Full Text 01

DEGREE PROJECT IN CIVIL ENGINEERING AND URBAN
MANAGEMENT, SECOND CYCLE, 30 CREDITS

STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN 2020
Recycling of Concrete Waste

with Wood Waste through
Heating Compaction
LI LIANG
KTH ROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
Recycling of Concrete Waste with Wood
Waste through Heating Compaction
LI LIANG
June 2020
TRITA-ABE-MBT-20199
ISBN:978-91-7873-575-4
© Li Liang 2020
KTH Royal Institute of Technology
Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering
Division of Concrete Structures
Abstract
Concrete, as primary building material, is widely used in most construction project. For this
reason, large amounts of concrete waste were generated from construction and demolition. One
way to reuse concrete waste is to use it as backfill material for landfilling and road bases. While
the demand for backfill material is decreasing as the basic infrastructure construction gradually
completes. Another way to reuse concrete waste is to grind it and use it as aggregate in casting
new concrete. However, the reuse as aggregate for casting concrete requires large amount of
cement. It is unsustainable because the production of cement causes significant amounts of
carbon dioxide emission. How to deal with the concrete waste in a sustainable way is presently
an urgent issue.
Powder compaction is a new approach to completely recycle concrete waste in an

environmentally friendly way. This new method was studied in the Sakai lab of the Institute of
Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo. The process consists of crushing and milling
concrete waste into a fine powder, filling the powder into moulds and compacting it under high
pressure. By this process concrete waste powder can be turned into a solid concrete with
mechanical properties so that it has potentials to be used again as a building material. Data from
previous studies show that the compacted concrete waste can reach strength for construction
but the required compaction pressure is quite high. Wood flour can be added in compaction for
improving tensile strength and reducing compaction pressure. Lignin is a wood substance that
melts under high temperature, fills gaps and improves bonding between particles. Cellulose
from the wood substance functions as fibres which improves tensile strength. Wood waste from
production of timber building materials, furniture and other wooden products also forms a larger
quantities. Recycling of concrete waste with wooden waste through heating compaction is a
potentially sustainable method.
This Master thesis presents research on the effect from different production conditions on the
bending strength of recycled concrete waste with wood waste through heating compaction. The
condition factors studied were compaction duration, compaction pressure, concrete proportion,
mixture percentage, temperature and particle size of wood flour. To enhance the water
resistance of this recycled product, different water resistance treatments were discussed
theoretically. The independence of production condition factors was analysed using a statistic
method. Results indicated that within a certain range, an increase in compaction duration,
compaction pressure, the percentage of wood waste and temperature improves the bending
strength of the recycled products. Using smaller particle size of wood flour cannot improve
compaction but contribute to give higher bending strength. The mechanical properties of these
recycled products suggest application as non-bearing building material, such as decoration tiles
and bricks for partition walls. The application as a structural material is expected in the future
as improvement treatments are discovered.
Keywords: Recycling, Concrete waste, Wooden waste, Heating powder compaction
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Sammanfattning
Betong är ett av de främsta byggnadsmaterialen och används i de flesta byggprojekt. Därför

genereras stora mängder betongavfall vid byggande och rivning. Ett sätt att återanvända
betongavfall är som återfyllningsmaterial för deponier och vid vägbyggen. Efterfrågan på
återfyllningsmaterial minskar dock när många större infrastrukturprojekt slutförs. Av intresse
är därför ytterligare ett sätt att återanvända betongavfall, vilket är att krossa det för användning
som ballastmaterial vid gjutning av ny betong. Men sådan återanvändning kräver emellertid
stora mängder cement, vilket är ohållbart då produktion av cement orsakar betydande
koldioxidutsläpp. Hur betongavfall kan återanvändas på ett hållbart sätt är därför en angelägen
fråga.
Pulverkomprimering är en ny metod för att återvinna betongavfall på ett miljövänligt sätt och
har studerats och provats i Sakai-laboratoriet vid Institute of Industrial Science, The University
of Tokyo. Processen består av att krossa och mala betongavfall till ett fint pulver, fylla pulvret
i formar och komprimera det under högt tryck. Genom denna process kan betongavfallspulver
förvandlas till en fast betong med mekaniska egenskaper som ger det potential att återanvändas
som byggmaterial. Resultat från tidigare studier visar att det komprimerade betongavfallet kan
uppnå de hållfastheter som krävs för användning i bärande konstruktioner, men det erforderliga
kompressionstrycket måste då vara ganska högt. Dock kan trämjöl tillsättas vid kompakteringen
vilket förbättrar draghållfastheten och minskar behovet av kompakteringstryck. Lignin är den
beståndsdel i trä som då smälter under hög temperatur, fyller porer i materialet och förbättrar
bindningen mellan partiklarna medan cellulosa från träet fungerar som fibrer vilka förbättrar
draghållfastheten. Träavfall från produktion av träbyggnadsmaterial, möbler och andra
träprodukter utgör också stora volymer och genom återvinning av dessa tillsammans med
betongavfall blir processen med värmekompaktering en potentiellt hållbar metod.
Detta examensarbete presenterar en undersökning av effekterna från olika

produktionsförhållanden, på böjhållfastheten hos material av återvunnet betongavfall med
tillsats av träavfall och processat genom värmekompaktering. De studerade faktorerna var
kompakteringsvaraktighet, komprimeringstryck, temperatur, betongproportion och
partikelstorleken hos trämjölet. För att förbättra vattenresistensen hos den återvunna produkten
diskuteras teoretiskt möjligheterna med olika behandlingar för att öka vattenbeständigheten.
Produktionsfaktorernas inbördes beroende analyserades med en statistisk utvärderingsmetod.
Resultaten visade att inom ett visst intervall förbättrar kompakteringens varaktighet,
packningstrycket, andelen träavfall och temperaturen böjhållfastheten för de återvunna
materialen. Att använda mindre partikelstorlek av trämjöl kan dock inte förbättra
kompakteringen utan bidrar istället till att ge högre böjhållfasthet. De mekaniska egenskaperna
hos de återvunna materialen möjliggör användning som icke-bärande byggnadsmaterial, såsom
dekorationsplattor och murstenar för till exempel skiljeväggar. Tillämpning som material i
bärande konstruktioner förväntas vara möjlig i framtiden, när förbättrade produktionsmetoder
har arbetats fram.
Nyckelord: Återvinning, Betongavfall, Träavfall, Värmekomprimering
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Preface
This is a Master of Science thesis for degree project in Concrete Structures, Second Cycle, at
the Division of Concrete Structures, Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, KTH
Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden.
This degree project has been carried out from January 2020 to June 2020 at the Laboratory of
Sustainable Construction Materials, Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo.
Associate professor Yuya Sakai, at the Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo,
supervised this degree project.
Honestly, I would like to take this opportunity to convey my gratitude to the actors who have
contributed to the completion of this project and helped me in experiments and analysis.
Moreover, I would like to thank the teachers and employees at KTH and UTokyo who have
educated me with knowledge or helped me for this project. Thank Associate Professor Yuya
Sakai at The University of Tokyo, and Professor Anders Ansell at KTH, for the supervision and
guidance within the entire project. Ms. Viktorial Tidlund, Ms. Erika Charpentier, the Director
and International Coordinator in School of Architecture and the Built Environment, KTH, and
Hiroko Takasaki-san, the secretary at the Sakai Lab, Institute of Industrial Science, The
University of Tokyo, have coordinated the procedure of this oversea degree project. I hereby
thank them for the communication and coordination between universities.
Finally, I would like to express my thanks to lab members and friends such as Phalkong Meng
and Ou Guangfeng, who have given me guidance and help in operation of machines and data
analysis, such as use of the universal testing machine, Scanning Electron Microscope and
mathematical statistics.
Stockholm, June 2020
Li Liang
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Contents
1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ............................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Objective ................................................................................................................. 4
1.3 Scope ....................................................................................................................... 4
2 Method ............................................................................................................................ 7
2.1 Materials .................................................................................................................. 7
2.1.1 Wooden waste flour ................................................................................... 7
2.1.2 Concrete waste powder .............................................................................. 8
2.2 Heating compaction ................................................................................................. 9
2.3 Bending strength test ............................................................................................. 10
2.4 Treatments for improving Water Resistance ......................................................... 11
2.4.1 High moisture compaction ....................................................................... 13
2.4.2 Autoclave treatment ................................................................................. 14
2.4.3 Water repellent coating ............................................................................ 14
2.5 Observation of Microstructure by SEM ................................................................ 14
3 Results ........................................................................................................................... 17
3.1 The Effect of Compaction Duration ...................................................................... 17
3.2 The Effect of Compaction Pressure....................................................................... 19
3.3 The Effect of Concrete Proportion ........................................................................ 20
3.4 The Effect of Mixture Proportion .......................................................................... 23
3.4.1 Wood particle size of 1 mm ..................................................................... 24
3.4.2 Wood particle size of 0.5 mm .................................................................. 26
3.4.3 Wood particle size of 0.178 mm .............................................................. 28
3.5 The Effect of Wood Particle Size .......................................................................... 30
3.5.1 Mixture proportion of 2:1 ......................................................................... 30
3.6 The Effect of Temperature .................................................................................... 36
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3.6.1 Wood particle size of 1 mm ..................................................................... 36
3.6.2 Wood particle size of 0.5 mm .................................................................. 38
3.6.3 Wood particle size of 0.178 mm .............................................................. 40
4 Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 43
4.1 Microstructure ....................................................................................................... 43
4.1.1 Mixture proportion ................................................................................... 43
4.1.2 Wood particle size .................................................................................... 44
4.1.3 Temperature ............................................................................................. 46
4.2 Statistical Analysis ................................................................................................ 47
5 Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 51
5.1 Discussion ............................................................................................................. 51
5.2 Future Studies ........................................................................................................ 53
Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 55
A Appearance of Samples ............................................................................................... 59

A.1 Effect of Temperature and Wood Particle Size ..................................................... 59
A.2 Effect of Mixture Ratio and Temperature ............................................................. 60
A.3 Effect of Mixture Ratio and Wood Particle Size ................................................... 61
B Experimental Data ....................................................................................................... 63

