing to a
school administrator, and something entirely different to a staff member.
Technology also plays a part in semantic barriers to communication. Today's complex school
systems are highly specialized. Schools have staff and technical experts developing and using
specialized terminology—jargon that only other similar staff and technical experts can
understand. And if people don't understand the words, they cannot understand the message.
Psychosocial Barriers
Three important concepts are associated with psychological and social barriers: fields of
experience, filtering, and psychological distance (Antos, 2011)). Fields of experience include
people's backgrounds, perceptions, values, biases, needs, and expectations. Senders can encode
and receivers decode messages only in the context of their fields of experience. When the
sender's field of experience overlaps very little with the receiver's, communication becomes
difficult. Filtering means that more often than not we see and hear what we are emotionally
tuned in to see and hear. Filtering is caused by our own needs and interests, which guide our
listening. Psychosocial barriers often involve a psychological distance between people that is
similar to actual physical distance. For example, the school administrator talks down to a staff
member, who resents this attitude, and this resentment separates them, thereby blocking
opportunity for effective communication.
Successful communication by school administrators is the essence of a productive school
organization. However, as discussed previously, communications do break down. Several
communication theorists (Abrell, 2004; Auer, 2011; Larson, 2011; Shettleworth, 2010; Weiss,
2011) have focused on the major areas where failures in communication most frequently occur.
The following are the major areas where communication breakdowns most frequently occur in
schools:
• Sincerity. Nearly all communication theorists assert that sincerity is the foundation on which all
true communication rests. Without sincerity—honesty, straightforwardness, and authenticity—all
attempts at communication are destined to fail.
• Empathy. Research shows that lack of empathy is one of the major obstacles to effective
communication. Empathy is the ability to put one's self into another's shoes. The empathetic
person is able to see the world through the eyes of the other person.
• Self-perception. How we see ourselves affects our ability to communicate effectively. A

healthy but realistic self-perception is a necessary ingredient in communicating with others.
• Role perception. Unless people know what their role is, the importance of their role, and what
is expected of them, they will not know what to communicate, when to communicate, or to
whom to communicate.
• Efforts to distort the message. Pitfalls in communication often occur in our efforts—both
consciously and unconsciously—to distort messages.
• Images. Another obstacle to successful communication is the sender's image of the receiver and
vice versa. For example, on the one hand, school administrators are sometimes viewed as not too
well informed about teaching, seen as out of touch with the classroom, and looked on as paper
shufflers. On the other hand, some school administrators view teachers as lazy, inconsiderate of
administrative problems, and unrealistic about the strengths and weaknesses of their students.
Such views lead to a "we-they" attitude.
• Vehicle for message. The vehicle by which we choose to send messages is important in
successful communication. In most cases, the vehicle to be used is defined by the situation.

• Ability to communicate. Some of the ways we communicate raise barriers by inhibiting

discussion or causing others to feel inferior, angry, hostile, dependent, compliant, or subservient.
• Listening ability. Frequently, people fail to appreciate the importance of listening, do not care
enough to become actively involved with what others are saying, and are not sufficiently
motivated to develop the skills necessary to acquire the art of listening.
• Culture. Our cultural heritage, biases, and prejudices often serve as barriers to communication.
The fact that we are African-American or white, young or old, male or female have all proved to
be obstacles in communicating effectively.
• Tradition. Past practice in a school helps determine how, when, and what we send and receive.
For example, a school administrator who has an authoritative style may find that his staff will not
share information readily. If a new administrator with a collaborative style replaces the
authoritarian one, the new administrator may find that it takes a while for his colleagues to speak
out on important issues.
• Conditioning. The manner in which communication is conditioned by the environment

influences the accuracy of messages sent and received. If we work for administrators who set a
climate in which we are encouraged to share information, we soon become conditioned to
communicate accordingly.
• Noise. A major barrier to communication is what communication experts call noise. Noise
consists of the external factors in the channels and the internal perceptions and experiences
within the source and the receiver that affect communication.
• Feedback. Faculty and staff tell their leaders that they want feedback. However, feedback
improperly given can impede communication rather than improve it. Administrators and
followers both need more training in how to use feedback more productively.
Ways of overcoming barriers to effective Communication
1. Measures to overcome the physical barriers

a. Making appropriate seating arrangement,
b. Ensuring audibility
c. Minimising aural distractions
d. Ensuring visibility
e. Minimising visual distractions
f. Providing comfort, and

g. Ensuring sound health
2. Measures to overcome the language Barriers
a. Using simple language and symbols,

b. Using less verbalism,
c. Explaining with symbols and graphics
d. Recommending specific books
e. Using different methods of communication
f. Using audio-visual aid
g. Providing frequent feedback
3. Measures to overcome background barriers
a. Knowing the individual background

b. Explaining the importance of the message
c. Using different resources and methods
4. Measures to overcome the psychological barriers
a. Sustaining the attention

b. Providing motivation
c. Providing assistance
d. Providing multimedia resources
e. Showing sympathy
f. Providing regular feedbacks
g. Creating interesting situations and involving them to solve

Summary
In this unit, we looked at communication, the types of communication, and barriers to

communication. We also discussed the importance of communication in detail. We also defined
communication as a process of passing information & message from one person to another. It
involves at least two persons i.e. a sender & a receiver. The sender develops & transmits a
message to the receiver. The purpose is to achieve common understanding between the sender &
the receiver. The basic unit of communication in an organization is the link between manager &
subordinator. Managers communicate to their subordinates & receive messages from them. To be
effective as a manager, you need to be an effective communicator.
Self-assessment
1. What is the importance of communication in education

2. What are semantic barriers

SECOND YEAR
UNIT 1: EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
 Identify the types of records

 Discuss the need for records management
 Describe requisites for effective record keeping.
 Discuss planning and budgeting as functions of management
 Analyse the factors that influence planning and budgeting
 Identify the sources of school finances
 Describe procedures in managing school finances
 Discuss basic principles of financial management
1.1 Records management
A record is can be identified as being information that is recorded in physical or digital form.
Mbiti (1974) defined school records as the records that comprises all books, files and other
documents containing information relating to what goes on in the school, who is in the school as
well as what types of property the school owns. Eleanor (1984) describes school records as a
document through which information is transmitted. However in the opinion of Akinyemi
(1999), school records document accurate information about the history, activities, students list,
staff list, past and present events or happenings, among others of a school.
A record is the detailed and meticulous account of any phenomenon. It can be set down
permanently in writing on a flat plate, film strip, computer flash/hard disk or any other form that
is permanent. A record serves as a memorial or authentic evidence of a fact or event. A record if
well preserved lasts from one generation to another. Records are collected and stored by different
people for different reasons. Record keeping is the art, habit or practice of keeping information
or fact in such a way or manner that it can be retrieved when needed. The gate man in some
schools have visitor‘s book, which could include time-in and time-out book. The store keeper has
an inventory of items in and out of store i.e. records showing who collects what? What is left and
what need to be replaced?
Keeping of school records should be seen as an indispensable aspect of effective school
management and a way to preserve the tradition of the school, culture and image. This is
because; school records are where all the necessary information about the teachers, pupils and all

activities being done in the school are kept. Therefore, record keeping should not be seen as an
undue imposition by the Ministry of Education or any other external agencies. If we believe in
the frailty of man, we must also acknowledge the fact that human memory needs to be
supplemented with accurate records
1.2 Types of records in schools
1 Records that store attendance
a. Admission register
b. Class teacher register
c. Staff attendance register
2. Records that show what goes on in the school.
Records of key events in the school or known as history book of the school. Head and deputy
record these books.
a. Log books
b. Visitors book
c. Examination records
d. Time table
e. Correspondents files
f. Minutes files
g. Confidential files (disciplinary or financial management)
h. Teacher performance
i. Teacher on duty report book
3. Records that show school priority
- permanent stores ledger/stock book (assets in the school)

- Expendable store ledger (sport equipment, equipment that has worn out due to use)
- Consumables store ledger (chalk and food)
- Inventories (things wanted and desired)
- Write off certificates(things that need to be disposed of)
4. Financial record
a. Receipt book which contains many receipt that have been numbers (has three
records/copies).

b. Cash book record showing money received and played out by the organisation. Should be
strictly kept by the head (bursar is responsible)
c. Bank record made up of every bank transactions
The Log Book:-The book is a document containing the comprehensive information about an
institution, its establishment and equipment. It is a historical record of events that have
significant effect on schools‘ activities. It is similar to ‗Black Box‘ in an aircraft which records
all activities, discussions, and problems in the aircraft during a flight. In case of an accident/air
crash, the black-box is the main source of tapping information. It is also similar to personal
diaries, motor vehicle log books where details of movements and repairs are written. Events
happening within the immediate environment of the school, capable of influencing the school
life, should be adequately recorded in the school log book. The type of events that are recorded
in the log book include: change of staff, date of vacation and resumption, mid- term date
examination dates, visits by important people, special occasions and functions, workshops,
sandwich, seminar course attended by teachers, reports of inspectors when they visited the
school and so on.
The Admission Register: - this is a book that shows the particulars of the registration of pupils
enrolled in a particular school. The book indicates a complete list of all pupils admitted each year
with the following details: age, date of enrolment, class into which admitted, previous school,
progression in the school, year of withdrawal/leaving indicating reason (s) and the certificate
number. Other information in the admission register are: registration numbers, names in full with
surname written first, sex, date of birth, address of the parents or guardians. Since we have to
respect the cultural and religious sensitivities of the students in our schools, their state of origin
and religion affiliation should also be entered in the admission register.
The admission register serves as the historical document or reference with detailed records of
every child who was admitted into the school right form the year it was founded. It is also a
reference book for tracing the entry, progress and exit of any student admitted into the school.
From the admission register, reliable data which may be needed for the planning and
management of the educational system at the local, state and federal levels.
Attendance Register: – this is a book in which the presence or absence of pupils in a school is
recorded on a daily basis. It is marked twice a day (morning and afternoon) to show pupils
attendance in school. There is a column in the register which shows whether the child comes to
the school or absent from the school. Attendance register enables the school authority to keep
track of the pupils more so, that whatever happens to pupils during school hours is the major
responsibility of the school. The register enables the teacher to observe the behavioral traits of
the pupils e.g. punctuality, lateness, absence/truancy. Data needed by researchers, educational
planners and officials of the ministry of education can be obtained from the register and it serves
as a valid evidence to save the school from a lot of embarrassment in case of a legal tussle.

Staff Record: – this is a record that shows the current staff list as well as their personal details,
the teacher‘s registration number, qualifications, subject specialization, date of
employment/deployment and the current salary scale.
Record of Work (Diary):- this is a record that shows the teacher‘s plan of work in each subject
area and the actual work covered weekly, and this is recorded at the end of each week. The
school head is expected to check and be certain that all entries are correctly made. It helps the
new teacher(s) to know the topics taught and from where to take over.
Staff Meeting Minute Book: - this is a record of every formal meeting of the staff under the
chairmanship of the school head. In this book, the discussion and decisions of the staff are
always written and it is kept with the secretary appointed by the members of staff.
Education Law: - it is a document which contains the education law obtained from the ministry
of education. It contains the objectives and policies of government on education and educational
procedures. This document spells out regulations guiding the management of the schools and
education in general.
School time-table: - this is a comprehensive outline of the school schedules for the week.
Subjects for each day of the week are stipulated in the time-table and period for each subject also
appears, so also the time for break. This is usually in the school head teacher‘s office so that the
head teacher or any other supervisor can at a glance know what subject is being/to be taught in
any class and which teacher is to teach/teaching it at that time.
Other books are as follows:
Continuous Assessment Cumulative Record: this is a record of students‘ performance in various

continuous assessment tests carried out during the course, each year or session. These scores are
computed cumulatively.
Terminal Record Card: this is a record where all the assessments of the students are recorded
either weekly or fortnightly, or quarterly according to (what the head of the school wants) the
school‘s policy.
Visitor’s Book: - this is a book that contains information about important visitors to the school.
An important visitor is presented with the book during his visit to the school to enter usually the
date, and purpose of his visit, some comments on his visit or impression about the school and
suggestion if any for improvement. Apart from important visitor‘s/personalities from the society,
ministry of education officials who come to the school for important assignments like inspection
of the school could also fill the visitor‘s book.