B.1 Compaction Duration ............................................................................................ 63
B.2 Compaction Pressure ............................................................................................. 65
B.3 Concrete Proportion .............................................................................................. 67
B.4 Mixture Proportion ................................................................................................ 69
B.5 Wood Particle Size ................................................................................................ 75
B.6 Temperature........................................................................................................... 81
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Chapter 1
Introduction
Recycling concrete waste and wood waste by heating compaction is a novel method to take care
of the primary building wastes from construction and demolition in a sustainable way. This
chapter aims to introduce this new technology. In the section of background, todays situation
with construction and demolition waste, the conventional methods to recycle building waste
and the new technology for recycling concrete waste are described. In the next section, the
purpose of this degree project is outlined.
1.1 Background
As the modern society and its industries rapidly develops, the criterion of building materials is
not limited in resistant capabilities, costs and functional performance. Recently, sustainability
in society, economy and environment has become highly in focus, for example through the
international recognition to the climate change issues raised by Greta Thunberg, who was also
appointed as the TIME magazines Person of the Year 2019. Therefore, the research on recycling
building waste in a sustainable and completely closed loop becomes a hot topic.
Concrete is a primary building material widely used in most construction project due to its
advantages of easy casting into shapes, together with its high compressive strength, low
maintenance and long duration. However, materials will not last forever and with concrete be
deteriorated by numerous factors such as carbonization, alkali-aggregate reaction and creep.
Cracks are prone to occur when deterioration of concrete occurs, which results in the corrosion
of reinforced bars inside concrete. As reinforced bars corrodes for a long time, the concrete
structure will lost serviceability, even resistant capability. After this concrete structure lost
functions, it will be demolished and processed into building waste [1].
For this reason, large quantities of concrete waste, as the highest waste percentage of all types
of construction and demolition waste, continue to be produced. Conventional methods to reuse
concrete waste are mainly two. One is as backfill materials for landfill or cushion materials for
road base. This method is being implemented in many countries [2]. National statistics
estimated that Sweden in 2014 used 670,000 tons of concrete waste and mineral waste for road
sub-base construction and disposed 510,000 tons in landfills [3]. With infrastructure
constructions of cities generally being completed, the demand for landfill and road base
gradually becomes less and less, and worse is that concrete waste buried underground has the
potential for causing land pollutions and underground water contamination. The other method
is recycling concrete waste as aggregate for casting new concrete. The waste is processed to
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Recycled Concrete Aggregates (RCA) by separating, crushing and screening, following by
removal of contaminants such as reinforcement, wood and plastics, as shown in Figure 1.1. [3]
Figure 1.1: The processes in the production of Recycled Concrete Aggregates [3].
This method is regarded as a sustainable and economical way to recycle concrete waste. The
life cycle of aggregates and un-hydrated cement from the parent concrete can be prolonged
when it is used in casting new concrete. This also potentially reduces transportation costs for
the delivery of natural aggregates to the industry. For these advantages, the European standard
for concrete EN 206 has proposed regulations for the inclusion of RCA in new concrete.
Intensive investments has been made in production and application of RCA [3]. However, for
this method the requirement of cement is inevitable. The production of cement causes large
amount of carbon dioxide, which is one of the culprits for climate change.
To completely eliminate the need of cement in recycled concrete waste, a new approach has
been studied in the Sakai lab at the Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo.
Previous studies have shown that the total porosity, which is defined as the total volume of
pores larger than gel pores, is the primary factor influencing the strength of cement paste [4].
The hardness and modulus of elasticity of recycled, hydrated and compacted Portland cement
compacts appears to be the same as that of original cement paste before crushing and
compaction when the total pore volume was the same [5]. Based on these observations, powder
compaction was proposed as an effective and sustainable way to recycle concrete waste. The
waste is crushed and milled to a powder, and form to solids under high pressure compaction, as
shown in Figure 1.2 [6].
Compaction
Figure 1.2: Recycling concrete waste by high pressure compaction of concrete powder.
The microstructures of this compacted concrete under different pressures are shown in
Figure 1.3 [7]. While, as can be read from the images from Scanning Electron Microscope
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(SEM), the bonding between particles was improved with higher compaction pressure. Studies
on this technology showed that the required compaction pressure for this method had to be quite
high to achieve the applicable strength in construction. The large cost of energy is an essential
concern of this approach.
(a) 5 MPa (b) 10 MPa
(c) 100 MPa (d) 400 MPa
Figure 1.3: Microstructures of compacted concrete under different pressures, from SEM [7].
On the other hand, large amounts of wood waste are produced by the wood products industries,
construction of timber structures and increasing expansion of urban land area [8]. Wood waste
is spread over the world. It is adding the problems that some industries dispose wood waste by
burning, which causes air pollution and waste of energy [9].
Based on previous research on this new approach to recycle concrete waste, and todays situation
with wooden waste, recycling of concrete waste together with wooden waste by heating
compaction is put forward. Lignin from wood substance has the potential to improve bonding
between particles because it can melt under high temperatures and fill the space between
particles. Cellulose and hemi-cellulose from wood substance can provide tensile capacity, as in
natural plants [10]. This new approach to recycle concrete waste and wooden waste will not
require cement or other chemical bonding materials and no greenhouse gas is produced during
this procedure. Additionally, this bio-based recycled concrete has the potential to be degraded
naturally. This method gives a concept that replace cement by other sustainable cementitious
materials. Significance for this new technology is that it can promote an environmentally
friendly and economical concept for the construction industry, not only for reducing the
pollution from building waste, but also for addressing the issue of climate change.
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1.2 Objective
One primary purpose of this degree project is to study the effect of production conditions, such
as wood particle size, mixture proportion and temperature, on the bending strength of concrete
waste with wooden waste recycled through heating compaction. The change of production
conditions caused the bending strength of this bio-based recycled products to vary between 0
to 50 MPa [10]. The mechanical performances determines the application of the recycled
products, so it is essential to understand how and to what extent the production conditions can
cause to the strength of the recycled products. Referring to the purposes, lab capability and
thermal properties of wood substance, mixture proportions of concrete waste to wood waste of
2:1, 1:1, 1:2, wood particle size of 1 mm, 0.5 mm, 0.178 mm, and temperatures of 180 °C,
200 °C, 220 °C are selected to study the effect of production conditions.
Another important aim is to study how the production conditions affect the microstructure of
recycled products. As stated above, wooden waste is expected to provide bonding materials,
like lignin, and fibre materials, like cellulose and hemi-cellulose, so that the bonding between
particles and tensile strength can be improved. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) is used
to observe the microstructures of the recycled concrete under different production conditions to
study how the bonding materials and fibre materials work under different pressure, temperature
and mixture proportions.
To find effective methods to improve water resistance ability for this bio-baesd recycled
concrete is also an essential purpose. Natural wood materials are prone to shrinkage and
swelling with water sorption. This has negative effect on dimensional stability and mechanical
properties [11]. Also, moisture content causes bio-deterioration on common wood-based
composites, such as fungal and bacteria attacks [12]. Generally, wood modification or surface
treatment is applied to improve water resistance and to turn natural wood into engineered wood
[13]. Based on these treatments for engineering wood, the theoretically effective methods to
improve water resistance treatments for the recycled concrete waste and wood waste products
are discussed.
In this thesis a statistic method used to analyse the results of the experiment data. For example,
the statistical significance of production conditions to density and bending strength and
independence between each production condition factors, such as compaction temperature,
wood particle size, mixture proportion, is analysed to find optimized production for future
industrial production. It is important to investigate if the production factors are independent
with or correlated to each other. Once the independence of a factor is determined, this can be
tested separately while correlative factors need to be tested together.
1.3 Scope
This degree project includes six chapters, in sequence following as Introduction, Method,
Result, Analysis, Conclusions and with a presentation of original data in Appendix.
Chapter 1 introduces the background, purpose and scope of this degree project. As the quantity
of building waste increases and conventional methods for disposal is not completely sustainable,
this degree project aims to research on a new approach to recycled building waste in a socially,
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economically and environmentally friendly way. The effect of production conditions and the
possibility of repeated cycling are studied.
Chapter 2 describes the method for preparing concrete waste powder, the production procedure
to produce samples, the test of bending strength and the observation in microstructure of
recycled products by using SEM.
Chapter 3 presents the effect of concrete proportion, wood particle size, mixture proportion and
temperature on the density and bending strength of this bio-based recycled concrete.
Chapter 4 presents the microstructure of bio-based recycled concrete produced under different
production conditions and analyses the correlation among production condition factors, density
and bending strength and independence between each production condition factors.
Chapter 5 draws a conclusion of this project and gives the purposed future study.
Appendix A and B present the original data from the experiments.
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Chapter 2
Method
Experimental study on the effect of production conditions on bending strength of recycled
products was conducted and this chapter describes the method for the experiments. In the
section of materials, the source of wooden waste flour and production of concrete waste powder
are given. The production process of samples is described in the following section and then are
the instruments and method of testing bending strength of samples. The effect of three types of
water resistance treatments is studied in the next section. In the last section, the possibility of
repeated recycling is studied and the source of microstructure pictures is introduced.
2.1 Materials
2.1.1 Wooden waste flour
The species of wooden waste flour is Japanese cedar. Wooden waste flour was milled and
sieved through 1 mm, 0.5 mm and 0.178 mm. Figure 2.1 shows wooden waste flour of different
particle sizes. Wooden material has uncertain natural water content and to eliminate the
influence from natural water content, all of the wooden waste flour was dried out at 105 °C.
Figure 2.1: Wooden waste flour, particle size of 1 mm, 0.5 mm, 0.178 mm from left to right.
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2.1.2 Concrete waste powder
The concrete waste used in this project is from concrete specimens casted at the Sakai lab one
year before testing. The proportion of these concrete specimens is introduced in chapter 3.
Concrete specimens were crushed, milled and sieved into a concrete powder of 0.3 mm particle
size. The production process is shown in Figure 2.2.
Concrete specimens
Crushing
Concrete waste
particle size < 1 cm
Concrete crusher
Grinding
Concrete waste
particle size < 0.3 mm
Vibration grinder
Figure 2.2: The production process of concrete waste powder.