Teachers Lesson Note: - this is the most important record kept by the teacher. It is sometimes
called ‗teachers companion‘. Every teacher is expected to prepare notes for the entire lesson
he/she has to teach in all the classes. This may be on a daily or weekly basis. It is the duty of the
head teacher or his delegates to ensure that such notes are well prepared and in line with the
approved scheme of work. If there is any record which must be properly prepared and kept very
well, it is the lesson note because it is an indicator of a possible successful class lesson.
Familiarity with textbooks and many years of teaching experience cannot be a justifiable reason
for not writing a lesson note. A lesson note is the only convincing evidence that the teacher has
given adequate thought and consideration to what he/she is teaching. It is therefore; imperative
that every teacher must have his/her lesson notes and make it available for inspection by the
school head/delegates and other appropriate authorities as may be demanded.
Stock Book: - this is a book containing a record of materials and other equipment supplied or
bought by the school. The school stock includes materials such as: duplicating paper, ink, pad,
pencils, pens, typing sheets, which are constantly being used in the school.
Time-Book: - this is a book where teachers attendance is shown, including the arrival and
departure time. It is kept to monitor the time of arrival and departure of each teacher. The book
should be filled by all members of staff twice daily. The head teacher or appointees should rule-
off at an agreed time so that anybody signing below the ruled-line is late for that day. The name
of teacher who is absent could also be written down when the school closes.
Teachers Movement Book: - this is a book where teachers‘ movements every day are recorded
to enable the school management to monitor the movement of teachers during each working day.
The book is usually placed in the principal‘s office; it should be filled by any teacher who has
obtained permission to go out.
Weekly Diary: the school diary has two parts, namely:
(i) scheme of work, and (ii) record of work.
Scheme of Work: this is usually drawn from the school syllabus and indicates the mapped out
themes that are to be covered in each subject area.
Record of Work: this records the work already done on a weekly basis. It is different from the
scheme of work which shows the work to be done on a weekly basis.
Visitors Book: all the very important visitors received in the school must be recorded in the
visitor‘s book

Filing procedures and systems
Filing is the systematic arrangement of school records a good filing system should have the
following:
a. Accessibility
b. Simplicity
c. Economic
d. Flexibility e.g. can either be stored numerically or alphabetically.
e. Safety
Types of filling
a. Alphabetical filing system

Filing of record according to the first letter of the name
b. Numerical filling system
This involves filling the record in numerical order. Each document or folder is given a
unique serial number.
c. Subject filling system
Files are arranged in order according to the subject matter of each document e.g.
promotions, disciplinary case
d. Chronological filing system
Evolves the filing of records according to the sequence of events.
1.3 Record management in education
Professional practice or discipline of controlling and governing what are considered to be the
most important records of an organisation throughout the record life cycle. This work includes,
i.identifying,
ii.classifying,
iii. prioritising,
iv. storing,
v.Securing.
The role of record management in an organisation
 Improved transparency and accountability

 Effective policy formulation; give anyone to access to view your organizations file plan to
understand the lifecycle and policies on any type of data
 View a record‘s historical lifecycle; allow knowledge workers to quickly and easily see
when a record was created as well as its entire lifecycle and audit history

 Informed decision making; easily set aside or lock down information for legal holds that
may be required during litigation.
 Management of business risks; reduce legal risks- minimize legal risk, as well as risk of
fines and penalties, due to keeping error-prone. Obsolete data that could have been
destroyed.
 The formation of business, personal and collective memory
 Protection of intellectual property
 The protection of corporate, personal and collective memory
 The practice of record management may involve planning the information needs of an
organisation
 Identifying the information that requires to be captured
 Creating, approving and enforcing policies and practices regarding records including their
organisation and disposal
 Developing a record storage plan which includes the following, short term and long term
housing of physical records and digital information.
 Identifying classifying and storing records
 Coordinating access to the records internally and externally
 Storage also involves balancing the requirement of business confidentiality and privacy
Requisites for Effective Record Keeping
 Help you work more efficiently

 Enable you to meet legal obligations applicable to your work
 Protect the interest of the government and of your agency
 Protect your rights as an employee and citizen
 Demonstrate the cost and impact of your business
 Enable review of processes and decisions
 Retain the corporate memory of your agency and its narrative history
 Help research and development activities.
 Enable consistency and continuity in your business.
Integrity and Ethical issues in Record Management
 In Ethics, integrity is regarded as the honesty and truthfulness or accuracy of one‘s

actions. Integrity is adherence to moral and ethical principles; soundness of moral
character; honesty.

 When we talk about integrity and ethical issues in records management, we refer to good
attributes that result in creation and receipt of authentic and reliable records and
information.
Good attributes of staff person who:
 Understands the vision and mission of the organization

 Know and cherish the core values of the organization
 Understands the importance and values of records
 Respects the laws governing management of records
 Able to apply and implement records management policy
 Able to apply systems and procedures in place for management of records
 Upholds honesty in creation, receipt and use of records
 Knows how to differentiate different categories of classified information
 Knows that information must not be recklessly handled and disseminated
 Understands the official channel of giving/releasing information to a third party
 Does not get tempted to steal information for personal gain
 Does not get tempted to hide information for personal gain
 Does not get tempted to destroy information for whatsoever reason
 Does not corrupt information to conceal criminal activity
1.4 Reasons for Keeping School Records
(1) Record keeping in a school helps the head teacher to give all necessary information about the
school, staff and pupils to any inspector from the Ministry of Education or any other regulatory
body,
(2) Record keeping plays a very crucial role in the life of the students because after leaving the
school to further his or her studies, the institution of higher learning may request for any
information about his/her previous school.
(3) It enables the parents to know the performance of their children. The parents may ask the
school administrator about the record which shows the performance of their children,
(4) Apart from students‘ academic performance, it also helps the parents to get adequate
information about the children, how regular and punctual they are in the school and the general
behaviors,
(5) Record keeping helps the government through ministry of education to get adequate
information about the school, and
(6) Without relevant re cords, the development of scheme of work, lesson notes, and curriculum
cannot be easy as records of past years will be helpful in these processes. There may also be
problems and confusion when compiling students‘ results.
Other reasons why school records are kept are;
(7) To ensure strict compliance with the requirement of education law,
(8) For planning and budgetary purposes,
(9) To save school from unnecessary embarrassment (and legal tussle,)
(10) To provide useful information not only for members of the school community but also for
members of the public, employers of labor, researchers and government,
(11) To aid administrative decision making and efficiency in the school, and
(12) to enable the teacher know something about his pupil and through this, be in a better
position to assist him/her academically, morally, socially and in addition to be able to predict his
behavior and provide needed information to whoever may need it.
1.5 Managing Physical Records
This involves a number of activities as outlined below:
a. Identifying the records.
This involves the identification and specification of the records that an organisation needs in
order to function effectively. If an item is presented as a legal record it needs to be authenticated.
This tool is part of identification of records. Forensic experts may need to examine a document
to determine its not a forgery and that any damaged, altered among contents is documented
b. Storing records
Record must be stored in such a way that they are accessible and safely guarded against
environmental damage. A typical document may be stored in an office.

c. Retrieval of records:
In addition to being able to store records, organisation must also establish a proper capacity for
the retrieval of record in the event that they are needed for a purpose such as audit or litigation or
for case of distribution. Record retrieval capabilities become complex when dealing with
electronic records.
d. Circulating record
Tracking the record while it is away from the normal storage level is referred to as circulation.
Often it is handling by simple written recoding procedures which show you were the file is.
However, many modern record environments has a computerised system involving barcode,
scanners a radio frequency identification technology to tract movement of the records. These can
also be used for auditing to identify unauthorised movement of a record.
e. Disposal of records
Does not always mean destruction. It can also include transfer to the historical archives, museum
or private individuals.
What is a digital record?
A digital record is any information that is recorded in a machine readable form. It includes
numerical, graphical, audio, visual and textual information which is recorded.
What is an electronic record keeping system?
An electronic record keeping system is an automated information system for the organised
collection, processing, transmission and dissemination of information in accordance with the
defined procedure.
Management of electronic records
Electronic records like any other record must be managed throughout their entire life cycle, from
creation, when they are created and when they are in existence, (when they are accessed
frequently at least once a month) and through their inactive life, when they are not in use and
have to be maintained for legal fiscal and administrative or historical reasons. Until the final
disposition which should be destruction or storing as a permanent record

Records Inventory
The first step of the management is the creation of a record inventory in order to more effectively
manage records. A records inventory, a list of all the record. Organisations should create an
inventory or any other way of locating the record regardless of format. A records inventory is
also form ensuring that record are included in all approved retention schedules.
Maintenance requirement for electronic storage media preservation
 Duplicates of permanent or long term record must be kept in an off-site storage facility
with constant temperature (below 20 degrees) and relative humidity control.
 Organisation must annually read a statistical sample of all electronic media to identify any
loss of info and discover and correct the cause of data loss.
 Organisations must test all permanent or long term electronic record at least every ten years
and verify that the media are free of permanent error. More frequent testing, for instance
every five years is highly recommended.
Environmental control
i. Electronic recorded media must be stored in a cool dark dry environment with a minimum
temperature of 22.7 degree Celsius with a relative humidity of 20-50 percent.
ii. Smoking, eating, and drinking must be prohibited in the area where electronic record
media are recorded stored, used, or tested.
iii. Electronic record media must not be stored closer than 2 m (about six feet, seven inches)
from source of magnetic fields, including generators, elevators, transformers, loud
speakers, microphones, headphones, magnetic cabinets, and magnetised tools.
iv. Electronic record on magnetic tape or disk must not be stored in a metal container unless
the metal is none magnetic. Storage containers must be resistance to impact, dust intrusion
and moisture.
v. Compact disk must be stored in hard cases and not in cardboard paper or flimsy sleeves
Electronic record backup for disaster recovery
Organisation must back up electronic record on a regular basis to safeguard against loss of
information due to equipment malfunction, human error or other disasters. Back up media
created for disaster recovery purposes must be stored in an offsite storage facility with constant
temperature (below 20 Celsius and relative humidity control)

Destruction of electronic record
Organisations must insure all destruction of records is conducted in a manner that safe guards the
interest of the organisation and the safety, security and privacy of individual. Ensure that the
information that the information cannot practically be heard, reconstructed or recalled.
Appropriate destruction methods include:
Physical destruction of storage medial such as by shredding, crushing or incineration. High level
of heating that render the data unrecoverable, and demagnetising. Organisation must specify the
manner of destruction of such records when documenting dispositions. When possible recycling
following destruction is encouraged when necessary
Confidentiality integrity and availability of records
Confidentiality
This ensure that the data for a client, employee, parent or pupil is not disclosed to unauthorised
persons e.g. It can be breached if you transfer a record via an unsecure lines of communication
such as web based email, or instant messaging programmes. Confidentiality can also be breached
by improperly configuring a file system to allow anyone to view the record.
Integrity
This is the state of being pure or free from flaws or inconsistency. When applied to record
systems, it is used to describe the state of data and modifications made by a process or personnel
and any unauthorised modification as well. For instance, you must be able to guarantee that
system will have checks and balances within its self that keep unauthorised people out and to
monitor those who have access.
Availability
This refers to the state of being accessible by a person or process. An available system is one that
users can access in a timely and efficient manner. In other words, even if system is up, it must
also be able to handle the work load and provide the resources as defined by its purpose. This
includes those secondary services that are used to ensure that data recovery and integrity in
general.

1.6 Planning and budgeting
Functions of Educational Planning
Planning
Planning involve establishing goals and objectives and then identifying procedure of attaining
them. It is a process that involves creating and maintaining an actual plan.
Educational planning is the application of a rational and systematic analysis to the process of
educational development with the aim of making education more effective and efficient in
responding to the need and the goals of the students and the society.
Considering that educational planning is concerned with the problem of wisely distributing the
limited resources r and the types of education (formal, non-formal etc), the process of
educational planning comprises three main functions.
1. Identification of Objectives and strategies:
By this we mean that educational planning helps in identifying and defining the objectives and
the strategies, programs, procedures, policies and standards which education needs to be more
effective and efficient. Through educational planning we are able to clearly identify and define
educational objectives, identify and also clearly define various activities which are to be carried
out to achieve the educational objectives
2. Proper Distribution of Scarce Resources.
By scarce resources, we mean the limited resources which are available to satisfy our wants
(needs). Educational planning helps in seeing to it that the limited resources are properly or
wisely allocated to provide the needed level and type of education to the citizens of the country.
In order to help in wisely allocating the limited resources, alternative courses of action are
compared and then the one that has great benefits for the citizens are allocated more resources.
3. Educational Planning aids decision making:
Educational Planning helps decision maker war all levels to reach a better and well informed
decision. This is because through educational planning, adequate date are collected on the
particular level that we wish to plan for and on the basis of such information available. It is also
easier to arrive at better decisions. Educational planning therefore helps to promote speedy and
effective administration of the system since the administrators of the system are provided with
necessary guidelines to work with. Furthermore, with educational planning, it becomes easy to
evaluate the progress made in the educational system.

1.7 Function of a Budget
- A budget is a document which outlines a in a systematic ay the income and expenditure

of an individual, a firm or a national government, for a given period of time
- Hartman (1 999), defined school budget as a working tool for the successful operation of
state and local schools and a significant opportunity to plan the mission, improve their
operations, and achieve their educational objectives.
- In a more technical term, school bud get is a statement of the total educational programs
for a given unit, as well as an estimate of resources to carry out the programs and the
revenues needed to cover those expenditures.
Budget functions
 Handy (1993) Stresses that a budget needs to fulfil several functions

 Planning
 Providing operational data
 Controlling
 Acting as a stimulant for change
Other functions of a budget include;
 To forecast the activities, services and programmes, which the appropriate school
governing body/council has approved for a given period,
 To reveal the anticipated revenue for a given period and the source
 To show the details of the intended expenditures for the school for a given period,
 To control the official financial activities of the school head b e it at the primary,
secondary and tertiary institution levels.
 To reduce to the barest minimum the level of wastages or reckless spending of approved
funds for various educational facilities in the school, and
 To reveal other contributions and pressures on the budget that is expected during the
given period.
 Helps to make long term and short term projections
 It prevents the occurrence of a crisis in an organizations
 Helps schools to make the most out their money
 Helps schools track expenses, large and small.
 Helps schools plan for major changes
 It gives financial freedom to the school.

 Ways of controlling budget, comparing actual results with actual target.

- If the budget is reviewed as a resource management tool, then its role is clearly wider than
providing a simple income expenditure statement: It is also concerned with allocations
according to custom or priorities.
- NOTE; Budgets are not simply financial statements: they facilitate the development and
control of the budgetary process and are essential elements in organizational productivity and
change.
The major considerations for educational planning;
1. Educational status and the Head count.
Every realistic plan is based on a dependable census when figure from the head count were
dependable, we could staminate, with reasonable accuracy, the number of classroom, teachers
and headmasters, desks and tables elaborative, capital and recurrent costs e.t.c
2. Supply and Demand of Teachers
The quality of education depends solely on the quality of teachers trained. This is because they
can only teach what they know. There is need for the restructuring of the curriculum of colleges
of Education and faculties of Education to respond to national needs. Also, steps should be taken
to improve the conditions of service of teachers if they are to remain in the education sector.
3. Educational Financing
Graduates of primary or secondary education who secure jobs are able to earn wages and salaries
and thus contribute to the Gross National Product, and this brings about the justification for
public and private investment in education because of their returns. The equitable sharing of
financial burdens of education amongst federal, state and local governments must be fully
considered by all parties concerned.
4. School Buildings
The design, construction, equipment and maintenance of school buildings should be considered.
School buildings should be adequately maintained because of their depreciation value; which if
not properly looked after, could be hazardous to the existence of the users, that is teachers and
students.

5. Curriculum Development.
The constant modification of the curriculum is necessary, since the curriculum should be relevant
to the needs of the society, and the society is not static, it is dynamic.
6. Educational Materials.
The supply and distribution of educational materials are highly necessarily considered.
Educational materials such as books, maps rulers, pencils, teaching aids e.tc. may make the
educational programme fail, if not properly organized.
7. Expansion Models
Expansion models must be created from the beginning to bring into consideration what is
envisaged in the primary, secondary and tertiary schools many years ahead, and to look for
possible strengths and weaknesses they can borrow and avoid in the present one.
8. Relevance to Political, Economic, Social and Cultural Policies and Objectives.
If educational plans are not closely geared towards political, economical, social and cultural
objectives, they will not take off and people will be educationally dissatisfied.
9. Integrated Implementation.
Strategies to mobilize everybody to reason to why the various statistics for planning are
necessary will bring about a sincere consideration for the need to plan the education of a nation.
When public support is achieved, decrees and laws are no longer imposed. Instruments and
people will jointly work towards the implementation of the educational plan.
10. Legal Bases.
Planning takes place under established laws. The legal framework for planning should be
streamlined through legislation to include the form, structure and functions of the planning units
and agencies, the staffing and the responsibilities, the relationships of the units with other
educational authorities (Gbadamosi, 2005).

1.8 Factors that influence a Budget
1. Lack of Accurate Statistical Data.
In order to make a working bud get by the school, there must b e available accurate data of past
projects and bud gets. In some schools, these records are not properly kept while they are not
even available in some schools. This makes it difficult for school head s to make accurate
financial projection for the school programs, and with this problem preparation and
implementation of budget in a school is difficult.
2. Political Instability.
The unstable political environment and policies, as well as lack of continuity in all government
policies in Nigeria give room to poor economy. This lead to reduction in allocation of funds to
the public schools which have adverse effect on the p reparation and implementation of the
school budget.
3. Inflation.
This is a situation whereby too much money buys fewer goods; inflation is a persistent fall in the
purchasing power of citizens of a country. This situation makes the preparation and
implementation of school budget so difficult in Nigeria where the accurate rate of inflation
cannot be ascertained. As a result of this, some budgeted projects may not be implemented due to
rising cost of materials. This makes the preparation of school budget faulty and makes the
implementation very difficult.
4. Dependence on Government Grants.
The largest p art of revenue for public school s in Nigeria comes from the government, while
very insignificant financial resources come from other sources and internally generated revenue.
Government gives both recurrent and capital expenditures to public schools.
Whenever, there is a delay in the allocation, the implementation of the budget becomes so
difficult to the extent that schools at times are grounded, and in Zambia nowadays, government
allocation is unpredictable, especially with the trend of economic situation in the world, where
prices of Copper which is the major source of revenue for Zambia is fluctuating. This and other
problems had reduced school budget to a mere paper work and no more a working budget.

5. Insincere School Heads.
Most of the school heads in Zambia are not sincere, and are greedy, most of the times; they
misappropriate the allocated funds and also commit other forms of indiscipline such as
embezzlement in their schools. This will jeopardize the attainment of objectives of the school
system as contained in the school budget.
6. Lack of Orientation for School Heads.
Most of the school heads are not given induction training on assumption of headship position.
They only use their residual knowledge gained when assisting their school head to prepare their
budget when they eventually become the school head. To those who do not assist before
assuming headship position, this is a serious threat. Most school head s give this function to their
bursars or other delegated staffs; this practice does not give room for realistic budgeting.
School Financing
The provision of funds and facilities are critical to the success of every educational
administrator. The financing of education has become very challenging because of the increasing
demand for educational services and the ever declining resources available to education. The
main ways for financing education are through levies, fees, taxes and revenues from copper
explorations. These sources are presented below:
- Pay as You Earn (P.A.Y.E) Taxes: these taxes are paid by all salary earners and are
deducted at source making evasion very unlikely.
- Property tax: these are taxes paid by property owners on various categories of property.
- Rates: these are taxes paid for the use of such facilities as water, electricity, roads,
airspace etc. -They are usually collected by Local Government Councils.
- Education Levies: individual schools through their Parents
- Teachers Association, Board of Councils etc can embark on education levies to raise
funds for education.
- School Fees: these are fees charged students as their contributions to keeping the schools
functional. For Government institutions school fees are kept as moderate as possible in
view of the fact that the tax payer is principally responsible for financing education
- Endowments: these are usually special funds and financial assistance to educational
institutions in place by private individuals with genuine concern for the development of
education.
- Donations: some individual philanthropist and organizations voluntary donate to the
course of educational development. Such gestures may be in cash or kind.
- Commercial Ventures: some educational institutions embark on meaningful commercial
activities to source for extra funds to run the schools. Some have succeeded immensely.

Guide to income generating projects
 Finance committee should have one fundraising project per year

 Fundraising ventures: should not exploit students
 Should not make them vulnerable to abuse
 Pupils who cannot afford should not be discriminated against.
 No school should ask for donations from international organizations.
 All donations must be declared
Procedures in managing School Finances
In education, Financial management refers to the capacity of head teachers and other education
managers to deploy the financial resources of an institution, such as a school, with maximum
effectiveness and efficiency
School financial procedures
Financial management deals with revenue collection and proper utilization of funds in order to
maximize the value of the organization.
 Education managers such as school heads, deputy heads, heads of department and
teachers are required to account for funds. And assets in their trust.
 All monies collected in the school, be it school fees, church rentals, donations, hire of
school facilities becomes public funds once received. Therefore financial guidelines
guide the disbursement of such funds and assets.
Recurrent expenditure
 This is the type of expenditure which is undertaken to run routine activities
Revenue
 Donations from organizations and individuals, school fees, rentals from hiring out the
classrooms etcetera.

Financial Guidelines
 The school must have a finance committee

 There must be an accounts assistant
 There must be an approved annual budget
 A bank account where
 A register of accountable documents these include, check books, petty cash book, Local
Purchase Order (LPO), goods received notebook etcetera.
 The school needs an assets register
 An audited accounts report to submit to the PTA
 File for minutes of all committees should be in the heads office
Regulations governing the banking of school funds
 All funds collected must be banked before using them

 The school to open a current account with a registered commercial bank. No interest
earning account.
 Four members will be signatory to the account, two non-accounting staff from
administration and two accounting officers
 Money should be banked daily, within 24hours of receiving it.
 Bank deposits should agree with total money received on a particular day.
 Bank deposits are done in duplicate and serially numbered,
 The person receiving money for the bank must acknowledge receiving it in the bank
register.
 Details of deposits must be entered in the cash register,
 Under no circumstances should school be lodged in a private account.
 A bank reconciliation must be drawn up at the end of every month
 No private checks may be cashed from the school accounts
Handling school expenditure
 The department must present purchase requirement, to finance committee.

 The finance committee meet to approve.
 The requests must have three supporting quotations, showing what is being requested for.
 Cheque and invoice must be pinned to the voucher and sent for signatories.

 All payments must be checked by the finance committee member before payment is
passed.
 Invoices must be filled in numerical order.
 Payment vouchers must also be filled in numerical order.
 No overdrafts are permitted for a government institution.
 No credits allowed.
The School Threshold
 Schools are mandated to purchase anything below 5000 kwacha with the authority of the
head-teacher.
 Above K5, 000 the schools need to seek authority from the DEBS office.
 Above K10, 000 the clearance should be from the provincial office, using tender
procedure.
Principles of Financial Management
Financial management is the acquisition, financing, and management of assets with some overall
goal in mind (Van Horne & Wachowicz, 2009). While the exact wording of the 10 principles
vary from author to author, the basic content remains the same. Sound financial management
incorporates fundamental actions.
 Practice Ethical Behaviour; the institute of management accountants lists the principle
of ethical behaviour as the ―obligation to the public, their profession, the organization
they serve, and themselves, to maintain the highest standards of ethical conduct‖ that
include competence, confidentiality, integrity and objectivity.
 Don’t Risk without Significant Return; risking profits for poorly designed projects,
violates a basic principle of financial management. The capital market theoryof financial
management involves increased return with less risk. Mathematical formulas calculate
the risk.
 Design a Realistic Budget: realistic budgeting involves a master budget and separate
capital and operating budgets. Budgets translate the objectives into detailed plans,
according to the International Agricultural Research Centers of the World Bank.

 Safeguard against Loss: financial management requires instituting safeguards against

losses. Safeguards vary with individual projects. While safeguards are not foolproof, a set
of safeguards must be in place.
 Expect Competitive Markets; projects operate in the middle of the market and face
competition from other financial projects. Management must plan for competitive
markets in soliciting funding and marketing a product or service.
 Locate Efficient Capital Markets; capital is money placed in an investment. Capital

markets involve long term financing for investments. Location of funds for both short and
long term investment is required for sound financial management.
 Locate Quality Managers; financial management requires flexibility in dealing with the
unknowns. Quality, competent managers handle ―a vast range of unknowns‘‘.
 Monitor & Evaluate Financial Data; changing interest and exchange rates and also
equity and commodity prices requires savvy financial management. Stresses the
importance of using new math and financial data evaluation techniques in financial
management.
 Vary Risk with the Venture; analysis of the operational model, market and financial
model determine the risk of a venture.
 Use Cash as a Basis for New Projects; cash is critical to financial management. New
projects based on cash may conflict with current operating projects, but the opportunities
for earnings override those concerns.

Summary
This unit has been concerned with the basic staff records needed to assist in the smooth
functioning of a school. The Ministry of General Education requirements in terms of school
records, we like to stress here that it is absolutely important that school heads maintain a record
of their staff members, for the keeping of efficient staff records is an important tool in the hands
of the school heads. The school manager also has to be knowledgeable enough in terms of
budgeting and planning to ensure school progress.
Self-assessment
1. What is record management
2. What is the importance of record management
3. What is a budget
4. Give two reasons why planning is necessary

UNIT 2: DELEGATION
 Identify and describe types of delegation

 Discuss guidelines for effective delegation
 Discuss process of delegation.
 Examine challenges of delegation
2.0 BACKGROUND
Whether an organization is big or small, as an administrator, you cannot administer it

successfully alone. You will be inviting chaos and inefficiency. Whether you like it or not, you
must learn to delegate responsibilities to your subordinate staff in your interest and in the interest
of the institution you are trying to serve. Failure to delegate leads to poor organization,
inefficiency and ultimate failure to achieve the major goals of the institution. Your health may
suffer by trying to do too much. Furthermore, some members of your organization becomes
unhappy if you do not entrust them with responsibilities which they are eager and ready to carry.
If you do not delegate, you will strain your relationship with them
2.1 Delegation of Duties
Definition
• Delegation is the process of dividing up your total work and giving part of it to your
subordinate or subordinates.
• It is about handing of a task from a superior to a subordinate.
• It includes assigning duties and responsibilities to those whom he expects to aid him in
doing the work of the organization.
• It is skill that all leaders need in order to maximize their effectiveness.
It is the power to make decisions which guide the actions of others. In other words, it is
the power to give orders and make sure that these orders are obeyed. In order to finish the
work in time, there is a need to delegate authority and follow the principles of division of
labor.
- According to Koonts and O‗Donnell, ― Authority is the power to command others to act
or not to act in a manner deemed by the possessor of the authority to further enterprise or
departmental purposes.

- According to Luis Allen, It is the sum of powers and rights entered to make possible the
performance of the work delegated.
Responsibility
- It is the obligation to do something. In other words, it is the obligation to perform the

tasks, functions, or assignments of the organization. The essence of responsibility is
obligation. If a person is entrusted with any work, he should be held responsible for the
work that he completes
- According to Davis, Responsibility is the obligation of individual to perform the assigned
duties to the best of his ability under the direction of his executive leader.
In the words of Theo Haimann,
- Responsibility is the obligation of subordinates to perform the duty as required by his
superior.
Delegation of Authority
Delegation is a process which enables a person to assign a work to others with adequate authority
to do it. The authority can be delegated but not the responsibility. Delegation of authority is
considered to be one of the most important methods of training subordinates and building
morals. It is acknowledged that delegation of authority is one of the surest and best methods of
getting better results.
The four Elements in Delegation
1. Giving part of your work to your subordinates.

2. Giving the subordinates the necessary authority to carry out the work
3. Setting up a control mechanism to ensure that work is being done according to
predetermined standards.
4. The accountability of the superior to his own boss cannot be delegated to the
subordinates.
Benefits of Delegation
• It reduces the workload of the senior executives and enables him to devote more time to
more important matters concerning the organization.
• Delegation enables real decentralization by increasing the levels at which decisions are
made. No need to go higher authority for some simple decisions.
• It gives the people the freedom to direct their own activities to assume responsibilities
and thereby satisfy their ego.