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The concrete specimens was first broken into pieces of small sizes smaller than the inlet of the
concrete crusher by electric driller. Then the pieces of concrete were put into the concrete
crusher and crushed into concrete fragments of a particle size less than 1 cm. These concrete
fragments were filled in the container on top of the vibration grinder, as shown in Figure 2.2,
and milled into a concrete waste powder of a particle size less than 0.3 mm. This concrete
powder was used for the heating compaction. It is the finest possible size that can be achieved
within the capability of laboratory.
2.2 Heating compaction

Concrete waste powder and wooden waste flour were mixed up appropriately and filled into
the steel mould shown in Figure 2.3, Then compressed as a robust board. The steel plate and
mould can be heated to the temperature required. The hydraulic pressing machine can provide
and maintain compaction pressure for the designed compaction pressure and duration.
Figure 2.3: Steel mould, heating plate and hydraulic pressing machine for heating compaction.
Samples of 5 mm × 50 mm × 65 mm were produced under a compaction pressure of 50 MPa

and temperatures of 180–220 °C for a certain duration, as showed in Figure 2.4. The
compaction duration is studied in chapter 3.
Figure 2.4: Samples produced under different production conditions
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2.3 Bending strength test
The bending strength of the samples was tested using a universal testing machine, showed in
Figure 2.5. The tested sample was place on the three-point bending test instrument. Support
points on the two sides were set 5 mm away from the edges of the sample. The point of loading
was on the middle of the sample. When starting to test, the universal testing machine was set
on manual control, the table on the bottom elevated very slowly in the velocity of manual setting
and the force sensor at the top recorded the resistant force. At large deformations as from cracks
and fractures the resistant force will decrease but still the peak force will be recorded.
Figure 2.5: Bending strength test setup.
The peak force was regarded as the loading capacity of the samples. Bending strength can be
calculated using the peak force and the distance between the two supports.
R  (3F  L) /(2W  t 2 ) (2.1)
Where R is the bending strength of the sample (MPa)
F is the peak force obtained from the universal testing machine (N)
L is loading distance (mm), which is the distance between two support points
W is the width of the sample (mm)
t is the thickness of the sample (mm)
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2.4 Treatments for improving Water Resistance
Three kinds of treatment for improving the water resistance of the recycled concrete waste and
wooden waste products are described here. Firstly the reason why the water resistance treatment
is necessary for these recycled products is stated. Water content has a negligible effect on the
concrete powder but a significantly negative influence on the performance of the wood material.
In this project, the wooden waste used is Japanese cedar, a kind of softwood. The composition
is showed in Figure 2.6 [14]. In the experiments, wood particle sizes of 1 mm, 0.5 mm and
0.178 mm were used. Referring to Figure 2.6, the wooden waste used in the experiments is on
the fibres level.
Figure 2.6: Wood and wood substance [14].
The wooden flour is comprised of cell-wall structuring fibres that consists of wood polymers,
such as cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. In dry state, wood polymers are connected with
each other by hydroxyl bonding. When wood material is immersed into water, water molecules
will enter the space between wood polymers and form hydrogen bonding with hydroxyls of
wood polymers. Large amount of water molecules fills the space between the wood polymers
and form a chemical bonding with these, causing wood swells. After dry out, the hydrogen
bonding break and water molecules evaporate out, wood polymers form bonding with each
other closely, causing the wood to shrinkage. The water sorption of wood at micro level is
shown in Figure 2.7 [15].
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Figure 2.7: Wood polymers and water molecule in dry and wet state [15].
Figure 2.8: Three types of wood modification [16].
To prevent water molecules from entering the space between wood polymers bonding with
wood polymers, three types of conventional treatments are used to modify natural wood into
engineered wood, Impregnation, Chemical modification and Thermal modification. The
function on micro level is shown in Figure 2.8.
Impregnation modification is referred to as a method of filling a chemical into the wood cell
wall without chemical reaction between the chemical and wood substance by swelling or
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pressing, which can prevent water molecules from reaching hydroxyls [16]. The procedure of
chemical modification is similar to impregnation. The difference is that chemical reaction
happens between the chemical penetrating into wood cell and wood polymers. Active hydroxyl
groups turn into other functional group with less activity after this chemical reaction. Thermal
modification is an ancient method to modify natural wood into engineered wood. Wood is
heated up to 150-230 °C in a steam, oil or nitrogen environment for a certain time. After thermal
treatment, the number of hydroxyl groups decreases, which reduces the hygroscopicity of the
wood [16].
For the test of the effectivity of the water resistance treatment, samples after treatments were
immersed into water, as shown in Figure 2.9. The dimension and weight of the samples after
absorbing water was recorded.
Figure 2.9: Samples immersed in water (left is sample with treatment, right is sample without
treatment).
2.4.1 High moisture compaction
Recycling of concrete waste with wooden waste through heating compaction, compaction under
high moisture environment can be regarded as a kind of thermal modification. Water evaporates
immediately under 180-220 °C and forms a steam environment. During heating compaction the
wood polymers lose hydroxyl, melt and fills the space between the concrete particles.
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2.4.2 Autoclave treatment
Autoclave treatment modifies wooden waste through the methods mentioned above, then mixes
modified wooden waste with concrete powder and compacts the mixture under high pressure
and temperature.
2.4.3 Water repellent coating
Water repellent coating is a kind of surface treatment for the recycled products. Untreated wood
waste and concrete powder are mixed and compacted as raw products. The water repellent can
penetrate and interlock with the surfaces of the raw products.
2.5 Observation of Microstructure by SEM

The microstructure of samples produced under different production conditions were observed
using Scanning Electron Microscope to understand the effect of production conditions on
bonding formation on the micro scale. How the wood substance fills the gap between concrete
particles and how the density of wood fibres varies with production conditions were expected
to be observed and analysed from the images from the SEM.
Microstructure images of samples are obtained from the Scanning Electron Microscope, with
the procedure shown in Figure 2.10. Recycled concrete waste and wooden waste sample is
crushed into small pieces and a piece with appropriate size is selected as observed specimen
and mounted on the steel stage. Before placed in the chamber, a thin layer of carbon is applied
on the surface of the specimen using a vacuum coater for electrical conduction. At start of
observation, the chamber is vacuumed, a beam of electrons is produced from the top of the
chamber and hits the surface of the specimen. As a result of the interaction of the electron beam
and specimen, a number of signals are produced and detected. After adjusting magnification
and focus, image is showed on a PC screen [17]. In this experiment, the applied magnification
of the SEM was 75-500 times.
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Coating
Sample mounted on steel stage
Scanning Electron Microscope
Microstructure of heating compacted wooden waste
Figure 2.10: The procedure of observing microstructure using Scanning Electron Microscope.
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Chapter 3
Results
In this chapter, the experimental results and discussions about the effects from production
conditions, such as compaction duration, concrete proportion, mixture proportion, wood
particle size, temperature and water resistance treatment are presented.
3.1 The Effect of Compaction Duration

For the heating compacted concrete waste with natural wooden waste, samples for testing of
dimension 5 mm × 50 mm × 65 mm were produced under different production conditions. For
all samples the sufficient compaction duration can be regarded as the same. Because the
materials and volume is the same, the thermal transmission will be similar. Samples of
compaction durations of 1 min, 5 min, 10 min and 30 min were produced. The appearances of
the four samples are shown in Figure 3.1 where no major external differences are visible. The
textures were also similar but the sample with the longer compaction duration exhibited a
slightly darker colour.
Figure 3.1: Samples made with 50 MPa, 180 °C, natural water content, 1:1 mixture proportion
of concrete to wood, different duration (1, 5, 10, and 30 min from left to right).
The effect of compaction duration on the bending strength and density is shown in Figure 3.2
and Figure 3.3. When compaction duration increased from 1 min to 5 min, the increment of
density was large. While the compaction duration was longer than 5 min, the density of the
recycled products tended to be constant. On the perspective of bending strength, the sample of
1 min compaction duration exhibited the lowest bending strength. When the compaction
duration was increased to 5 min, the bending strength also increased substantially. When the
17
compaction duration increased from 5 min to 30 min, the bending strength increased slowly.
This demonstrated that the production of this recycled concrete required a certain compaction
duration. Based on the variation of density, 5 min was sufficient for the compaction. The
variation of bending strength indicated that longer compaction duration can improve the melt
and flow of wood substance, which has positive effect on bending strength.
Figure 3.2: The density of samples made with different compaction duration.
Figure 3.3: The bending strength of samples made with different compaction duration.
The variation of density corresponded to the trend of the bending strength. This indicated that
the density was one of the important factors for the overall porosity, and closely associated with
the bending strength of the recycled products [10].
18
3.2 The Effect of Compaction Pressure
Theoretically, under higher compaction pressure, the recycled products obtain better
mechanical properties, due to the proximity of particle surfaces. Also the bonding between
particles are more prone to be accomplished and formed under higher compaction pressure. To
understand how compaction pressure affects density and bending strength practically, samples
were produced from wood particle sizes less than 0.5 mm, with a 1:3 concrete to wood mixture
proportion, using 5 min compaction duration, at 220 °C temperature and different pressure,
however limited by the capacity of the hydraulic pressing machine. One purpose is to lower the
production requirements and the samples were therefore produced under relatively low
pressures of 10-50 MPa.
The appearance of samples are showed in Figure 3.4. The sample with higher compaction
pressure exhibited a slightly darker colour. The textures became more compacted and finer as
the compaction pressure increases.
Figure 3.4: Samples made with 220 °C, 5 min, 1:3 mixture proportion of concrete to wood,
different compaction pressure (10 MPa, 20 MPa, 30MPa, and 50 MPa from left to right).
The effect of compaction pressure on density and bending strength is shown in Figure 3.5 and
Figure 3.6. As the graph shows, the density and bending strength of the recycled products
exhibited an upwards trend with increasing compaction pressure. When the compaction
pressure was lower than 20 MPa, the increment of density brought by compaction pressure
increase was small. As the compaction pressure increased to 30 MPa, the density increased
notably. When compaction pressure was added from 30 MPa to 50 MPa, the density increased
with a steady slope. The variation in bending strength showed a similar trend as for the density.
The difference was that when the compaction pressure was higher than 30 MPa, as the pressure
increased, the bending strength of recycled products increased with a steeper slope. A possible
explanation was that higher pressure contributed to several factors with positive influence on
bonding formation. One factor was that higher pressure accelerated compaction which
contributed to the physical proximity of particle surfaces. Another factor was that higher
pressure contributed to the flow of wood substances filling the pores, which led to the decrease
of porosity. As a result, the strength of the samples increased faster.
19
Figure 3.5: The density of samples made under different compaction pressure.
Figure 3.6: The bending strength of samples made under different compaction pressure.
3.3 The Effect of Concrete Proportion

The recycled products exhibited tensile failure at the bottom but no crushing the top during
bending strength testing. This demonstrated that the bonding and wood fibres failed before the
concrete matrix was crushed. Therefore, the bending strength was mainly determined by the
quality and quantity of wood substance. Since the cementitious substance was not the cement
in concrete waste, the bonding between particles was mostly determined by the wood substance,
such as lignin, and with the tensile strength provided by lignin and cellulose, the effect of
concrete proportion on the bending strength can be regarded as negligible. However, it is
necessary to check the effect of concrete proportion on bending strength by experiments.
20
Concrete specimens casted one year earlier in the Sakai lab, with different types of cement and
aggregate were used for recycling with wooden waste. The proportions are showed in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: The proportions of concrete waste.
Cement Materials Liquid Sand Gravel