• It helps teachers and students develop a sense of participation in the running of their own
school.
• It helps in job enlargement i.e. enlarging the scope of responsibilities
• It helps in avoiding autocrats within the school organization.
• It reduces indispensability - It is easy for the next person in line to take the vacant
Position
2.3 Guiding Principles in Delegation
1. Be clear in your mind which responsibilities or specific duties you want to delegate and
to whom?
2. Your decision about whom should be delegated should be guided by a number of
considerations such as experience of the person,, his suitability for the job, interests,
enthusiasm, public relations, self-image, etc.
3. When delegating, do not ask one person to do too much. Distribute duties fairly.
4. You should delegate completely. There is no half delegation. Have confidence in your
staff.
5. To ensure that delegated tasks are being done properly, you should be kept informed of
what is happening in each area of activity.
6. Do not delegate responsibility to unwilling or indifferent members of staff.
7. Avoid favoritism in the allocation of duties
8. Use committee system if possible.
9. You should periodically hold scheduled meetings with staff or committees so as to be
fully aware of what is happening in each case.
10. it‘s a good idea to put in writing any detailed instruction of specific duties to be
performed. This is necessary in view of frequent staff changes in some schools.
11. Delegation to go by results: The superiors should clearly know what he expects from the
subordinates before delegation of authority. It should be noted that the objective of the
organization are to be accomplished in time.
12. Non-delegation of responsibility: Assigning duties does not mean delegation of

responsibilities. A superior can delegate authority but not responsibility.
13. Parity of authority and responsibility: Responsibility without authority will make a
person an inefficient one. So there should be a proper balance between authority and
responsibility.
14. Unity of command: A subordinate should be assigned duties and responsibilities only by
one superior and he is accountable only to the concerned superior.

15. Definition of limitation of authority: There should be a written manual which help a
person to understand the authority in right direction.
Steps in Successful Delegation Process
The following steps will help the successful delegation of authority.
1. Deciding the goals to be achieved: The purpose of delegation is to enable efficient

accomplishment of organizational objectives. If it is not clearly defined, the subordinate
may hesitate to accept the authority.
2. Establishment of definite responsibility: The authority and responsibility of each

subordinate should be clear in terms. It helps to avoid duplication of authority.
3. Determining what to delegate: This will necessitate the evaluation of the capacity of the
individual and needs of the organization.
4. Training: Subordinate should be properly trained in handling delegated work.
5. Control system: There should be a suitable control system to keep a careful watch over
the performance of the subordinates.
Types of Delegation
A brief explanation of the different types of delegation is given below:

1. General delegation: It means granting authority to the subordinate to perform various
managerial functions and exercise control over them.
2. Specific delegation: Here, orders or instructions are delegated to a particular person

specifically.
3. Written delegation: When authority is delegated in written words it is known as written

delegation.
4. Unwritten delegation: If authority is delegated on the basis of custom or usage etc, it is

known as unwritten delegation.
5. Formal delegation: If duties and authority are shown in the organizational structure of
the enterprise, then it is called formal delegation.
6. Informal delegation: If a person exercising authority without getting it from the top
management in order to perform his assigned duties, it is a case of informal delegation.

7. Downward delegation: It is a case where the superior delegate duties and authority to
his immediate sub ordinate.
8. Sideward delegation: A person delegate authority to another person who is also in the
same rank as he is in the organization.
Barriers to Effective Delegation
1. The feeling that nobody can do the job as better as I can.

2. Be done badly and I will shoulder the blame.
3. Since I have little idea about how the work can be done. The feelings that Delegating
work means it will effectively, I had better do it myself.
4. I don‘t want the staff to think that somebody is doing my work.
5. I can only be seen to be part of the team if I keep doing the job myself.
Summary
Delegation is very important in every organization. Delegation allows senior officials of an

organization to allocate or give certain duties to subordinates. This reduces the workload of the
one in charge. It also makes the subordinates gain some kind of supervisory experience and also
builds some confidence in them.
Self-assessment
1. Define delegation
2. List two elements of delegation
3. List two benefits of delegation

UNIT 3: PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

 Discuss methods used in performance appraisal
 Discuss the guidelines for performance appraisal
 Explain the application of performance appraisal results
3.1 Conducting Performance Appraisal
-Performance Appraisal- performance appraisal involves rating personnel performance in

relationship to the organizational standards and goals. Features of this step involve rewarding
personnel, providing feedback and maintaining communications between administrators and
subordinates.
Performance appraisal is a system of measuring workers output, productivity or efficiency

either in qualitative or in quantitative terms. It is a method of accountability and corrections for
improvement.
Performance appraisal involves:
-Identification
 Determining what areas of work the manager should be examining when measuring
performance
-Measurement
 Making managerial judgments of how ‗good‘ or ‗bad‘ employee performance
-Management
 The overriding goal of any appraisal system.

Uses of Performance Appraisal
 Administrative process
 Developmental process
Factors that Influence Employee’s Performance
 Knowledge and skills
 Motivation
 Work environment
Sources of Information in Performance Appraisal
 The employee
 Employee‘s manager
 Employee‘s co-workers
 Employee‘s subordinates
 Customers / Clients
Employee Performance Management System
 Objective setting
 Implementation of work and monitoring
 Appraisal of the individual workers
 Follow-up action

Performance Appraisal Process
 Interview
– Opening
– Begin discussion
 Counselling
– Non-directive counselling
– Advice giving
– Information giving
– Teaching and coaching
Methods used in performance appraisal
There are many types of performance appraisal methods. Some of them are:
1) Job results/outcome
2) Essay method
3) Ranking
4) Forced Distribution
5) Graphic Rating Scale
6) Behavioural Checklist
7) Behavioural Anchored Rating Scales (BARS)
8) Management by Objectives (MBO)
Job Results
Though not an appraisal method per se, job results are in themselves a source of data that can be
used to appraise performance. Typically, an employee's results are compared against some
objective standard of performance. This standard can be absolute or relative to the performance
of others.
Results indexes are often used for appraisal purposes if an employee's job has measurable results.
Examples of job results indexes are dollar volume of sales, amount of scrap, and quantity and
quality of work produced. When such quantitative results are not available, evaluators tend to use
appraisal forms based on employee behaviours and/or personal characteristics.

In some cases, appraisals may focus on results rather than behaviours. This is especially true
where job content is highly variable, as in many managerial positions, thus making it difficult to
specify appropriate behaviours for evaluative purposes. Results indexes such as turnover,
absenteeism, grievances, profitability, and production rates can be used to evaluate the
performance of organization units.
Essay Method
The essay method involves an evaluator's written report appraising an employee's performance,
usually in terms of job behaviours and/or results. The subject of an essay appraisal is often
justification of pay, promotion, or termination decisions, but essays can be used for
developmental purposes as well.
Since essay appraisals are to a large extent unstructured and open-ended, lack of standardization
is a major problem. The open-ended, unstructured nature of the essay appraisal makes it highly
susceptible to evaluator bias, which may in some cases be discriminatory. By not having to
report on all job-related behaviours or results, an evaluator may simply comment on those that
reflect favourably or unfavourably on an employee. This does not usually represent a true picture
of the employee or the job, and content validity of the method suffers.
Ranking
Ranking methods compare one employee to another, resulting in an ordering of employees in

relation to one another. Rankings often result in overall assessments of employees, rather than in
specific judgments about a number of job components. Straight ranking requires an evaluator to
order a group of employees from best to worst overall or from most effective to least effective in
terms of a certain criterion. Alternative ranking makes the same demand, but the ranking process
must be done in a specified manner (for example, by first selecting the best employee in a group,
then the worst, then the second-best, then the second-worst, etc.).
Comparative evaluation systems such as ranking are rarely popular. No matter how close a group
of employees is in the level of their performance, and no matter how well they perform on the
job, some will rank high and some will end up at the bottom. Evaluators are often reluctant to
make such discriminations. Also, rankings are unable to compare employees across different
groups. For example, it is difficult to say whether the second-ranked employee in unit A is as
good as or better than the second-ranked employee in unit B. Despite the problems of ranking
methods, if an organization has a very limited number of promotions or dollars to allocate,
rankings can be very useful in differentiating among employees.

Forced Distribution
Forced distribution is a form of comparative evaluation in which an evaluator rates subordinates

according to a specified distribution. Unlike ranking methods, forced distribution is frequently
applied to several rather than only one component of job performance.
Use of the forced distribution method is demonstrated by a manager who is told that he or she
must rate subordinates according to the following distribution: 10 percent low; 20 percent below
average; 40 percent average; 20 percent above average; and 10 percent high. In a group of 20
employees, two would have to be placed in the low category, four in the below-average category,
eight in the average, four above average, and two would be placed in the highest category. The
proportions of forced distribution can vary. For example, a supervisor could be required to place
employees into top, middle, and bottom thirds of a distribution.
Forced distribution is primarily used to eliminate rating errors such as leniency and central
tendency, but the method itself can cause rating errors because it forces discriminations between
employees even where job performance is quite similar. For example, even if all employees in a
unit are doing a good job, the forced distribution approach dictates that a certain number be
placed at the bottom of a graded continuum. For this reason, raters and ratees do not readily
accept this method, especially in small groups or when group members are all of high ability.
Graphic Rating
Graphic rating scales are one of the most common methods of performance appraisal. Graphic
rating scales require an evaluator to indicate on a scale the degree to which an employee
demonstrates a particular trait, behaviour, or performance result. Rating forms are composed of a
number of scales, each relating to a certain job or performance-related dimension, such as job
knowledge, responsibility, or quality of work. Each scale is a continuum of scale points, or
anchors, which range from high to low, from good to poor, from most to least effective, and so
forth. Scales typically have from five to seven points, though they can have more or less.
Graphic rating scales may or may not define their scale points.
Acceptable rating scales should have the following characteristics:

1. Performance dimensions should be clearly defined.
2. Scales should be behaviourally based so that a rater is able to support all ratings with
objective, observable evidence.
3. Abstract trait names such as "loyalty," "honesty," and "integrity" should be avoided
unless they can be defined in terms of observable behaviours.

4. Points, or anchors, on each scaled dimension should be brief, unambiguous, and

relevant to the dimension being rated. For example, in rating a person's flow of words, it
is preferable to use anchors such as "fluent," "easy," "unimpeded," "hesitant," and
"labored," rather than "excellent," "very good," "average," "below average," and "poor."
Carefully constructed graphic rating scales have a number of advantages:
1. Standardization of content permitting comparison of employees.

2. Ease of development use and relatively low development and usage cost.
3. Reasonably high rater and ratee acceptance.
A disadvantage of such rating scales is that they are susceptible to rating errors which
result in inaccurate appraisals. Possible rating errors include halo effect, central tendency,
severity, and leniency. The halo effect occurs when a rating on one dimension of an
appraisal instrument substantially influences the ratings on other dimensions for the same
employee. As a result of the halo effect, an employee is rated about the same across all
performance dimensions. Central tendency is a lack of variation or difference among
ratings of different subordinates, wherein most employees tend to be rated as average.
Leniency refers to an evaluator's tendency to rate most employees very highly across
performance dimensions, whereas severity refers to the tendency to rate most employees
quite harshly.
Mixed Standard Scales
Mixed standard scales are a relatively recent innovation in rating scales. They contain
statements representing good, average, and poor performance based on behavioral
examples obtained from knowledgeable persons, usually supervisors. An evaluator's task
is to indicate whether an employee either fits the statement, is better than the statement, or
worse than the statement.
In a mixed standard scale, each performance dimension has three statements relating to it:
one illustrating good performance, one average, and one poor. Thus, this mixed standard
scale has nine statements, three for each of the three dimensions used. Statements in
mixed standard scales are randomly mixed, tending to reduce rater errors by making it less
obvious which statements reflect effective or ineffective performance.
Example of a mixed standard scale
Instructions: If the employee fits the statement, put a ?=? in the space opposite the
statement. If the employee is better than the statement, put a ?v?. If the employee is worse
than the statement, put ?x?.

1. Is on good terms with everyone. Can get along with people even in disagreement.
2. Employee's work is spotty, sometimes being all right and sometimes not. Could
be more accurate and careful.
3. Has a tendency to get into unnecessary conflicts with people.
4. Is quick and efficient, able to keep work on schedule. Really gets going on a new
task.
5. The accuracy of employee's work is satisfactory. It is not often that you find clear
evidence of carelessness.
6. Gets along with most people. Only very occasionally has conflicts with others on
the job, and these are likely to be minor.
7. Is efficient enough, usually getting through assignments and work in reasonable
time.
8. Work is striking in its accuracy. Never any evidence of carelessness in it.
9. There is some lack of efficiency on employee's part. Employee may take too
much time to complete assignments, and sometimes does not really finish them.
Behavioural Checklist
A behavioural checklist is a rating form containing statements describing both effective

and ineffective job behaviours. These behaviours relate to a number of behavioural
dimensions determined to be relevant to the job.
Items from a behavioural checklist for a salesperson's job
Instructions: Please check those statements descriptive of an employee's behaviour.
1. Calls on customers immediately after hearing of any complaints

2. Discusses complaints with customer
3. Gathers facts relevant to customers' complaints
4. Transmits information about complaints back to customers and resolves problems
to their satisfaction
5. Plans each day's activities ahead of time
6. Lays out broad sales plans for one month ahead
7. Gathers sales information from customers, other salesmen, trade journals, and
other relevant source.
Behavioural checklists are well suited to employee development because they focus on
behaviours and results, and use absolute rather comparative standards. An advantage of
behavioural checklists is that evaluators are asked to describe rather than evaluate a
subordinate's behaviour. For this reason, behavioural checklists may meet with less
evaluator resistance than some other methods. An obvious disadvantage of behavioural
checklists is that much time and money must be invested to construct the instrument.