Name Unit (kg/m3)
OPC BFS W AE NS BFSS NG BFSG
OPC-C 431.8 0.0 161.7 1.1 759.8 0.0 953.9 0.0
B50-C 215.9 215.9 157.7 6.5 753.9 0.0 948.5 0.0
BSBG100-C 436.1 0.0 151.9 6.5 0.0 802.0 0.0 902.3
LS-C 478.0 0.0 191.0 0.0 727.0 0.0 955.0 0.0
OPC: Ordinary Portland Cement; BFS: Blast Furnace Slag; BFSS: Blast Furnace Slag Sand; BFSG:
Blast Furnace Slag Gravel; W: Water; AE: Air Entraining agent; LS: Limestone; NS: Normal Sand,
limestone Sand for LS; NG: Normal Gravel, limestone Gravel for LS.
These concrete specimens were crushed and milled into a concrete waste powder of particle
size less than 0.3 mm by the method mentioned above and shown in Figure 2.2. The concrete
waste powder is showed in Figure 3.7. In the picture the concrete powder of different
proportions exhibited different color. OPC-C, B50-C and BSBG100-C is grey, LS-C is white.
Figure 3.7: Concrete waste powder of OPC-C, B50-C, BSBG100-C and LS-C from left to right.
These concrete wastes were separately mixed with wooden waste of particle sizes less than
0.178 mm by 1:1 mixture proportion and treated with heating and compacted under 50 MPa
compaction pressure and 200 °C temperature. The appearance of the four samples are shown in
Figure 3.8 with no obvious differences exhibited.
21
Figure 3.8: Samples made with different concrete proportions under 50 MPa, 200 °C, 1:1
mixture proportion of concrete to wood, (OPC-C, B50-C, BSBG100-C and LS-C from left to
right).
For each type of concrete proportion, three samples were produced. The density and bending
strength were tested. The result is shown in Figure 3.9 and Figure 3.10. The density of the
twelve samples was almost steady at 1.4 g/cm3 and the bending strength showed a platform
trend for a value approximated to 27.02 MPa. The samples made of different concrete
proportions exhibited almost the same density and bending strength, which indicated that the
effect of concrete proportion on bending strength of this recycled product can be neglected.
Figure 3.9: The density of samples made with different concrete proportion.
22
Figure 3.10: The bending strength of samples made with different concrete proportion.
3.4 The Effect of Mixture Proportion

In the following section 3.4-3.6, the effects of mixture proportion, wood particle size and
temperature on density and bending strength are presented. These three production condition
factors have large significance for industrial production. It is studied how the mixture
proportion of concrete waste and wooden waste affects the bending strength of the recycled
products. Wooden waste provides lignin as cementitious material and cellulose as fibres [18].
Therefore, it dominates the bonding formation and tensile strength of the recycled products.
The mechanical properties of this bio-based recycled concrete are expected to be improved as
the percentage of wooden waste increases. However, practically the requirements of mechanical
properties will be high and low for various applications. For example, if this bio-based recycled
concrete is used for non-structural bricks or tiles of decoration, the requirements could be lower.
While if the recycled concrete is expected to be used in slabs, columns or beams as load bearing
structures, the requirements for mechanical properties would be strict. The variation of
mechanical properties with the percentage of wooden waste affects the determination of the
various application of this recycled products.
Since the dependence of mixture proportion, wooden particle size and temperature is unknown,
these three production condition factors need to be tested together. Under temperatures of
180 °C, 200 °C and 220 °C, for each wood particle size of 1 mm, 0.5 mm and 0.178 mm,
samples were produced based on mixture proportions of mass ratio 2:1, 1:1 and 1:2. The density
and bending strength were measured and tested.
23
3.4.1 Wood particle size of 1 mm
For the wooden waste of particle sizes less than 1 mm, three samples of each mixture proportion
were produced. The appearance is shown in Figure 3.11.
Figure 3.11: Samples made with 50 MPa, 200 °C, 5 min, wood particle size less than 1 mm,
different mixture proportion of concrete to wood (2:1, 1:1 and 1:2 from left to right).
From the appearance it was obvious that samples of high percentage of concrete shows grey
colour but as the percentage of wooden waste increased, the colour turned yellow from grey.
The texture was similar for all samples. The effect of mixture proportion on density and bending
strength of this recycled products is shown in Figure 3.12 and Figure 3.13.
Temperature:
Figure 3.12: The density of samples made with different mixture proportion (Sample of wood
particle size less than 1 mm).
24
Temperature:
Figure 3.13: The bending strength of samples made with different mixture proportion (Sample
of wood particle size less than 1 mm).
The overall trend of the density and bending strength with the variation of mixture proportion
was that the density decreased while bending strength increased dramatically with the
percentage increase of wooden waste. It was reasonable that the density decreased as the
percentage of wooden waste increased because the density of wooden substance is much
smaller than that of concrete waste powder. This trend demonstrated that the wooden powder
had a significant effect in improving the bending strength of the recycled product. While the
purpose of this experiment was mainly to recycle concrete waste, a balanced proportion of
concrete waste and wood flour was required so that the bending strength of the recycled
products can satisfy the requirements for applications in construction projects where the
percentage of concrete waste is relatively high [10].
Additionally, it was obvious that when the temperature was 180 °C, the density decreased with
a decreasing slope and the bending strength increased with an increasing slope. However, when
the temperature were 200 °C and 220 °C, both of the density and bending strength varied with
a steady slope. This indicated that when the temperature was relatively low, the decrease of
density and the improvement on bending strength was not only the result of the increment of
cementitious materials and fibres materials. The percentage increase of wooden waste also
contributes to increasing the rate of reaction at contact surface. While under higher temperature,
lignin could melt more completely and flow faster to the space between particles [19], which
contributed to a uniform distribution of wood substance, so that the increase of wooden waste
did not affected the rate of density decrease and bending strength increase.
25
3.4.2 Wood particle size of 0.5 mm
For the wooden waste of particle sizes less than 0.5 mm, three samples of each mixture
proportion were produced. The appearance is showed in Figure 3.14.
Figure 3.14: Samples made with 50 MPa, 200 °C, 5 min, wood particle size less than 0.5 mm,
It is seen that the colour of the concrete was not obvious even when the percentage of concrete
waste was high. As the percentage of wooden waste increased, the colour turned more yellow.
The texture was similar for all samples. The effect of mixture proportion on density and bending
strength of recycled products is shown in Figure 3.15 and Figure 3.16.
Temperature:
particle size less than 0.5 mm).
26
Temperature:
of wood particle size less than 0.5 mm).
Compared with samples of wood particle sizes less than 1 mm, the recycled products showed
similar overall trends for the density and bending strength with the variation of mixture
proportion. The density decreased as to the percentage of concrete waste decreased, while the
bending strength increased as the result of the percentage increase of wooden waste.
Similar observations were made for samples of wood particle sizes less than 1 mm, when the
temperature were 200 °C and 220 °C, the density and bending strength varied with a steady
slope, but when the temperature was 180 °C, the variation of density and bending strength
showed difference compared to that of samples of wood particle sizes less than 1 mm. The
density decreased with an increasing slope and the bending strength increased with an
decreasing slope. This indicated that for the fine wooden waste, when the percentage of wood
substance was lower than 50%, under 180 °C the wooden waste melted and filled the pores.
The density decreased slowly and the bending strength increased substantially with the
percentage increase of wooden waste because more wood substance melted and filled the space
between particles, which contributed to a porosity decrease and bonding formation. But when
the percentage of wood substance was higher than 50%, the degree of melt and flow of wood
substance was lower due to the content increase of wood waste. The density showed large
decrease and bending strength was kept constant as a result of simple compaction. The
percentage of concrete waste decreased and the bonding formation did not improve.
27
For the wooden waste of particle sizes less than 0.178 mm, three samples of each mixture
proportion were produced. The appearance is showed in Figure 3.17.
Figure 3.17: Samples made with 50 MPa, 200 °C, 5 min, wood particle size less than 0.178 mm,
From the appearance it was clear that the recycled products exhibited the colour of concrete
when the percentage of concrete waste was high. As the percentage of wooden waste increased,
the colour turned to yellow from grey and the texture became compacted. The effect of mixture
proportion on density and bending strength of the recycled products is shown in Figure 3.18
and Figure 3.19.
Temperature:
particle size less than 0.178 mm).
28
Temperature:
of wood particle size less than 0.178 mm).
Compared with samples of wood particle sizes less than 1 mm and 0.5 mm, the overall trend
for the density with the variation of mixture proportion was similar but that of bending strength
exhibited obvious differences. The density decreased as the percentage of concrete waste
decreased. The bending strength increased as the percentage of wooden waste was kept under
180 °C and 200 °C. However, when under 220 °C the bending strength exhibited a large drop
when the percentage of wooden waste increase from 50% to 67%.
For the samples produced under 180 °C, the density and bending strength varied with a constant
slope. This indicated that when the wood particle size was fine enough, the degree of melt and
flow of wood substance was not limited by the percentage of wood waste under relatively low
temperature, such as 180 °C. For the samples produced under 200 °C, the decrease in the slope
of density became lower and tended to a constant when the percentage of wooden waste
increased from 50% to 67%. It meant that the porosity decreased, which has positive effect on
the bonding formation. However, the slope of bending strength decreased as the percentage of
wooden waste increased from 50% to 67%. Also, for the samples produced under 220 °C the
bending strength exhibited a large drop when the percentage of wooden waste increased from
50% to 67%. Judged from the appearance of all of the recycled product samples showed in
Appendix A, a possible explanation is that some thermal decomposition occurred when using
very fine wooden flour under high temperatures [20]. The part of degraded wood substance
cannot provide effective cementitious material and fibres for improving bonding and tensile
strength.
29
3.5 The Effect of Wood Particle Size
The effect of wood particle size on density and bending strength of the recycled products is
presented. The variation of wooden particle size affects thermal transmission during
compaction, bonding formation between particles and distribution uniformity of fibre due to
that the volume of wooden particles and contact surface varies. For wooden waste of finer
particle size, the volume of wooden particles is smaller. Therefor the particle contact surface is
larger and the degree of melt and flow into pores would be more completed, which has a positive
effect on the bonding formation. In addition, compared with wooden waste of bigger particle
size, the wooden waste of finer particle size has smaller variation in the grain orientation due
to a more uniform distribution. So wooden waste of fine particle size can be used for better
stability of mechanical properties of this recycled products.
Wooden waste of particle sizes less than 1 mm, 0.5 mm and 0.178 mm were used to produced
samples to study the effect of wood particle size. To avoid the selection bias from mixture
proportion and temperature, samples were produced with different mixture proportions of 2:1,
1:1 and 1:2, under different temperature of 180 °C, 200 °C and 220 °C. To reduce the error,
three samples under each production condition were produced. The density and bending
strength of each sample were measured and tested. Results are presented as average values of
these three samples under each production condition.
3.5.1 Mixture proportion of 2:1
For a 2:1 mixture proportion of concrete waste to wooden waste, three samples of each particle
size were produced. The appearance is showed in Figure 3.20.
Figure 3.20: Samples made with 50 MPa, 200 °C, 5 min, 2:1 mixture proportion of concrete to
wood, different wood particle size (1 mm, 0.5 mm and 0.178 mm from left to right).
It can be seen that as wood particle size became finer, some parts of the recycled products turned
black like charcoal. This indicated that samples of finer wood particle size had higher degree
of melted wooden waste. The texture became smooth and compacted when wooden waste of
finer particle size was used. The effect of wood particle size on density and bending strength of
this recycled products is shown in Figure 3.21 and Figure 3.22.
30
Temperature:
Figure 3.21: The density of samples made with different wood particle size (Sample of 2:1
mixture proportion).
Temperature:
Figure 3.22: The bending strength of samples made with different wood particle size (Sample
of 2:1 mixture proportion).
31
The overall trend was that the value of density showed a slight increase and that bending
strength increased substantially as the wood particle size became finer. This trend demonstrates
that the fineness of wooden waste is effective to improve bonding formation mainly by
enlarging the contact surface between particles.
When the temperature was 180 °C, the density decreased as the wood particle size decreased
from 1 mm to 0.5 mm but increased after using wooden waste of 0.178 mm particle size. The
bending strength showed a trend of continual increase from 1 mm wood particle size to 0.178
mm size. The fluctuation in density may be caused by using wooden waste of coarse particle
size. When the temperature was 200 °C, the density increased when the wood particle size
decreased from 1 mm to 0.5 mm and was kept constant when the wood particle size was lowered
to 0.178 mm. The bending strength continually increased as the wood particle size become finer.
When the wood particle size decreased from 0.5 mm to 0.178 mm, the density was not changed
but the bending strength exhibited large increase. In addition to this, when the temperature was
220 °C, the density was almost unchanged but the bending strength increased notably with the
wood particle size decreasing. This indicated that the fineness of wood particle size was
significant for improving bonding formation by enlarging the contact surface between particles.
For a 1:1 mixture proportion of concrete waste to wooden waste, three samples of each particle
Figure 3.23: Samples made with 50 MPa, 200 °C, 5 min, 1:1 mixture proportion of concrete to
wood, different wood particle size (1 mm, 0.5 mm and 0.178 mm from left to right).
The appearance obviously showed that the colour of the recycled products turned black and the
texture became smooth and compacted when using wooden waste of finer wood particle size.
This indicated that samples of finer wood particle size had a higher degree of melted wooden
waste. But with the percentage increase of wooden waste, thermal degradation was prone to
occur. The effect of wood particle size on density and bending strength of this recycled products
is shown in Figure 3.24 and Figure 3.25.
32
Temperature:
Temperature:
33
Compared to samples produced from a mixture proportion of 2:1, the overall trend was similar.
The value of density fluctuated within a narrow range while bending strength increased as the
wood particle size became finer. As a result that bonding formation was improved due to higher
degree of melting and larger reaction surface.
Under temperatures of 180 °C, the density and bending strength showed the same trend. The
density and bending strength increased when the wood particle size decreased from 1 mm to
0.5 mm and kept steady when the particle size decreased from 0.5 mm to 0.178 mm. This
indicates that under relatively low temperatures the degree of melting is low and the
improvement of bending strength is mainly the result of the expansion of reaction surface.
When the production temperature was 200 °C, the density showed a fluctuating trend while
bending strength improved substantially. The fluctuation in density may be caused by material
variation. The improvement of bending strength demonstrates that fineness of wood particle
size has a positive effect. Under 220 °C, the density and bending strength increased concurrently
with the wood particle size decreasing. This indicated that both of high temperature and fineness
of wood particle size had significant effect on the melting of wood substance and improvement
of bonding formation.
By 1:2 mixture proportion of concrete waste to wooden waste, three samples of each particle
Figure 3.26: Samples of 50 MPa, 200 °C, 5 min, 1:2 mixture proportion of concrete to wood,
different wood particle size (1 mm, 0.5 mm and 0.178 mm from left to right).
Similar observation can be made on samples with a with mixture proportion of 1:1. The texture
became smooth and compacted when using wooden waste of finer wood particle size due to the
higher degree of melt of wood substance. While because of thermal degradation caused by
higher degree of melt, the colour of recycled products turned darker with the decrease of wood
particle size.
The effect of wood particle size on density and bending strength of this recycled products is
shown in Figure 3.27 and Figure 3.28.
34
Temperature:
Temperature:
35
The overall trend clearly show that the value of keeping the density steady, but also that the
bending strength increased as the wood particle size decreased. Under high temperature, the
bending strength stopped increasing when the wood particle size decreased. Judged from the
appearance, thermal decomposition of the wood substance had occurred.
For all of three temperatures the density exhibited the same variation trend as if the value kept
as a constant. This indicated the effect caused from compaction was greater than from particle
fineness when the percentage of wooden waste was high. For the temperatures of 180 °C and
200 °C, the bending strength exhibited the same trend when the wood particle size decreased
from 1 mm to 0.5 mm, but increased when the wood particle size decreased from 0.5 mm to
0.178 mm. For the temperature of 220 °C, the bending strength showed the opposite trend and
the value increased when the wood particle size decreased from 1 mm to 0.5 mm but kept
constant when the size decreased from 0.5 mm to 0.178 mm. As showed in Appendix A, the
samples with 0.5 mm and 0.178 mm wood particle size produced under 220 °C exhibited
obvious difference. The sample of 0.5 mm wood particle size showed wood colour while sample
of 0.178 mm showed dark colour, like charcoal. Therefore, the stop in bending strength increase
was possibly caused by thermal decomposition.
3.6 The Effect of Temperature

The effect of production temperature on density and bending strength of recycled products is
presented. The variation of production temperature affects the degree of melting of wooden
waste that has a significant influence on the bonding formation. Wood substance is comprised
of many kinds of complicated organic substances, including lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose and
wood extractives. As it is a complex mixed organic, the melting point of the wood substance is
not fixed. It starts to melt under a broad range of temperatures, around 150-250 °C depending
on species [19]. Under high temperature, the wood waste would melt more completely so that
the wood substance can flow and fill the pores between particles, which improves the bonding
formation.
Different temperatures of 180 °C, 200 °C and 220 °C were selected for the experiments. To
avoid the selection bias from mixture proportion and wood particle size, samples were produced
for different mixture proportions of 2:1, 1:1 and 1:2, wood particle sizes of 1 mm, 0.5 mm and
0.178 mm. To the reduce error, three samples under each production condition were produced.
The density and bending strength of each samples were measured and tested. Results are
presented as average values of these three samples under each production condition.
3.6.1 Wood particle size of 1 mm
Using wood particle sizes of 1 mm, samples under each temperature of interest were produced.
The appearance is shown in Figure 3.29.
36
Figure 3.29: Samples made with 50 MPa, 5 min, wood particle size of 1 mm, 1:1 mixture
proportion of concrete to wood and different temperatures (180 °C, 200 °C and 220 °C from
left to right).
The appearance clearly show that as production temperature increased, the colour of the
recycled products turned deeper. The texture became smooth with the increase of temperature.
This indicated that high temperature had obvious positive effect on the degree of melting. The
effect of temperature on density and bending strength of these recycled products is shown in
Figure 3.30 and Figure 3.31.
Mixture proportion:
Figure 3.30: The density of samples made under different temperatures (Sample of 1 mm wood
particle size).
37
Mixture proportion:
Figure 3.31: The bending strength of samples made under different temperatures (Sample of 1
mm wood particle size).
The variation of density and bending strength exhibited an overall trend of increase with
production temperature increasing. This indicated that the production temperature had a
substantially positive effect on improving compaction and bending strength.
For the recycled products from low percentage of wooden waste, the density and bending
strength did not increase when the temperature was lower than 200 °C. While after a
temperature increase to 220 °C, the density and bending strength increased considerably. For
samples of higher percentage of wooden waste, the density exhibited the opposite trend. The
density increased when the temperature was lower than 200 °C but remained after the
temperature increased to 220 °C. The bending strength kept increasing as the temperature
increased from 180 °C to 220 °C. This indicated that a higher temperature had remarkable
improvement on compaction and bonding formation when low percentage of wooden waste
was applied. Higher temperature had less effect on compaction but there was effective
improvement on bending strength when a high percentage of wooden waste was applied.
Using wood particle sizes of 0.5 mm, samples were produced under each temperature of interest.
The appearance is shown in Figure 3.32.
38
Figure 3.32: Samples made with 50 MPa, 5 min, wood particle size of 0.5 mm, 1:1 mixture
left to right).
As with samples of 1 mm wood particle size, the colour of the recycled products turned deep
and the texture became smooth with the increase of temperature, as result from the wooden
waste melted more completely under the higher temperature. The effect of temperature on
density and bending strength of these recycled products is shown in Figure 3.33 and Figure 3.34.
Mixture proportion:
Figure 3.33: The density of samples made under different temperatures (Sample of 0.5 mm
wood particle size).
39
Mixture proportion:
Figure 3.34: The bending strength of samples made under different temperatures (Sample of
0.5 mm wood particle size).
Compared with wood particle sizes of 1 mm, the overall trend of density and bending strength
was similar. The density and bending strength increased with the production temperature due
to a higher degree of melt under higher temperature.
The density of different percentage of wooden waste showed a similar as with the variation of
production temperature. The density increased substantially when the temperature increased
from 180 °C to 200 °C, but from 200 °C to 220 °C the increasing slope decreased. For a mixture
proportion of 2:1, the variation trend of bending strength corresponded with that of the density.
For mixture proportions of 1:1 and 1:2, the bending strength increased more rapidly from
200 °C to 220 °C. This indicated that for this bio-based recycled concrete with a higher
percentage of wooden waste, temperature contributed more to the improvement of bending
strength.
Using a wood particle size of 0.178 mm, samples under each temperature were produced. The
appearance of samples is shown in Figure 3.35.
40
Figure 3.35: Samples made with 50 MPa, 5 min, wood particle size of 0.178 mm, 1:1 mixture
left to right).
The appearance showed that under high temperature the colour of the recycled products turned
dark. The texture became smooth with the increase of temperature. This indicated that high
temperature improved the melt of wooden waste, but for wooden waste of fine particle sizes,
thermal degradation was prone to occur. The effect of temperature on density and bending
strength of these recycled products is shown in Figure 3.36 and Figure 3.37. The overall trend
for density and bending strength was similar for samples of wood particle sizes of 1 mm and
0.5 mm. A difference was that when the temperature was up to 220 °C, sample from 50 %
wooden waste exhibited higher bending strength than sample from 67 % waste. Judged from
the appearance, the possible explanation is that the thermal degradation happened below a
temperature of 220 °C and with the percentage increase of wooden waste, the degree of thermal
degradation became higher.
Mixture proportion:
Figure 3.36: The density of samples made under different temperatures (Sample of 0.178 mm
wood particle size).
41
Mixture proportion:
Figure 3.37: The bending strength of samples made under different temperatures (Sample of
0.178 mm wood particle size).
42
Chapter 4
Analysis
In this chapter, the images of microstructure from SEM are presented to analyse the effect from
production conditions on micro level. Based on the data from the experiments, Statistical
method is applied to analyse the degree of correlation between production condition factors,
density and bending strength, respectively.
4.1 Microstructure
The samples after bending strength testing were crushed and observed using SEM, as mentioned
in Chapter 2. The images of the microstructure is presented in the following sections.
4.1.1 Mixture proportion
The samples produced under 50 MPa, 200 °C, wood particle size of 1 mm, with a compaction
duration of 5 min and with different mixture proportions were observed using SEM. The images
are shown in Figure 4.1-Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.1: Microstructure of samples of 2:1 mixture proportion.
43
In the SEM images, the wood fibre, concrete powder and melted wood substance between
concrete particles are clearly seen. As the percentage of wooden waste increased, the number
and shape of big size fibres became less and unclear, which meant that the melt of wooden
waste became more completed. In the image of lager magnification, it can be seen that the space
between concrete particles were filled to a large extent with wood substance as the percentage
of wooden waste increases. This indicates that the bonding between particles was more effective
when a higher percentage of wooden waste was used. These are the reason for that the bending
strength has a substantial increase with higher percentage of wooden waste.
4.1.2 Wood particle size
The samples produced under 50 MPa, 200 °C, a mixture proportion of 1:1, compaction duration
of 5 min and with different wood particle sizes were also observed using SEM. The images are
shown in Figure 4.4-Figure 4.6.
44
Figure 4.4: Microstructure of samples of 1 mm wood particle size.
Figure 4.5: Microstructure of samples of 0.5 mm wood particle size.
Figure 4.6: Microstructure of samples of 0.178 mm wood particle size.
From the images it clearly shown that the wooden waste of finer particle size better can fill the
space between concrete particles, which has a significant effect on improving bonding between
particles.
45
4.1.3 Temperature
The samples produced under 50 MPa, wood particle sizes of 0.178 mm, a mixture proportion
of 1:1, compaction duration of 5 min under different temperatures were observed using SEM.
The images are shown in Figure 4.7-Figure 4.9.
Figure 4.7: Microstructure of samples of 180 °C.
46
The images clearly show that as the production temperature increases, the space between the
concrete particles became smaller and that the melted wood substance filled the pores better.
That was the reason why the density and bending strength increased remarkably as the
production temperature increasing.
4.2 Statistical Analysis