BARS - Behaviourally Anchored Rating Scales
Behaviourally anchored rating scales (BARS) are rating scales whose scale points are
defined by statements of effective and ineffective behaviours. They are said to be
behaviourally anchored in that the scales represent a continuum of descriptive statements
of behaviours ranging from least to most effective. An evaluator must indicate which
behaviour on each scale best describes an employee's performance.
BARS differ from other rating scales in that scale points are specifically defined
behaviours. Also, BARS are constructed by the evaluators who will use them. There are
four steps in the BARS construction process:
1. Listing of all the important dimensions of performance for a job or jobs

2. Collection of critical incidents of effective and ineffective behaviour
3. Classification of effective and ineffective behaviours to appropriate performance
dimensions
4. Assignment of numerical values to each behaviour within each dimension (i.e.,
scaling of behavioural anchors)
Sample of BARS
Interpersonal
SKILL DESCRIPTION: Develops and maintains a friendly rapport with others;

demonstrates a sensitivity to their feelings; respects the dignity of others and responds
with empathy to their own sense of self-worth.
Ratings 1 and 2: Demonstrates the ability to get along well with subordinates, managers,
and peers; strives to achieve work group objectives. Can express own ideas, thoughts, and
feelings and considers the needs, ideas, and feelings of others.
Ratings 3 and 4: Demonstrates the ability to apply factors of effective listening, on a one-
to-one basis, such as displaying interest, not interrupting when another is speaking, and
withholding judgments. Consistently provides honest (both positive and negative)
feedback and provides constructive criticism when appropriate.
Ratings 5 and 6: Demonstrates the ability to consistently consider and respond to the
needs and ideas of others which encourages and stimulates further communication.
Effectively listens in group or one-to-one situations involving distractions, stress, complex
information, or when the person speaking is emotional/distraught. Creates/maintains a
positive working environment that encourages expression of thoughts, ideas, and feelings.

Management by Objectives
Management by objectives (MBO) involves setting specific measurable goals with each
employee and then periodically discussing his/her progress toward these goals. The term
MBO almost always refers to a comprehensive organization-wide goal setting and
appraisal program that consist of six main steps:
1. Set the organization‘s goals. Establish organization-wide plan for next year and
set goals.
2. Set departmental goals. Here department heads and their superiors jointly set
goals for their departments
3. Discuss and allocate department goals. Department heads discuss the department's
goals with all subordinates in the department (often at a department-wide
meeting) and ask them to develop their own individual goals; in other words, how
can each employee contribute to the department's attaining its goals?
You can download excellent PowerPoint slides on HR Management and Human
Capital Strategy HERE.
4. Define expected results (set individual goals). Here, department heads and their
subordinates set short-term performance targets.
5. Performance review and measure the results. Department heads compare actual
performance for each employee with expected results.
6. Provide feedback. Department heads hold periodic performance review meetings
with subordinates to discuss and evaluate progress in achieving expected results.
3.2 Useful Guidelines for Performance Appraisal
Establish clear performance, standard by away of producing a work plan.

Choose and carefully apply the right Appraisal technique or right combination of
techniques.
Be sure the subordinates view the Appraisal as fair by Appraising the employee on the
agreed work plan and targets.
Evaluate subordinates performance regularly
Application of Performance Appraisal Results
Employer perspective
 Individual differences in performance can make a difference to company performance

 May be needed for legal defense

 Provides a rational basis for constructing bonus
 Can help to implement strategic goals
 Providing individual feedback
 Can include teamwork and teams
Employee perspective
 Performance feedback is needed and desired

 Improvement in performance requires assessment
 Differences in performance levels across workers be measured and have an effect on
outcomes
 Can motivate workers to improve performance
 Increased knowledge of the workers and the school system
 Improved learning opportunities for students
 Improved morale and efficiency within the school
Problems of Performance Appraisal
 Rater errors and bias

 Influence of liking
 Organizational politics
 Individual or group focus
 Legal issues
 Recent effect
 Halo effect
 Central tendency
 Prejudice and stereotype
 Fatigue
 Effective performance appraisal
 Conduct appraisal in private
 Allow enough time for employee to discuss issue
 Refer to performance not individual
 Provide specific not general behavior

 Give feedback in a good manner

 Avoid loaded terms which produce emotional reactions
Summary
In this unit we described job performance appraisal as the system of measuring workers‘ output,
productivity or efficiency either qualitatively or quantitatively. We also discussed the benefits of
performance appraisal which include career development through training, Increased knowledge
of the workers and the school system, Improved learning opportunities for students, and
Improved morale and efficiency within the school.
Self-assessment
1. What is job performance appraisal?
2. Identify three main benefits of performance appraisal.

UNIT 4: TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT
Unit outcomes: student teachers are to
 Discuss forms of continuing professional development in the Ministry of Education
 Discuss the purpose of continuing professional development.
 Explain the procedures for staff development.
 Analyse the different approaches of continuing professional development
4.1 Continuing professional development
Policy on Teacher Professional Development
Zambian in acknowledging the importance of teacher professional development developed the

following policy guidelines through its ministry;
1. In order to foster the quality and effectiveness of the education system, it was to promote the
quality of individual teachers and of the teaching profession as a whole.
2. Acknowledged that the two pillars on which the professional competence of teachers rests
were initial training and on-going in-career professional and personal development.
3. To pursue various options in order to increase the supply of trained teachers for Basic Schools.
4. Formulate broad guidelines and strategic approaches for the in-service education and training
of teachers and exercise a coordinating role in respect of such training.
5. Recognizing that terms and conditions of service crucially affect the morale and commitment
of teachers, the Ministry was to strive to have these improved.
6. The need to create a professional teachers‘ body that would set and maintain the highest
professional standards among teachers.

4.2 In-Service Education and Training (INSET)
There are two types of In-Service education and training programs, a long term up-grading or
professional courses for school teachers offered by the National In-service Training College
(NISTCOL), the Zambia Institute of Special Education (ZAMISE) and the University of Zambia.
Short term INSET or Continuing Professional Development (CPD) consisting of capacity
building programs mostly school based or held in Teachers‘ Resource Centres, aimed at
improving the professional as well class room practice of School Teachers. INSET programmes
have been used to upgrade the teachers capacity, sensitize and training teachers implement new
interventions in the Education System such as the Primary Reading Programme, (PRP), Basic
School Curriculum
Framework (BSCF), Self Help Action Plan for Education (SHAPE), Programme for the
Advancement of Girls Programme (PAGE), Action to Improve English, Mathematics and
Science
(AIEMS), new education materials in HIV/AIDS Science Kits, School Health and Nutrition,
Multi-grade, and Learner-centred Methodologies.
Despite these interventions, the failure to implement the educational reforms in totality, lack of
comprehensive curriculum review at teacher training and the nature of the training programs that
were being offered compromise the quality of teacher education programs, lack of teacher
competence and professionalism. At school level the quality of education suffered as could be
evidence by the results of the National Assessment Surveys that are carried out every two years.
To address the concerns over the quality of education the Ministry has embarked on improving
teachers professional qualification and competence at the same time improve teaching learning
environment through provision of Teaching Learning materials/ equipment and rehabilitation of
institutional infrastructure. The Ministry has provided teacher professional development through
Pre-Service Training provided through teachers‘ training colleges and In-Service training
through school based initiatives.
4.3 Discuss the purpose of continuing professional development.
- The Continuous professional development for teachers fosters improvement of teaching

skills, new teaching methods to recognize and reinforce teaching excellence, to help
teachers focus on student outcomes and to plan CPD education activities.
- However, teachers are supposed to exhibit some competencies in the mastery of materials
that are to be taught and should as well possess skills of communicating the material to
the pupils. Similarly, UNESCO points out that frequent support from colleagues through
witnessing each other‘s efforts can greatly affect student learning. It further confirms that
more knowledge on the part of the teacher leads to higher levels of student achievement.
CPD of teachers plays a very important role in changing teachers‘ teaching methods and
these changes have a positive impact on the pupils. It is through CPDs that teachers are

able to assimilate pedagogical content and knowledge and it is these changes that are
associated with classroom instruction and student achievement.
4.4 Explain the procedures for staff development.
- The minister may, by statutory instrument, on the recommendations of the council, make
regulations to provide for CPD and training to be undertaken by teachers
- The nature and extent of CPD to be undertaken by teachers
The criteria for recognition by the Council of CPD training program and college of education for
purposes of this Act;
- the minimum professional and technical to be provided by a training institutions to a

person who is to be registered in the teaching profession
- the requisite infrastructure of colleges of education, the educational and training

curricula, the training equipment and staffing levels.
Who decides whom should do CPD
- The local school decides

The following should be considered in choosing who goes for CPD:
- Decides the vacuum that should be filled
- They should identify training needs
4.5Analyse the different approaches of continuing professional development
Characteristics of the School Based CPD through Lesson Study approach since 2005
The Lesson study was introduced in 2005 to functionalise SPRINT and is imbedded in the MOE
policy framework and budgets. It uses a combination of top down approaches such as
Stakeholders Workshops (SHW), Facilitators workshops (FW) and bottom up approaches in
which topics or what teachers would like to learn comes from the grassroots needs. It is school
based and done through teacher group meetings (TGM) during the term. It also strengthens the
role of the resource centres as used its structures to deliver INSET building upon what was

developed under DFID concept. Further, it is cluster since it works in the structure of Zone
resource centres.
Project approach
The lesson learnt is that the programme approach is far much more superior to the project
approach. Many things had been learned through the implementation of projects including the
importance of setting and achieving targets, monitoring goals, even writing reports and being
accountable for the financial resources that were allocated to an activity. The project approach
lacked accountability, sustainability and was personalized. The project approach was
characterized and encouraged allegiance to the project-funders as opposed to the government
Programme approach
Which is now adopted to implement Programs of Ministry of Education, has brought about
continuity in implementation and working in an integrated manner with other ministries,
organizations and other stakeholders. A major difficult with the programme approach has been
for the stakeholders to come to a consensus in the implementation as they come for different
backgrounds in different implementation procedures and expectations.
Summary
In this unit you have learned the meaning of continuous professional development (CPD).
Different approaches to staff development were full examined. The process of training and how
to evaluate training were highlighted and the main advantages of training for both the staff and
the organization were described. Human resources policies and practices have been established
in the course of our discussion. We have also seen that for successful project development
and completion in education there must be continuous management development.
Self-assessment
1. List three reasons why continuous profession development should be practiced
2. Explain two procedures for staff development

THIRD YEAR
UNIT 1: EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
 Describe the nature and scope of Educational Planning.

 Critique the nature and scope of Educational Planning.
 Examine the process of Educational planning
 Analyse the strategies of Educational planning
 Discuss the roles of Educational Planning in a national development
1.1 Educational planning and national development
Educational Planning, like all planning branches can be described as a process of preparing a set
of decisions about the educational system in such a way that goals and purposes of education will
be sufficiently realized in future with the available resources. According to Nwankwo (1981) the
focus of educational planning is the application of rational and systematic analysis of the
education production function with a view to suggesting what actions or measures would make
the production of education more efficient and effective. This is based on the nature of goals of
the society and the students.
Describe the nature and scope of Educational Planning.
- Educational planning is the frame of reference and the point of departure of an

interdisciplinary approach. It is also the logical response to the universal trend towards
planning overview development
- Planning is an instrument and it is an attitude reflecting the desire for orderly change and
the strategy by which this change can be brought about.

Critique the nature and scope of Educational Planning.
Its very nature is normative, and espouses the rationalistic tradition in planning theory. The
model is normative in that it presents how the planning process should be, not how it is. It is a
rational model in that it views people as a utility and defines human relations in instrumental
terms, and it assumes a sequential, observable cycle that includes setting goals, determining of
objectives, making plans, and implementing the plans and reviewing the results (Adams, 1991).
Educational Planning Process
Adesina (1981) identified three major steps in the educational planning process. It is important
that we understand those steps. They are: statement of educational objectives, identification of
various activities needed to achieve the stated educational objectives and evaluation of results.
a. Statement of educational objectives.
The educational objectives must be identified and clearly stated. This will ensure that there is no
confusion about the objectives.
b. Identification of various activities.
The various activities which are needed to achieve the stated objectives must be clearly
identified. Usually, those activities relate to the supply of the human and material resources that
are required. This ranges from identifying such institutions (schools, examination bodies, etc)
that would have to be established for the plan implementation and monitoring, to the number of
cleaners required. They also relate to the identification of the number of staff required, their
qualifications and experience and the amount of money required to maintain the system.
c. Evaluation of results:
Evaluation should be related to the stated objectives. The extent to which a plan meets the
objectives it has established for itself can be determined by looking at the implementation in
relation to those objective and outcome results
Educational Planning Process according to Peretomode (1991) involves the following steps;
 Plan survey and deliberations.
 Definition of goals and objectives
 Programs design and specification

 Programme provision;
 Implementation and control;
 Plan Evaluation and plan regeneration.
Plan survey and deliberations
The very first task to be accomplished is a survey of the existing conditions, potentials and
constraints. Necessary data and information must be organized and analyzed to reveal the
existing state of educational development and areas of needs. Then the next stage follows.
Definition of goals and objectives
Once the planning survey and deliberations has been ascertained, the next thing to do is to define
the new educational objectives to be pursued as well as specify the targets to be achieved.
Educational objectives that are broadly stated by the political leadership must be made more
specific by the technical planners to permit specific task definitions (Lyons,1970.).
Programme Planning and design.
This is the next task after defining goals and objectives. Here the technical planner has to reduce
the already defined educational objectives to specific task to be accomplished and alternative
programs that can be adopted must be designed. The alternative programs and or techniques for
accomplishing such educational tasks must be quantitatively evaluated for efficacy to permit a
rationale choice among them.
Programme Provision.
Once the choice of the most effective and efficient programme and or technique have been made,
the next thing is to implement. This requires the provision of adequate resources (human and
materials) to ensure effective programme implementation.
Implementation and Control.
Translate the plan into action by arranging for the execution. Determine how the activities that
should be done, the manpower requirements and so on. Arrange the execution of the plans, a sort
of time table will be necessary to ensure that all actions taken are intend to achieve the stated
objectives. This stage also requires the commitment of the political leadership to ensure efficient
flow of resources and to guarantee smooth implementation and supervision of the plan.