Figure 4.10 and Figure 4.11 shows the influence of production condition from wood particle
size, mixture proportion and temperature on density and bending strength. The influence map
present the similar result as discussed in Chapter 3. Although it is obviously shown that
temperature has a positive effect on improving compaction while wood particle size shows low
effect on the density of these recycled products and that mixture proportion, temperature and
wood particle size shows remarkable effect on the bending strength, it is important to analyse
the correlation and independence between bending strength, density, mixture proportion, wood
particle size and temperature in a scientific way.
Density (g/cm3)
Wood particle size
Temperature Percentage of wooden waste
Figure 4.10: The influence of production condition on density.
Pearson correlation coefficient is commonly used to reflect the degree of correlation between
two variables. Pearson correlation coefficient ranges from -1 to +1. Larger absolute value
reflects to stronger correlation. Positive value indicates that both variables increase or decrease
together, whereas negative value indicates that one variable increases as the other decreases,
and vice versa [21]. Statistical significance reflects the likelihood that a relationship between
two or more variables is caused by something other than chance. When the value is large, then
the results in data are explainable by chance alone, while when the value is small, typically 5%,
then the results are not easily explained by chance alone [22]. Statistical analysis was applied
to compute the Pearson correlation and statistical significance within the experimental results
and production conditions of varying mixture proportion, wood particle size and temperature
as shown in Table 4.1 and Table 4.2.
47
Bending strength (MPa)
Temperature
Mixture proportion Wood particle size

Wood particle size
Temperature Percentage of wooden waste

Mixture proportion
Wood particle size Temperature
Figure 4.11: The influence of production conditions on bending strength.
48
Table 4.1. Correlation analysis of density and production condition factors.
Density of Size of Mass Temperature

recycled wooden percentage of
products waste wooden waste
Density of Pearson
recycled product Correlation 1.000 -0.066 -0.583 0.732
Sig. (1-tailed) - 0.278 0.000 0.000
N 81 81 81 81
Size of wooden Pearson
waste Correlation -0.066 1.000 0.000 0.000
Sig. (1-tailed) 0.278 - 0.500 0.500
N 81 81 81 81
Mass percentage Pearson
of wooden waste Correlation -0.583 0.000 1.000 0.000
Sig. (1-tailed) 0.000 0.500 - 0.500
N 81 81 81 81
Temperature Pearson
Correlation 0.732 0.000 0.000 1.000
Sig. (1-tailed) 0.000 0.500 0.500 -
N 81 81 81 81
Sig. (1-tailed): 1-tailed Statistical Significance. N: the Number of cases.
Table 4.1 presents correlations between production condition factors and density with Pearson
correlation coefficients of -0.583 and 0.732 for mass percentage of wooden waste and
temperature, respectively. While the Pearson correlation coefficient absolute value between
size of wood particles and density was as low as 0.066, the temperature exhibited a highest
positive Pearson correlation value of 0.732, greater than 0.7, and a low statistical significance
approximated to 0. This indicated that among the three production condition factors, the
temperature had the greatest and positive strong correlation on improving compaction. The
mass percentage of wooden waste exhibited a negative and medium value of 0.583, between
0.4-0.6, and a low statistical significance approximated to 0. This indicated that the increase of
wooden waste caused a decrease in density, and that the effect of wooden waste mass
percentage increase had moderate correlation to the decrease of density. The size of wood
particles exhibited a lowest Pearson correlation value of 0.066, approximated to 0, and a high
statistical significance of 0.278. This indicated that the size of wood particles had an
insignificant correlation with density [23].
Data of Table 4.1 present a low Pearson correlation coefficient of 0 and a high 1-tailed statistical
significance value of 0.500 between production condition factors. This demonstrated that the
effect from the production condition factors of temperature, mixture proportion and fineness of
wooden waste on the density of this recycled products were independent from each other.
49
Table 4.2. Correlation analysis of bending strength and production condition factors.
Bending Size of Mass Temperature

strength of wooden percentage of
recycled waste wooden waste
products
Bending Pearson
strength of Correlation 1.000 -0.434 0.509 0.626
recycled product Sig. (1-tailed) - 0.000 0.000 0.000
N 81 81 81 81
Size of wooden Pearson
waste Correlation -0.434 1.000 0.000 0.000
Sig. (1-tailed) 0.000 - 0.500 .0500
N 81 81 81 81
Mass percentage Pearson
of wooden waste Correlation 0.509 0.000 1.000 0.000
Sig. (1-tailed) 0.000 0.500 - 0.500
N 81 81 81 81
Temperature Pearson
Correlation 0.626 0.000 0.000 1.000
Sig. (1-tailed) 0.000 0.500 0.500 -
N 81 81 81 81
Sig. (1-tailed): 1-tailed Statistical Significance. N: the Number of cases.
Table 4.2 presents significant correlation between production condition factors and bending
strength with Pearson correlation coefficients of -0.434, 0.509 and 0.626 for size of wooden
waste, mass percentage of wooden waste and temperature, respectively. The temperature
exhibited a highest positive Pearson correlation value of 0.626, between 0.6-0.8, and a low
statistical significance approximated to 0, which indicated that among the three production
condition factors, the temperature had the greatest and positive strong correlation on improving
bonding formation. The mass percentage of wooden waste exhibited a positive and medium
value of 0.509, between 0.4-0.6, and a low statistical significance approximated to 0. This
indicated that the increase of wooden waste, which provides cementitous material and fibre
material, has significant effect on improving the bending strength. The size of wood particle
exhibited a negative Pearson correlation value of -0.434, with the absolute value between 0.4-
0.6, and a low statistical significance approximated to 0. This indicated that the fineness of
wooden waste improved bending strength and that the effect of finer wood particle size has
moderate correlation to the increase of bending strength [23].
Data of Table 4.2 present a low Pearson correlation coefficient of 0 and a high 1-tailed statistical
significance value of 0.500 between production condition factors. This demonstrated that the
effect from the production condition factors of temperature, mixture proportion and fineness of
wooden waste on the bending strength of this recycled products were independent from each
other.
50
Chapter 5
Conclusions
The chapter draws a conclusion corresponding to the purpose of the experiment. The section
of discussion summarizes the effect from production conditions on macro and micro level,
methods of water resistance treatment and the correlation between production condition factors,
density and bending strength, and the application of the bio-based recycled concrete. The
following section highlights the direction of future studies on this bio-based material.
5.1 Discussion
This project studied a novel technology of recycling concrete waste with wooden waste through
heating compaction. The experimental results and the analysis in Chapter 3 and 4 suggests that
an increase in the compaction duration, compaction pressure, percentage of wooden waste and
temperature improves the bending strength of the bio-based recycled concrete within a certain
range. The reason is that more lignin from wood substance is filled into the pores, which
contributes to the bonding formation. However, the contribution from the increase in
compaction duration becomes insignificant when the compaction duration is more than 5 min.
When a high percentage of wooden flour is used, a temperature higher than 220 °C will cause
thermal degradation of the wood substance and undermine the bending strength of this bio-
based material. The effect from concrete proportion on the bending strength of this recycled
material is neglected. Using smaller particle size of wood flour cannot improve compaction but
will contribute to a higher bending strength.
On micro level, the images from SEM demonstrates that the wood substance can effectively
improve the bonding formation between particles. The space between concrete particles
becomes smaller and the bonding is more effective as the percentage of wooden waste and
temperature increase. The wood substance of finer particle size fill the space between concrete
particles better, which improves the bonding formation and smoothness of the surface.
High moisture compaction, autoclave treatment and water repellent coating are three effective
methods to improve water resistance of the bio-based recycled concrete. The treated bio-based
recycled concrete presented improvement in dimensional and mechanical stability compared to
the untreated bio-based recycled concrete in the water immersing test. Among these three
treatments autoclave treatment has the best effect. Because in autoclave treatment the wood
flour is treated separately, the quality of treatment can be controlled better, but the cost of this
treatment is higher. Water repellent coating is an effective method but it does not permanently
51
change the wood properties. Therefore, system coating is crucial. High moisture compaction is
the cheapest method but it is difficult to control the treatment quality. The optimal moisture
content for this treatment is still under research.
The effect from mixture proportion, wood particle size and temperature on density and bending
strength was investigated using a statistical method. Among the three production condition
factors, the temperature has the strongest positive correlation with the density of the bio-based
recycled concrete. The percentage of wooden waste has moderate and negative correlation with
density and the size of wood particles has an insignificant correlation with density. The
temperature also exhibits the strongest positive correlation with the bending strength of the bio-
based recycled concrete. The percentage of wooden waste and the fineness of wood particles
exhibits moderate correlation with the bending strength. These three production condition
factors are independent from each other.
Based on the mechanical properties and versatile appearance, the application of this bio-based
recycled concrete is feasible as a structurally non-bearing material. For example, as decoration
tiles and partition walls. As the experimental results shows, the bending strength of this bio-
based recycled concrete varies from 2-50 MPa under different production conditions. In the
experiments, Japanese cedar was used and proved that wood substance from wooden waste can
serve as binder and be recycled with concrete waste as a robust material through heating powder
compaction. Enlightened by this, different materials of plants and wood was added to recycled
concrete waste, which endows this bio-based recycled concrete with a colourful appearance.
Figure 5.1 shows bio-based recycled concrete samples made of concrete and different bio-
materials. These samples are examples of feasible applications for decoration tiles or bricks.
Figure 5.1: Left is bio-based recycled concrete made of wood, concrete, tea and leaf. Right is
bio-based recycled concrete made of tea, concrete, and leaf.
The experiment results suggested an optimized direction of production condition for this
recycling technology. High mechanical performance of this bio-based recycled concrete is
expected to be achieved as favourable production conditions are discovered in the further
research. Therefore, this bio-based recycled concrete has potential to be applied also in load-
bearing structures.
52
5.2 Future Studies
Limited by time and laboratory capacity, this degree project only exhibited an initial
experimental part of the research and development of this bio-based recycled concrete. Future
study can focus on the improvements on performance and production of this bio-based material.
From the images from SEM, as shown in Figure 5.2, the wood substance after heat-pressing
became a matrix material and bonded concrete particles together. However, the amount of wood
substance was more than sufficient as the result of inevitable ununiformity in the dry powder
mix.
Figure 5.2: The distribution of concrete particles and wood substance.
This indicated that there was great potential to reduce the quantity of wooden waste for
producing this bio-based recycled concrete when the mixture method changed to wet mix.
However the disadvantage of wet mix was that compaction duration needed to increase as the
result of high moisture. A pilot trail was conducted with reduced wooden waste content and
using the wet mix method. A mass ratio of 6:1 (concrete : wood), a water content of 200% and
a compaction duration of 30 min were applied. A robust bio-based recycled concrete was
produced, as shown in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3: The bio-based recycled concrete of low wooden waste content and wet mix.
53
This bio-based recycled concrete of low wooden waste content and wet mix exhibited good
mechanical properties, which indicates an effective way to improve mixture uniformity and
reduce the quantity of wooden waste to produce this bio-based recycled concrete. The optimal
moisture content and mixture method can be investigated in the further experiments.
Investigating on the effect from natural weathering on the dimensional and mechanical stability
of the bio-based recycled concrete can be another future study. Long-time natural weathering
undermines the performance of bio-based materials, such as timber. Therefore, the long-time
tests for investigating the effect from cyclic wetting and drying, collision and UV light and
effective methods to improve the resistance are of great importance.
54
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57
58
Appendix A
Appearance of Samples
A.1 Effect of Temperature and Wood Particle Size
Figure A.1: Samples of different temperature and wood particle size.
59
A.2 Effect of Mixture Ratio and Temperature
Figure A.2: Samples of different mixture proportion and temperature.
60
A.3 Effect of Mixture Ratio and Wood Particle Size
Figure A.3: Samples of different mixture proportion and wood particle size.
61
62
Appendix B
Experimental Data
B.1 Compaction Duration