Plan evaluation and plan regeneration.
Evaluation must be related to stated objectives. The extent to which a plan meets the goals it has
established for itself can be determined only when those goals are again brought to picture. A
plan that does not produce the results it has anticipated has evidently failed. Plan regeneration
constitutes the last lap in educational planning cycle. This requires linking subsequent plans with
the previous plan in terms of feedbacks or learning experiences. Plan regeneration or recycling is
most desirable so that unachieved objectives or programs from previous plans can be
accommodated in subsequent ones.
1.2 Uses of Educational Planning
Considering that educational planning is concerned with the problem of wisely distributing the
limited resources r and the types of education (formal, non-formal etc), the process of
educational planning comprises three main functions.
1. Identification of Objectives and strategies:
By this we mean that educational planning helps in identifying and defining the objectives and
the strategies, programs, procedures, policies and standards which education needs to be more
effective and efficient. Through educational planning we are able to clearly identify and define
educational objectives, identify and also clearly define various activities which are to be carried
out to achieve the educational objectives
2. Proper Distribution of Scarce Resources.
By scarce resources, we mean the limited resources which are available to satisfy our wants
(needs). Educational planning helps in seeing to it that the limited resources are properly or
wisely allocated to provide the needed level and type of education to the citizens of the country.
In order to help in wisely allocating the limited resources, alternative courses of action are
compared and then the one that has great benefits for the citizens are allocated more resources.
3. Educational Planning aids decision making:
Educational Planning helps decision maker, work all levels to reach a better and well informed
decision. This is because through educational planning, adequate that are collected on the
particular level that we wish to plan for and on the basis of such information available. It is also
easier to arrive at better decisions. Educational planning therefore helps to promote speedy and
effective administration of the system since the administrators of the system are provided with

necessary guidelines to work with. Furthermore, with educational planning, it becomes easy to
evaluate the progress made in the educational system.
The role of educational planning in national development
The need for educational planning entails the following:
1. The complex nature of education, the activities of the administrators within the system, and
the highly diffuse nature of the goals of education calls for proper planning. Within the
intensified complication of modern technological society, the need for social and economic
planning arose. Pressures from population explosion,
manpower needs, ecology, decreasing national resources and haphazard application of scientific
development, the need to advance improvement as rapidly and cheaply as possible to benefit the
individual and the nation, place demands on educational institutions for solution, hence the need
for educational planning.
2. Resources to be used in education sector are limited, thus the need to determine in advance a
programme of action for the attainment of the goal within a given time.
3. Adequate plans help to direct and co-ordinate the actions of employees in order to achieve
maximum effectiveness, efficiency and productivity.
4. Planning is necessary for administrative decisions in education, for it aims at putting into
action what educators deems to achieve.
5. Planning enables a nation to make its choices clear in terms of the aim and objectives.
6. Educational plans are designed to avoid in balances and enormous wastes and replenish the
steadily aggravated shortage of teachers.
Since the goals and objectives of education are all embracing impacting upon social, economic
and political well beings of the society, much is expected from educational planning.
With the aim of promoting the quality of life among the populace. Within this context, education
contributes to national development in the following ways:
 Fostering permanent literacy in the nation
 Developing programs to achieve national objectives;
 Eliminating wasteful imbalances in the educational system by forecasting on what will
benefit national development;
 Checking unemployment in the economy;

 Judicious utilization of available resources. These contributions are further discussed

below:
Fostering Permanent Literacy
Education is already known to be positively related with economic growth, and by extension,
national development. To encourage education, government is enforcing literacy programs
through a variety of forms, e.g. Universal Basic Education. With such programs, an educated and
skilled labor force is created for the economy.
Developing Measures to Achieve National Objectives
The national objectives, as specified in the National Policy on Education are basically economic
objectives, and the government has decided to use education as a tool for achieving these
objectives. Within this context, the following measures exist for enhancing the contributions of
education to national objectives:
- Rating education high in national development plans;
- Relating education to overall community needs;
- Using modern educational techniques to encourage acquisition of relevant knowledge and
skills;
- Structuring education to maximize self-reliance and self development.
Eliminating Wasteful Imbalances in Education
In many developing countries, like Zambia, the rising demand for education particularly at the
primary level, create problems for some other levels. For example, expansion at the primary
level, due to demand, is hardly complemented at the secondary and tertiary levels. The result is
that many students graduating at the primary level, are hardly accommodated at the secondary
level, creating chances for drop-outs. This is wasteful. But through adequate educational
planning techniques, such lapses are eliminated.
Judicious Utilization of Available Resources
In educational planning, efficiency criteria demands that resources are invested in the most cost-
effective manner. This means that education has a number of in-built techniques (for example,
cost benefit analysis, management by objectives, etc.) which ensure that educational objectives
are achieved with minimum cost. This situation ensures that money is available for other aspects
of national development.

Important factors to consider when planning
1. Available personnel or human resources

2. There should be a mechanism for evaluation
3. Time and place
4. Consulting and communicating methods
5. Management philosophy and operation style
6. Delegation of responsibility and authority
7. Strengths and weaknesses of events or projects
Planning and two main time frames
1. Long range (2-5 years).

2. Short range (daily, weekly, monthly).
Long range
It has several characteristics for example.
1 it has a statement of purpose (this ask what is the overall purpose of the organisation). It also
has broad goals knows as objectives. Long range plans consist of processes which serve as
guidelines for carrying out and activity.
Short
A short range plan is quite specific in its application and consist of procedure, practices and
rules. Procedure tell employees exactly what steps to take in a given situation. Practices are
methods used for handling specific problem. Rules are procedures covering one situation only.
A good plan will have the following.
a. An objective.
The objective must be representative of all points of view and not just manages thinking.
b. Clear and Flexible

In order to encourage more participation from the members of the organisations.
c. Must be complimentary and consistent with the new and old policy. In other words the new
policy must be consistent and complimentary with the old policy.

Planning ensures the following.
1. Reduction of uncertainty or risk associated with the future.

2. Effective performance of the functions of the management process
3. Efficient use and sharing of facilities.
4. Appropriate spending of available funds.
5. Proper sequencing of various tasks or priorities
Effective evaluation of school activities
Summary
This unit discussed the role of educational planning in promoting national development. The
influence of education on economic growth is mainly felt in the areas of improving the literacy
level of the labor force and helping the populace to acquire relevant skills and expertise. On the
other hand, the impact of educational planning on national development is manifested in:
developing measures to achieve national objectives, eliminating wasteful imbalances in
education, fostering permanent literacy, checking unemployment and making judicious use of
available resources.
 By improving the literacy level of the labour force, and
 By helping in the acquisition of relevant skills and expertise.

Planning is conscious, systematic process during which decisions are made about the goals and
activities that an individual, group, work unit or organization will pursue in future. It provides
individuals and work units with a map to follow in their future activities. The three main forms
of planning are strategic, tactical and operational planning. Strategic planning involves making
decision about the long term plan and strategies of an organization. Tactical planning helps to
translate the broad strategic goals and plans into specific goals and plans that are relevant to a
definite portion of the organization. Operational planning involves the identification of the
specific procedures and processes required at lower levels of the organization. It should be noted
that strategic, tactical and operational goals and plans of the organization must be linked together
in a consistent and mutually supportive manner for better achievement.

Self-assessment
1. Explain the importance of planning in an ECE centre
2. List three types of planning
3. Explain the importance of the schemes of work

UNIT 2: CHANGE MANAGEMENT
 Identify types of change in an organisation

 Explain the process of change in an organisation
 Discuss strategies for managing change in an organization
2.1 Change Management
"There is nothing more difficult to take in hand, more perilous to conduct, or more uncertain in
its success than to take the lead in the introduction of a new order of things."
Change management is a structured approach to shifting/transitioning individuals, teams, and

organizations from a current state to a desired future state. It is an organizational process aimed
at empowering employees to accept and embrace changes in their current working environment;
changes to a project are formally introduced and approved. Organizational Change Management
should begin with a systematic diagnosis of the current situation in order to determine both the
need for change and the capability to change.
2.2 Types of Change
1. Organization-Wide Change
It is a large scale transformation that affects the overall structure of the company. This typically
tends to entail the resizing of any form, restructuring or collaboration- basically a step towards
changing the nature of the institution (college)
Examples of organization-wide change might be a major restructuring, collaboration or

―rightsizing.‖
Usually, organizations must undertake organization-wide change to evolve to a different level in
their life cycle, for example, going from a highly reactive, entrepreneurial organization to one
that has a more stable and planned development. Experts assert that successful organizational

change requires a change in culture – cultural change is another example of organization-wide

change.
Examples of a change in a subsystem might include addition or removal of a product or service,
reorganization of a certain department, or implementation of a new process to deliver products or
services.
NOTE: changes in this category are long term and if not planned well can be highly disruptive.
2. Transformational Change
It is important for companies to constantly examine the organization‘s underlying strategies. A

company must be in touch with the environment around them. This includes knowing cultural
trends, understanding the social climate and generally be clued up on technological advances.
According to recent MIT study, maturing digital businesses are focused on integrating digital
technologies, such as social, mobile, analytics and cloud, in the service of transforming how their
businesses work.
Less-mature businesses are focused on solving discrete business problems with individual digital
technologies. In an increasingly digitally motivated world, more take based companies are taking
risks.
An example of transformational (or radical, fundamental) change might be changing an

Organization‘s structure and culture from the traditional top-down, hierarchical structure to a
large amount of self-directing teams. Another example might be Business Process Re-
engineering, which tries to take apart (at least on paper, at first) the major parts and processes of
the organization and then put them back together in a more optimal fashion. Transformational
change is sometimes referred to as quantum change.
Examples of incremental change might include continuous improvement as a quality
management process or implementation of new computer system to increase efficiencies. Many
times, organizations experience incremental change and its leaders do not recognize the change
as such.
3. Personnel Change
It is when a company undergoes mass hiring or layoffs. This necessitates a shift in college
culture and processes.
When a company rapidly expands by hiring masses, the organization will have to absorb the
initial shock of on boarding new employees as it also fits each employee into their new role,

where each new role may yet to be defined. If this transition is not managed well, can cause
chaos and inefficiency
Layoffs can stem from a number of reasons (government regulations, financial restraints) it still
greatly affect the remaining employees of the organization. These changes tend to negatively
affect employee morale, this something that should be considered. It is important to efficiently
and fairly manage how to disperse the workload. Employees who take on more tasks than
originally given can be inefficient and even if it is a temporary solution to filling gaps, can also
result in shaky transitioning period.
4. Unplanned Change
Amidst the endless data analysis and planned strategies, an organization can undergo a number
of unplanned changes, sometimes even more drastic than planned ones. Changes like these may
be introduced in an unplanned manner in response to a change in the demographic composition
of an organization i.e. lack of diversity or social equality. These changes are typically internal
unplanned changes.
External factors that include economic uncertainties and changes in government regulations play
a crucial role in compelling organizations to change. Another surprise occurrence could be any
kind of natural disaster. With instances like these being completely wild and unforeseeable, a
company‘s response to such an event is a true testament to its resiliency. That being said, these
changes are often chaotic and expensive and prompt companies to act within limited time. It is
because of this that solutions tend to be short term fix to a current problem.
Unplanned change usually occurs because of a major, sudden surprise to the organization, which
causes its members to respond in a highly reactive and disorganized fashion. Unplanned change
might occur when the Chief Executive Officer suddenly leaves the organization, significant
public relations problems occur, poor product performance quickly results in loss of customers,
or other disruptive situations arise.
Planned change occurs when leaders in the organization recognize the need for a major change
and proactively organize a plan to accomplish the change. Planned change occurs with successful
implementation of a Strategic Plan, plan for reorganization, or other implementation of a change
of this magnitude.
Note that planned change, even though based on a proactive and well-done plan, often does not
occur in a highly organized fashion. Instead, planned change tends to occur in more of a chaotic
and disruptive fashion than expected by participants.

5. Remedial Change
These changes are brought about when responding to a general sense of deficiency or poor
company performance. Performance levels tend to drop when suffering from financial distress.
These remedial changes or corrective actions are thus made with the intention of increasing
functionality and reviewing certain strategies that may have been previously considered as
profitable, but now only seem to be detrimental to the organizational structure.
An example, if the environment business works and becomes polluted as the result of the
activities of that business, this pollution must be cleaned for reasons of safety and welfare. A
business would then invest in financing the remedial action or applying for the finances to do so
Change can be intended to remedy current situations, for example, to improve the poor
performance of a product or the entire organization, reduce burnout in the workplace, help the
organization to become much more proactive and less reactive, or address large budget deficits.
Remedial project soften seem more focused and urgent because they are addressing a current,
major problem. It is often easier to determine the success of these projects because the problem
is solved or not. Change can also be developmental – to make a successful situation even more
successful, for example, expand the amount of customers served, or duplicate successful
products or services.
Developmental projects can seem more general and vague than remedial, depending on how
specific goals are and how important it is for members of the organization to achieve those goals.
Some people might have different perceptions of what is a remedial change versus a
developmental change. They might see that if developmental changes are not made soon, there
will be need for remedial changes. Also, organizations may recognize current remedial issues
and then establish a developmental vision to address the issues. In those situations, projects are
still remedial because they were conducted primarily to address current issues.
2.3 Successful change management
Successful change management is more likely to occur if the following are included:
1. Benefits management and realization

a. To define measurable stakeholder aims,
b. Create a business case for their achievement (which should be continuously
updated),
c. And monitor assumptions, risks, dependencies, costs, return on investment, dis-
benefits and cultural issues affecting the progress of the associated work.