Table B.1: Experimental data of samples tested for compaction duration.
Compaction Peak Bending Aver.

Thickness Width Length Mass Density Aver.
duration force strength Bending
(mm) (mm) (mm) (g) (g/cm3) density
(min) (N) (MPa) strength
4.15 47.85 64.40 15.16 26.00 1.19 2.57
1 1.22 3.83
3.76 47.80 64.45 14.50 42.00 1.25 5.08
4.30 48.15 65.05 18.34 120.00 1.36 11.13
5 1.32 12.61
3.73 48.00 64.05 14.61 116.00 1.27 14.08
3.50 47.75 64.70 14.55 82.00 1.35 11.50
10 1.32 13.47
3.70 48.20 63.90 14.69 126.00 1.29 15.44
3.63 48.15 63.95 14.71 124.00 1.32 15.82
30 1.32 15.96
3.46 47.80 64.85 14.28 112.00 1.33 16.10
(Samples were produced under 180 °C, 50 MPa, wood particle size of 0.5 mm, mixture
proportion of 1:1 mass ratio. Wood species is Japanese cedar)
63
Figure B.1: Experimental data (point) and average value (plot) of density of samples made with
different compaction duration.
Figure B.2: Experimental data (point) and average value (plot) of bending strength of samples
made with different compaction duration.
64
B.2 Compaction Pressure
Table B.2: Experimental data of samples tested for compaction pressure.
Compaction Load Peak Bending

Thickness Width Length Mass Density
pressure distance force strength
(mm) (mm) (mm) (g) (g/cm3)
(MPa) (mm) (N) (MPa)
10 4.57 47.90 65.60 55.60 14.32 124.00 1.00 10.34
20 4.35 47.70 64.60 54.60 14.49 182.00 1.08 16.51
30 3.65 47.80 64.30 54.30 14.44 178.00 1.29 22.77
50 3.38 42.80 64.65 54.65 14.28 268.00 1.53 44.93
(Samples were produced under 220 °C, 5 min, mixture proportion of 1:3 mass ratio, wood
particle size of 0.5 mm. Wood species is Japanese cedar)
Figure B.3: Experimental data (point) of density of samples made under different compaction
pressure.
65
Figure B.4: Experimental data (point) of bending strength of samples made under different
compaction pressure.
66
B.3 Concrete Proportion
Table B.3: Experimental data of samples tested for concrete proportion.
Concrete Load Peak Bending

Thickness Width Length Mass Density
proportion distance force strength
(mm) (mm) (mm) (g) (g/cm3)
type (mm) (N) (MPa)
4.15 47.85 65.35 55.35 18.16 286.00 1.40 28.81
OPC-C 4.35 47.75 64.40 54.40 18.35 294.00 1.37 26.55
4.18 47.85 65.60 55.60 17.81 276.00 1.36 27.53
4.25 47.75 64.70 54.70 18.28 262.00 1.39 24.92
B50-C 4.13 48.00 65.15 55.15 17.94 248.00 1.39 25.06
4.21 47.90 64.70 54.70 18.36 292.00 1.41 28.22
3.95 47.80 65.45 55.45 17.85 250.00 1.44 27.88
BSBG100-
4.15 47.85 64.60 54.60 18.24 286.00 1.42 28.42
C
4.14 48.00 65.15 55.15 17.97 270.00 1.39 27.15
4.12 47.80 65.05 55.05 18.26 246.00 1.43 25.04
LS-C 4.15 48.00 65.50 55.50 18.00 300.00 1.38 30.21
4.10 48.10 65.35 55.35 18.03 238.00 1.40 24.44
(Samples were produced under 200 °C, 50 MPa, 5 min, mixture proportion of 1:1 mass ratio,
wood particle size of 0.178 mm. Wood species is Japanese cedar)
67
Figure B.5: Experimental data (point) of density of samples made of concrete with different
proportion.
Figure B.6: Experimental data (point) of bending strength of samples made of concrete with
different proportion.
68
B.4 Mixture Proportion
Table B.4: Experimental data of samples produced under 50 MPa, wood particle size of 1 mm,
compaction duration of 5 min, tested for different mixture proportion.
Mixture Peak Bending

Temperature Thickness Width Length Mass Density
proportion force strength
(°C) (mm) (mm) (mm) (g) (g/cm3)
(concrete:wood) (N) (MPa)
3.13 48.00 64.90 14.49 15.00 1.49 2.63
2:1 3.11 48.00 64.65 14.39 18.00 1.49 3.18
3.18 48.00 64.50 14.71 18.00 1.49 3.03
3.75 48.00 64.80 14.86 38.00 1.27 4.63
180 1:1 3.60 47.95 64.60 14.93 64.00 1.34 8.43
3.87 48.10 64.70 14.88 38.00 1.24 4.33
4.00 47.90 65.20 14.77 162.00 1.18 17.50
1:2 4.10 47.80 65.20 14.79 125.00 1.16 12.88
4.00 47.75 65.10 14.67 146.00 1.18 15.79
5.73 48.20 65.50 27.80 104.00 1.54 5.47
2:1 5.73 48.30 65.60 28.04 76.00 1.54 4.00
5.90 48.35 65.50 28.30 84.00 1.51 4.15
4.00 48.30 66.35 18.25 96.00 1.42 10.50
200 1:1 3.93 48.20 64.50 18.48 86.00 1.51 9.44
3.90 48.60 64.60 18.66 118.00 1.52 13.07
4.15 48.40 65.35 19.35 208.00 1.47 20.72
1:2 4.23 48.20 65.80 19.22 214.00 1.43 20.77
4.50 48.40 64.90 19.49 254.00 1.38 21.34
4.80 48.20 65.20 25.76 168.00 1.71 12.53
2:1 4.90 48.20 65.10 25.89 166.00 1.68 11.86
4.96 48.15 64.90 25.99 164.00 1.68 11.40
4.67 48.00 65.10 23.27 196.00 1.59 15.47
220 1:1 4.63 48.10 65.45 23.35 264.00 1.60 21.30
4.93 48.00 65.20 23.42 242.00 1.52 17.18
4.53 48.00 64.40 20.68 284.00 1.48 23.53
1:2 4.33 48.00 65.00 20.33 312.00 1.50 28.60
4.60 48.00 64.45 20.66 330.00 1.45 26.54
69
Temperature:
Figure B.7: Experimental data (point) of density of samples made with 1 mm wood particle size,
50 MPa and 5 min.
Temperature:
Figure B.8: Experimental data (point) of bending strength of samples made with 1 mm wood
particle size, 50 MPa and 5 min.
70
Table B.5: Experimental data of samples produced under 50 MPa, wood particle size of 0.5 mm,
compaction duration of 5 min, tested for different mixture proportion.