2. Effective Communication
a. That informs various stakeholders of the reasons for the change (why?),
b. The benefits of successful implementation (what is in it for us, and you)
c. As well as the details of the change (when? where? who is involved? how much
will it cost?
3. Devise an effective education, training and/ skills upgrading scheme for the organization.
4. Counter resistance from the employees of companies and align them to overall strategic
direction of the organization.
5. Provide personal counseling (if required) to alleviate any change related fears.
6. Monitoring of the implementation and fine-tuning as required.
2.4 Steps to successful change
1. Increase urgency - inspire people to move, make objectives real and relevant.
2. Build the guiding team – Get the right people in place with the right emotional
commitment, and the right mix of skills and levels.
3. Get the vision right – Get the team to establish a simple vision and strategy focus
on emotional and creative aspects necessary to drive service and efficiency.
4. Communicate for buy-in – Involve as many people as possible, Communicate the
essentials, simply, and to appeal and respond to people's needs. De-clutter
communications - make technology work for you rather than against.
5. Empower action – Remove obstacles, Enable constructive feedback and lots of
support from leaders – Reward and recognize progress and achievements.
6. Create short-term wins – Set aims that are easy to achieve - in bite-size chunks.
Manageable numbers of initiatives. Finish current stages before starting new ones.
7. Don't let up – Foster and encourage determination and persistence - ongoing
change - Encourage ongoing progress reporting – Highlight achieved and future
milestones.
8. Make change stick – Reinforce the value of successful change via recruitment,
promotion, and new change leaders. Weave change into culture.
2.5 Change Management Principles
A. Principle ONE : Different people react differently to change

B. Principle TWO: Everyone has fundamental needs that have to be met
C. Principle THREE: Change often involves a loss, and people go through the "loss
Curve‘.
D. Principle FOUR: Expectations need to be managed realistically
E. Principle FIVE: Fears have to be dealt with
Principle ONE
Different people react differently to change

The following diagram represents a spectrum of change:
Stability - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Change
a) Different people have different preferences for where they like to be on this spectrum.
b) Some people like to be at the STABILITY end of the spectrum - they like things to be the
way they have always been.
c) Other people like to be at the CHANGE end of the spectrum - they are always looking for
something different and new.
d) Problems arise when the individual's preferences differ from the situation they find
themselves in. That is, if:
i. A stability - oriented person finds that circumstances are changing quite
rapidly, or
ii. A change - oriented person finds that everything is the same and there is
nothing new
e) In these situations, the individuals involved can experience:
i. strong dissatisfaction
ii. Stress
iii. Negative attitudes towards individuals with preferences at the other end of the
spectrum (eg: distrust, dislike)
iv. Resistance (to change, or to the status quo)
v. intense emotions
vi. Loss of rational judgment
Principle TWO
Everyone has fundamental needs that have to be met
A famous psychologist called Will Schutz identified three basic needs that people have in
interpersonal relations. These basic needs are also of fundamental importance in people's
reaction to change:
A. The need for control

B. The need for inclusion
C. The need for openness
Whilst the need for these can vary between people, in any change process there is always some
degree of need for control over one's environment/destiny, some degree of need to be included in
the process of forming the change that is taking place, and some degree of need for
managers/leaders to be open with their information.
If a change programme fails to meet the control, inclusion and openness needs of the individuals
affected by it then that programme is likely to encounter a range of negative reactions, ranging
from ambivalence through resistance to outright opposition.
Principle THREE
Change often involves a loss, and people go through the "loss curve"
The relevance of the "loss curve" to a change management programme depends on the nature and
extent of the loss. If someone is promoted to a more senior position, the 'loss' of the former
position is rarely an issue because it has been replaced by something better. But if someone is
made redundant with little prospect of getting a new job, there are many losses (income, security,
working relationships) that can have a devastating effect.
There are many variations of the "loss curve". One is known as "Sarah" - that is, the individual
experiences (in this order):
• S-hock
• A-nger
• R-ejection
• A-cceptance
• H-ealing
The common factors amongst all "loss curves" are:
1. That there can be an initial period where the change does not sink in. For example,
feelings may be kept high by the individual convincing themselves that the change is not
going to happen.
2. That when the loss is realized, the individual hits a deep low. The depth of this 'low' is
deepened if the loss is sudden/unexpected.
3. That the period of adjustment to the new situation can be very uncomfortable and take a
long time. In the case of bereavement, the period of adjustment can be as long as two
years.

Principle FOUR
Expectations need to be managed realistically
1. The relationship between expectations and reality is very important. You can see this in
customer relations –
2. If a supplier fails to meet expectations then the customer is unhappy; if the supplier
exceeds expectations then the customer is happy.
3. To some extent the same principle applies to staff and change.
4. If their expectations are not met, they are unhappy.
5. If their expectations are exceeded, they are happy.
6. Sometimes, enforced change (eg: redundancies) inevitably involve the failure to meet
expectations: there had been an expectation of job security, which has now been taken
away.
7. What leaders/managers have to do, however, is make sure they don't pour petrol on the
fire by making promises that can not or will not be kept.
8. Expectations have to be set at a realistic level, and then exceeded (eg: in terms of the
degree of outplacement support that will be provided).
Principle FIVE
Fears have to be dealt with
In times of significant change rational thought goes out of the window. This means that people
often fear the worst - in fact, they fear far more than the worst, because their subconscious minds
suddenly become illogical and see irrational consequences. E.g.:
i. Our company is reducing staff, which means...

ii. They will make people redundant, and...
iii. I'll be the first to be kicked out, and...
iv. I'll have no hope of getting another job, and...
v. I won't be able to pay the mortgage, so...
vi. I'll lose the house, so...
vii. My family won't have anywhere to live, and...
viii. My wife won't be able to cope, so...
ix. She'll leave me, and...
x. I'll be so disgraced the children won't speak to me ever again.
Such fears need to be addressed, eg by helping people to recognize that most people who are
made redundant find a better job with better pay and have a huge lump sum in their pocket! Or,

where appropriate, by explaining how the reductions in staff numbers are going to be achieved
(by natural wastage or voluntary redundancy).
Application of the Principles to the Management of Change
A. Give people information - be open and honest about the facts, but don't give
overoptimistic speculation. Ie meet their OPENNESS needs, but in a way that does not set
UNREALISTIC EXPECTATIONS.
B. For large groups, produce a communication strategy that ensures information is
disseminated efficiently and comprehensively to everyone (don't let the grapevine take
over). E.g.: tell everyone at the same time. However, follow this up with individual
interviews to produce a personal strategy for dealing with the change. This helps to
recognize and deal appropriately with the INDIVIDUAL REACTION to change.
C. Give people choices to make, and be honest about the possible consequences of those
choices. Ie meet their CONTROL and INCLUSION needs
D. Give people time, to express their views, and support their decision making, providing
coaching, counselling or information as appropriate, to help them through the LOSS
CURVE
E. Where the change involves a loss; identify what will or might replace that loss - loss is
easier to cope with if there is something to replace it. This will help assuage potential
FEARS.
F. Where it is possible to do so, give individuals opportunity to express their concerns and
provide reassurances - also to help assuage potential FEARS.
G. Keep observing good management practice, such as making time for informal discussion
and feedback (even though the pressure might seem that it is reasonable to let such things
slip - during difficult change such practices are even more important).
2.6 Some Causes of Change Management Failure
The following are some of the most common reasons why organizational change might fail. You
can use the list for diagnostic purposes, or to prevent mistakes in future attempts at change.
i. Mis-starts - A mis-start occurs when a change is ill-advised, hastily implemented or

attempted without sufficient commitment. This is a leadership credibility killer.
ii. Making change an option - When leadership commits to a change, the message must be
that the change is not an option. But the message that often comes across is "We'd like
you to change, we're asking you to change, we implore you to change, please change..."
Whenever people have the option not to change, they won't.
iii. A focus only on process - Leaders can get so caught up on planning and managing the
process that they don't notice that no tangible results are being achieved. The activity
becomes more important than the results.
iv. A focus only on results - This stems from a belief that the end justifies any means.
Organizations tend to fail miserably in this regard: they downplay or ignore the human
pain of change. It is this insensitivity to people's feelings that not only prevents the
change but destroys morale and loyalty in the process.
v. Not involving those expected to implement the change - A great deal of resentment is
aroused when management announces a change and then mandates the specifics of
implementation. Employees need to be involved in two ways. First, their input and
suggestions should be solicited when planning the change. Secondly, after a change has
been committed to, they should be involved in determining the means. Leadership needs
to communicate, "Here's what must happen. How do you think it can best be done?
vi. Delegated to "outsiders" - Change is an inside job. Although outsiders like consultants
might provide valuable ideas and input, people inside the systems must accept
responsibility for the change. Scapegoating and passing the buck is not an option.
vii. No change in reward system - If you keep rewarding employees for what they've always
done, you'll keep getting what you've always gotten. Make sure that rewards, recognition
and compensation are adjusted for the desired change.
viii. Leadership doesn't walk the talk - For change to happen, everybody involved must buy-
in. Leadership, however, must take the first steps. Change is aborted whenever leadership
doesn't demonstrate the same commitment they expect from others.
ix. Wrong size - In this instance, the change is too massive to be achievable or too small to
be significant. Like a good goal, a change program should be neither too easy nor too
impossible.
x. No follow-through - The best planning is worthless if not implemented, monitored and
carried out. Responsibility must be clearly defined for making sure that follow-through is
timely and intense
2.7 RESISTANCE TO CHANGE
People who welcome change are not generally the best at being able to work reliably,
dependably and follow processes. The reliability/dependability capabilities are directly opposite
character traits to mobility/adaptability capabilities.

Certain industries and disciplines have a high concentration of staff who need a strong
reliability/dependability personality profile, for example, health services and nursing,
administration, public sector and government departments, utilities and services; these sectors
will tend to have many staff with character profiles who find change difficult. The more you
understand people's needs, the better you will be able to manage change. Be mindful of people's
strengths and weaknesses.
Resistance to Change
Not everyone welcomes change. Take the time to understand the people you are dealing with,
and how and why they feel like they do, before you take action. Most people prefer predictability
and stability in both their personal and professional lives.
People typically avoid situations that upset order, threaten their self-interests, increase stress or
involve risk. When faced with changes to the status quo, people usually resist initially. The
resistance continues and, in some cases increases, until they are able to recognize the benefits of
change and perceive the gains to be worth more than the risk or threats to their self-interests.
People resist change due to the fundamental human objection to having the will of others
imposed upon them. Strong resistance to change is often rooted in deeply conditioned or
historically reinforced feelings. Age is another factor it‘s important for managers to understand
that people's priorities and motivations are different depending on their stage of life. Patience and
tolerance are required to help people in these situations to see things differently. Bit by bit.
Also, certain types of people - the reliable/dependable/steady/habitual/process-oriented types -

often find change very unsettling.
People Resist Change When:
1. They believe change is unnecessary or will make the situation worse.

2. They fear that the change will mean personal loss - of security, money, status, friends or
freedom.
3. They had no input into the decision.
4. The change was a surprise.
5. They are not confident that the change will succeed.
6. They feel manipulated because the changes were kept secret during the planning stage.
7. They subscribe to the belief, "If it's not broken, don't fix it."
8. They believe that the organization lacks the necessary resources to implement the change.

People Support Change When:
a) They expect that it will result in some personal gain.

b) They expect a new challenge as a result.
c) They believe that the change makes sense and is the right thing to do.
d) They were given an opportunity to provide input into the change.
e) They respect the person who is championing the change.
f) They believe it is the right time for the change.
Steps for Countering Resistance to Change
i. Leaders should anticipate resistance to any change effort, prepare for it, and make special
efforts to assess and deal with individual reactions to change.
ii. Leaders must develop the proper attitude toward resistance to change and realize that it is
neither good nor bad.
iii. In fact, resistance can serve as a signal that there are ways in which the change effort
should be modified and improved. The following steps should help leaders faced with
resistance to their change attempts:
a) Actively seek out people's thoughts and reactions to the proposed changes.
b) Listen carefully. Do not launch into lengthy diatribes justifying the change - in the
early stages, people are not interested in that. They want to be heard and have
their concerns attended to. Recognize that it takes time to work through reactions
to change.
c) Engage people in dialogue about the change. Leaders should do this only after
fully understanding the specific concerns of others.
d) Involve Others

Summary
In this unit we looked at change management, it is a fact that change is inevitable. Therefore,
change management is an approach designed to make the transitional process smooth. This unit
has also looked at the types of change. The unit further looked at the causes of change
management failure.
Self-assessment
1. What is change management
2. List and explain two types of change
3. Explain to causes of change management failure.

UNIT 3: MANAGEMENT OF CONFLICTS AND GRIEVANCES

 Identify types and causes of conflicts in a school
 Suggest the methods of managing conflicts in a school
 Identify types and causes of grievances in a school.
 Identify the role of stakeholders in managing conflicts
 Discuss the management of grievances in schools by stakeholders
3.0 Background
Conflict is friction or opposition resulting from differences or incompatibilities. In other words

conflict is an interactive state manifested in incapability, disagreement of difference within or
between social entities such as individuals, groups or organisations. Conflicts are part of
management and hence the ability to handle them is key to the process of management.
Sometimes any change will cause conflict. As a management there is need to learn how or
receive and handle them and not hate those that cause them.
3.1 Conflicts and Conflict Management in Education
Conflict is friction or opposition resulting from differences of incapability. Conflict is

disagreement, hostility.
Conflicts are differences that are manifested between groups or organizations.
Functional View Conflict
Functional has a positive side from the interaction perspective, the absence of conflict can be
dangerous signals for instance subordinates can have lethargy (laziness) and if the leaders are not
questioning their behavior out of fear of conflict, then the organization cannot be productive.
 If there is conflict the school will be productive and effective.
 It is important for the leaders to have conflict to help the institution.
 Conflict creates curiosity, creativity and innovation.

Dysfunctional Conflict
Conflict can be a serious problem to any organization e.g. a school. It certainly can hurt an
organization performance as well as lead to loss.
 . Conflict should be discouraged because it can bring division.
 . From a traditional perspective, conflict hinders performance.
 . If there is conflict a group cannot work (because people cannot cooperate).
Three Views of Conflict:
1. Tradition view.
 This dominated from 1930s to 1940s. Conflict was seen as a dysfunctional outcome
resulting from communication that is lack of openness and trust between people and a
failure of managers to be responsive to the needs and aspiration of their needs. Hence it
was viewed as unnecessary and harmful.
2. Behavioral view or Human Relation view:
 From the late 1940s to mid 1970s, this school of thought viewed conflict as a natural
occurrence in all groups and organizations.
 It says, whenever conflicts are there, they should be resolved. However, the behavioral
view suggests that conflict can be functional because it pinpoints problems and solves
them.
3. Interactionist View:
 It is the current thinking about conflict among most management, writers and growing
numbers of managers.
 while human relations (behavioural view) accept conflict, however, the interaction
approach encourage conflict on grounds that peaceful, harmonious, and cooperative
tranquil it is pronounced to becoming static, alphabetic and non-responsive needs for
change and renovation (this theory encourages conflicts).
 It encourages that conflict should be there but minimum.
 Conflict is an instrument of organization change.

3.2 Types and causes of Conflict in School
There are five types of conflicts:
(i). Conflict within the individual (internalized) - it occurs when the individual is not certain
about what work he is expected to perform, or when the individual is expected to do more than
he was expected to perform.
(ii). Conflict between individuals - this is caused by personality differences, more often, such
conflicts erupts from role related pressure (between subordinates and leaders).
(iii). Conflict between individuals and groups - this is where group differs with an individual
of the same group who is not working or not active.
(iv). Group conflict/Intergroup conflict / Conflict between groups within the same
organization (school) -this is where departments within the same organization differ or disagree
(v). Conflicts between organizations; it is natural to have these conflicts because of competition
as they all want to be the best. E.g. between schools or universities.
NOTE; this is another type of conflict, but does not qualify or satisfy the objective.
3.3 Conflict Management
1. Conflict Stimulation Method. This is where conflict is allowed and encouraged, but recent
managers follow the interactive view.
How to stimulate conflict or encourage conflict-
(a). You bring in outsiders in your organization. This galvanizes a stagnant organization.
Subordinates compete against one another wanting to be the best.
(b). Going against the book (group)- this means excluding individuals or groups from
communication to which they are officially entitled or adding new groups or distributing power
e.g. demotion of an H.O.D.
(c). restructuring the organization- breaking up old working team and department and reforming
them so that they have new members of responsibilities. Working with new people creates
creativity and production.

(d) Encouraging competition. The manager should offer bonus to hard working or outstanding
performers.
(e). selecting appropriate, managers. Some managers might practice laissez-faire put in people
who are authoritative to bring up production. If the leader is laissez-faire subordinates can be
lazy.
Conflict Reduction Method
This method reduces conflict by uniting the group to get the common goal.
Conflict Resolution Methods
There are three types of conflict resolution methods; which include Dominance/ Suppression;
Compromise; integrative/integrating solving.
i. Suppression/Dominance
It has two things in common, they repress conflict, they force it to end forcing it underground
and they have wide loose reduction. Suppression and dominance can manifest themselves in the
following ways.
a. By forcing subordinates.
b. By smoothing: a diplomatic way of suppressing conflict
c. By avoiding problems: not solving it. There is ‗win and loosing‘ other groups will be
affected.
d. Majority rule: conflict is resolved by majority votes- one weighs the two sides.
ii. Compromise: is to give out something and to get something.
iii. Integrative problem solving
This is where parties with conflict together try to solve the problem instead of suppressing
conflict or trying to find compromise, the parties find solutions they all want to access. Managers
will encourage people to solve conflicts.
There are two types of integrative solving- consensus and Confrontation.
a. Consensus. The two parties meet together to find the best way to solve the problem.
b. Confrontation. The opposing parties air their views directly to each other.

3.4 Identify Types and Causes of Grievance in a school
Definitions
A grievance is specific, formal dissatisfaction expressed through an identified procedure (Gupta,

2006). Also grievance can defines as any discontent or dissatisfaction, whether expressed or not
and whether valid or not, arising out of anything connected with the organization which an
employee thinks, believes, or even feels is unfair, unjust or inequitable (Dwivedi, 2009). A
grievance is a difference, complaint or a dispute regarding the interpretation or application of
established policies and/or procedures governing terms of employment, working condition, and
hours of work or compensation. The International Labor Organization also defines a grievance as
a complaint of one or more workers in respect of wages, allowances, conditions of work and
interpretation of service stipulations, covering such areas as overtime, leave, transfer, promotion,
seniority, job assignment and termination of service (Singh, 1990). Grievance procedures are
used by employees when they make a complaint to their employers.
Types and causes of grievances
Individual Grievances
An individual grievance is a complaint that an action by management has violated the rights of
an individual as set out in the collective agreement or law, or by some unfair practice. Examples
of this type of grievance include: discipline, demotion, classification disputes, denial of benefits,
etc. The steward should file the grievance, not the employee on his/her own, as it is in the
interest of everyone in the union that the grievance be handled properly. When an individual‘s
rights have been violated and that person refuses to file a grievance, the steward should file the
grievance on behalf of the union – especially if the contract specifically permits. In this way, the
steward will defend the collective agreement and protect the rights of all employees covered by
it. The management‘s argument that the steward cannot file an individual grievance on behalf of
the union is false.
Group Grievances
A group grievance is a complaint by a group of individuals, for example, a department or a shift

that has been affected the same way and at the same time by an action taken by management.

An example of a group grievance would be where the employer refuses to pay a shift premium to
the employees who work on afternoon shift when the contract entitles them to it. Clearly, they
should grieve the matter as a group rather than proceeding by way of individual grievances.
Policy Grievance
A policy grievance is a complaint by the union that an action of management (or its failure or
refusal to act) is a violation of the agreement that could affect all who are covered by the
agreement. Group grievances are often treated as policy grievances, but strictly speaking, they
should be considered separately. A policy grievance normally relates to the interpretation of the
contract rather than the complaint of an individual.
However, a policy grievance may arise out of circumstances that could also prompt an individual
grievance, insofar as the union claims the action taken by management implies an interpretation
of the collective agreement that will work to the detriment of all employees. For example,
management assigns a steady day-shift employee to work on an off shift without regard to
seniority. The union might grieve in an effort to establish that seniority must be considered in
such an assignment, even though the individual involved might have no complaints against the
shift change. The point is that the outcome or the precedence of the grievance may have a
detrimental effect on the local union at some point in the future and the union must
challenge it.
Union Grievance
A union grievance may involve a dispute arising directly between the parties to the collective
agreement. For example, the union would grieve on its own behalf if management failed to
deduct union dues as specified by the collective agreement. In these cases, the union grievance is
one in which the union considered its rights to have been violated, and not just the rights of
individuals in the local union.
3.5 Methods of Grievance Control
a. Mediation
The example accrued to grievance procedure is Mediation. This is a voluntary, confidential

process used by the mediator to resolve disputes between the employ (teacher) and the employer
(head teacher). In the education system, mediation requires the people in dispute to meet in the
presence of an unbiased, independent person or committee (in this case the disciplinary
committee) to try to resolve their problems in a confidential, safe atmosphere. The mediator
controls the process, but the people in dispute control the outcomes (if any) that are agreed on.
Mediation is cheaper and simpler than going to court, and it is much more likely to get everyone
an outcome they can live with, quickly (Dolder, 2004).
b. Arbitration
You could agree for your dispute to be settled by an independent person who examines
everyone‘s point of view and issues a binding decision. This is known as arbitration. If an
employee believes they have been unfairly dismissed, or that they have a complaint under the
flexible working regulations, the complaint can be heard by an independent arbitrator appointed
by both sides of the aggrieved.
c. Ombudsperson
The ombudsperson is designated to investigate and provide advice and assistance to employees
who have concerns or complaints. The office is usually independent and paid for by the
organization and reports to the president or CEO or top-level human resource management
executive, but it acts as a liaison between management and employees or coworkers to help
resolve disputes.
d. Conciliation
Conciliation involves an independent, impartial person helping two or more people in dispute
resolve the difference between them. It is the same as mediation, but when the process takes
place against the background of an actual or potential claim to an employment tribunal, we refer
to it as Conciliation. Conciliation can save time, money and stress and promote a quick solution
which suits the employer and employee and may help them avoid a permanent breakdown in
their relationship (ACAS, 2013).
Role of Stakeholders in Grievance and Conflict Management
Members of staff, students, parents and guardians and the general Community who have a
school related grievance must have access to a process that allows them to discuss the grievance
and work towards a satisfactory outcome.
All members or stakeholders of the school need to be informed of the grievance process and
understand how it operates. The grievance procedure is published on the school website to
facilitate access to this policy. This policy applies to staff members, students, parents and
guardians and the general Community who are involved with the school.
Policy Statement
The best educational outcomes can be achieved in a school where all stakeholders‘ relationship is
operating effectively. High standards of conduct and behavior need to be maintained by all
stakeholders of the school. Issues, complaints and grievance management procedures must be in
place and be effective and communicated to all stakeholders to ensure any issues, complaints or
grievances that arise within and amongst stakeholders can be resolved.
Roles and Responsibilities
Administration Offices on Campuses (schools)
The Administration assistant at each Campus can assist parents, staff, members of the
community and other stakeholders to access the appropriate person to deal with their initial
complaint or concern. (Please note: flow charts drawn from ―Key Contacts for Parents‖
document have been included later in this policy as a self-help guide for parents).
Summary
In this unit we defined conflict as friction or opposition resulting from differences or

incompatibilities. We also looked at the various views of conflict, and the types and causes of
conflict in school in detail. The unit further looked at conflict management methods. The unit
also looked at the types and causes of grievances in school.

Self-assessment
1. Define the term ‗conflict‘.
2. List two types of conflicts found in a school
3. List two ways of conflict management

Revision Questions
 What is job performance appraisal?
 Identify three main benefits of performance appraisal.
 What are the responsibilities of a school to the host community?
 Give a precise definition of your own of what a school record is.
 Mention other records that school keeps.
 List at least four basic requirements for good communication?
 Is communication relevant to administration? Yes/No
 Mention at least two things that were the focus of Taylor's ideas of Management
 List two of the views that Taylor advocated. Mention at least three contributions of the
human relation movement
 Mention at least three contributions of the human relation movement.
 Explain the concept of decision-making
 Describe with examples from school situations the stages of the decision making process
in organizations.
 Explain the purpose of monitoring and evaluation
 List qualities of an ineffective leader
 Explain the purpose of communication in education
 Identify and describe types of delegation
 Discuss the principles for performance appraisal
 What‘s the purpose of CPD?
 Imagine you are the President of Zambia, and you have the Ministry of Education,
explain how educational planning will foster national development
 List the types of change in an organization.
 Explain the process of change in an organization.
 Explain two methods of managing conflict in school.

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EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT

JUNIOR SECONDARY TEACHERS’ DIPLOMA COURSE

PREPARED BY JONATHAN PHIRI

BACHELLOR OF EDUCATION ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT

YEAR TWO (TERM 2)

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP & MANAGEMENT Page 2

Time Allocation for the course: 2 hours per week

Continuous Assessment (CA)

 2 Assignments (One in Term 1 and the other in Term 2) - 20%

 1 Test per Term (3 Tests in a year) - 30%

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP & MANAGEMENT Page 3

UNIT 1: EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT

Unit comes: student teachers are expected to

 Describe the elements of management

1.1 Management process

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1.2 Theories of Educational Management

- A theory is a system of ideas intended to explain something.

The four types of management theories;

Theory of Scientific Management

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b) Scientific-methods-of-work-principle: Management should take-over from the workers,

d) Work is divided almost equally between management and workers. Separation-of-

f) Functional-Management Principle: The strict application of military principles should be

Implications of Scientific Management Ideas to the Educational System

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Administrative Management theory

Henri Fayol (1841 – 1925)

1. Subordination of individual interest to general interest - This means that individuals

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3. Stability of tenure of personnel - This relates to unnecessary staff turn-over which, in

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8. Discipline - This is respect exhibited by all members of an organization towards the

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Fayol's fourteen Principles of Management in learning institution

Behavioral theory of management by Elton Mayo

- It is also called the Human Relationship Theory

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The result showed among other that:

1. Group and individual behaviors were important.

1. Educational administrators should promote relationships between organizational

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Bureaucracy theory of management

- According to Gideon‘s (1993) bureaucracy ―is a rule of officials‖.

Main Characteristics of Bureaucracies

 There is an implied clear-cut division of labor and a high level of specialization.

 A hierarchical authority applies to the organization of offices and positions.

 Uniformity of decisions and actions is achieved through formally established systems of

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 Employment by the organization is based on technical qualifications and constitutes a

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 Positions and responsibilities in the organization can lead to officious bureaucratic

 Impersonal relations can lead to stereotyped behavior and a lack of responsiveness to

a) The rules and regulations bring about uniformity on discipline in an organization.

d) A hierarchy of authority promotes order and discipline.

b) Bureaucracy dislikes deviation; it is based on the assumption of one ―best way‖ of

d) There‘s a tendency of departments and units to concentrate on building themselves up

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 There are also a lot of complications in terms of responsibility. It is often difficult to

Implications of Bureaucracy in the School System

1.3 Mintzberg role of management

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