(°C) (mm) (mm) (mm) (g) (g/cm3)
3.25 47.70 63.35 14.98 36.00 1.53 5.72
2:1 3.75 47.95 64.40 15.31 32.00 1.32 3.87
3.73 47.85 64.30 15.37 30.00 1.34 3.67
3.43 47.60 64.10 14.86 90.00 1.42 13.04
180 1:1 3.73 48.00 64.05 14.61 116.00 1.27 14.08
4.30 48.15 65.05 18.34 120.00 1.36 11.13
4.00 47.90 64.70 14.74 124.00 1.19 13.28
1:2 4.17 48.30 66.25 15.31 122.00 1.15 12.26
3.88 48.15 65.35 15.54 116.00 1.27 13.29
5.20 48.20 65.90 27.87 240.00 1.69 15.44
2:1 5.23 48.10 65.50 27.91 208.00 1.69 13.16
5.70 48.20 65.60 28.02 154.00 1.55 8.20
5.95 47.90 64.50 27.31 344.00 1.49 16.58
200 1:1 5.83 48.00 63.95 27.42 314.00 1.53 15.58
5.75 47.85 63.90 27.58 430.00 1.57 21.98
4.43 48.35 65.35 19.49 200.00 1.39 17.50
1:2 4.40 48.20 66.50 19.08 262.00 1.35 23.80
4.33 48.30 65.30 19.33 282.00 1.42 25.83
4.77 48.00 64.90 25.93 220.00 1.75 16.59
2:1 4.90 48.00 64.80 25.86 244.00 1.70 17.40
4.88 48.05 64.55 26.09 230.00 1.72 16.45
4.87 48.00 65.25 23.43 380.00 1.54 27.66
220 1:1 4.72 48.20 65.30 23.31 368.00 1.57 28.43
4.60 47.90 65.30 23.29 360.00 1.62 29.46
4.50 48.05 64.85 20.64 456.00 1.47 38.56
1:2 4.50 48.00 65.25 20.46 462.00 1.45 39.39
4.37 48.25 65.60 20.55 470.00 1.49 42.54
71
Temperature:
Figure B.9: Experimental data (point) of density of samples made with 0.5 mm wood particle
size, 50 MPa and 5 min.
Temperature:
Figure B.10: Experimental data (point) of bending strength of samples made with 0.5 mm wood
72
Table B.6: Experimental data of samples produced under 50 MPa, wood particle size of 0.178
mm, compaction duration of 5 min, tested for different mixture proportion.

(°C) (mm) (mm) (mm) (g) (g/cm3)
3.23 48.30 65.70 14.56 42.00 1.42 6.96
2:1 3.21 48.25 64.50 14.64 58.00 1.47 9.54
3.10 48.00 65.35 14.31 60.00 1.47 10.80
3.46 48.35 65.25 14.99 98.00 1.37 14.03
180 1:1 3.48 48.35 64.85 14.63 84.00 1.34 11.80
3.57 48.25 65.25 14.92 80.00 1.33 10.78
4.10 48.00 64.10 15.09 162.00 1.20 16.29
1:2 4.00 48.10 65.40 14.93 172.00 1.19 18.57
4.03 48.00 65.60 15.02 164.00 1.18 17.55
3.77 48.10 65.65 18.64 154.00 1.57 18.80
2:1 3.60 48.40 65.80 18.98 126.00 1.66 16.81
3.60 48.35 65.20 19.38 158.00 1.71 20.88
3.95 47.80 65.45 17.85 250.00 1.44 27.88
200 1:1 4.15 47.85 64.60 18.24 286.00 1.42 28.42
4.15 47.85 65.35 18.16 286.00 1.40 28.81
4.50 48.20 65.75 19.58 338.00 1.37 28.96
1:2 4.50 48.30 65.00 19.61 426.00 1.39 35.93
4.13 48.20 65.50 18.45 316.00 1.42 32.00
4.80 48.10 65.40 25.45 248.00 1.69 18.60
2:1 4.90 48.00 64.50 25.69 266.00 1.69 18.87
4.80 48.15 64.80 25.63 312.00 1.71 23.12
3.66 48.35 64.25 19.28 382.00 1.70 47.99
220 1:1 3.70 48.00 64.90 19.24 370.00 1.67 46.37
3.66 48.15 64.40 19.26 386.00 1.70 48.83
4.23 48.00 64.90 20.43 402.00 1.55 38.54
1:2 4.10 48.10 65.60 19.33 400.00 1.49 41.26
3.96 47.95 64.95 19.03 406.00 1.54 44.50
73
Temperature:
Figure B.11: Experimental data (point) of density of samples made with 0.178 mm wood
Temperature:
Figure B.12: Experimental data (point) of bending strength of samples made with 0.178 mm
wood particle size, 50 MPa and 5 min.
74
B.5 Wood Particle Size
Table B.7: Experimental data of samples produced under 50 MPa, mixture proportion of 2:1,
compaction duration of 5 min, tested for different wood particle size.
Wood Peak Bending

particle force strength
(°C) (mm) (mm) (mm) (g) (g/cm3)
size (mm) (N) (MPa)
3.13 48.00 64.90 14.49 15.00 1.49 2.63
1 3.11 48.00 64.65 14.39 18.00 1.49 3.18
3.18 48.00 64.50 14.71 18.00 1.49 3.03
3.25 47.70 63.35 14.98 36.00 1.53 5.72
180 0.5 3.75 47.95 64.40 15.31 32.00 1.32 3.87
3.73 47.85 64.30 15.37 30.00 1.34 3.67
3.23 48.30 65.70 14.56 42.00 1.42 6.96
0.178 3.21 48.25 64.50 14.64 58.00 1.47 9.54
3.10 48.00 65.35 14.31 60.00 1.47 10.80
5.73 48.20 65.50 27.80 104.00 1.54 5.47
1 5.73 48.30 65.60 28.04 76.00 1.54 4.00
5.90 48.35 65.50 28.30 84.00 1.51 4.15
5.20 48.20 65.90 27.87 240.00 1.69 15.44
200 0.5 5.23 48.10 65.50 27.91 208.00 1.69 13.16
5.70 48.20 65.60 28.02 154.00 1.55 8.20
3.77 48.10 65.65 18.64 154.00 1.57 18.80
0.178 3.60 48.40 65.80 18.98 126.00 1.66 16.81
3.60 48.35 65.20 19.38 158.00 1.71 20.88
4.80 48.20 65.20 25.76 168.00 1.71 12.53
1 4.90 48.20 65.10 25.89 166.00 1.68 11.86
4.96 48.15 64.90 25.99 164.00 1.68 11.40
4.77 48.00 64.90 25.93 220.00 1.75 16.59
220 0.5 4.90 48.00 64.80 25.86 244.00 1.70 17.40
4.88 48.05 64.55 26.09 230.00 1.72 16.45
4.80 48.10 65.40 25.45 248.00 1.69 18.60
0.178 4.90 48.00 64.50 25.69 266.00 1.69 18.87
4.80 48.15 64.80 25.63 312.00 1.71 23.12
75
Temperature:
Figure B.13: Experimental data (point) of density of samples made with 2:1 mixture proportion,
50 MPa and 5 min.
Temperature:
Figure B.14: Experimental data (point) of bending strength of samples made with 2:1 mixture
proportion, 50 MPa and 5 min.
76
Wood Peak Bending

(°C) (mm) (mm) (mm) (g) (g/cm3)
size (mm) (N) (MPa)
3.75 48.00 64.80 14.86 38.00 1.27 4.63
1 3.60 47.95 64.60 14.93 64.00 1.34 8.43
3.87 48.10 64.70 14.88 38.00 1.24 4.33
3.43 47.60 64.10 14.86 90.00 1.42 13.04
180 0.5 3.73 48.00 64.05 14.61 116.00 1.27 14.08
4.30 48.15 65.05 18.34 120.00 1.36 11.13
3.46 48.35 65.25 14.99 98.00 1.37 14.03
0.178 3.48 48.35 64.85 14.63 84.00 1.34 11.80
3.57 48.25 65.25 14.92 80.00 1.33 10.78
4.00 48.30 66.35 18.25 96.00 1.42 10.50
1 3.93 48.20 64.50 18.48 86.00 1.51 9.44
3.90 48.60 64.60 18.66 118.00 1.52 13.07
5.95 47.90 64.50 27.31 344.00 1.49 16.58
200 0.5 5.83 48.00 63.95 27.42 314.00 1.53 15.58
5.75 47.85 63.90 27.58 430.00 1.57 21.98
3.95 47.80 65.45 17.85 250.00 1.44 27.88
0.178 4.15 47.85 64.60 18.24 286.00 1.42 28.42
4.15 47.85 65.35 18.16 286.00 1.40 28.81
4.67 48.00 65.10 23.27 196.00 1.59 15.47
1 4.63 48.10 65.45 23.35 264.00 1.60 21.30
4.93 48.00 65.20 23.42 242.00 1.52 17.18
4.87 48.00 65.25 23.43 380.00 1.54 27.66
220 0.5 4.72 48.20 65.30 23.31 368.00 1.57 28.43
4.60 47.90 65.30 23.29 360.00 1.62 29.46
3.66 48.35 64.25 19.28 382.00 1.70 47.99
0.178 3.70 48.00 64.90 19.24 370.00 1.67 46.37
3.66 48.15 64.40 19.26 386.00 1.70 48.83
77
Temperature:
50 MPa and 5 min.
Temperature:
78
Wood Peak Bending

(°C) (mm) (mm) (mm) (g) (g/cm3)
size (mm) (N) (MPa)
4.00 47.90 65.20 14.77 162.00 1.18 17.50
1 4.10 47.80 65.20 14.79 125.00 1.16 12.88
4.00 47.75 65.10 14.67 146.00 1.18 15.79
4.00 47.90 64.70 14.74 124.00 1.19 13.28
180 0.5 4.17 48.30 66.25 15.31 122.00 1.15 12.26
3.88 48.15 65.35 15.54 116.00 1.27 13.29
4.10 48.00 64.10 15.09 162.00 1.20 16.29
0.178 4.00 48.10 65.40 14.93 172.00 1.19 18.57
4.03 48.00 65.60 15.02 164.00 1.18 17.55
4.15 48.40 65.35 19.35 208.00 1.47 20.72
1 4.23 48.20 65.80 19.22 214.00 1.43 20.77
4.50 48.40 64.90 19.49 254.00 1.38 21.34
4.43 48.35 65.35 19.49 200.00 1.39 17.50
200 0.5 4.40 48.20 66.50 19.08 262.00 1.35 23.80
4.33 48.30 65.30 19.33 282.00 1.42 25.83
4.50 48.20 65.75 19.58 338.00 1.37 28.96
0.178 4.50 48.30 65.00 19.61 426.00 1.39 35.93
4.13 48.20 65.50 18.45 316.00 1.42 32.00
4.53 48.00 64.40 20.68 284.00 1.48 23.53
1 4.33 48.00 65.00 20.33 312.00 1.50 28.60
4.60 48.00 64.45 20.66 330.00 1.45 26.54
4.50 48.05 64.85 20.64 456.00 1.47 38.56
220 0.5 4.50 48.00 65.25 20.46 462.00 1.45 39.39
4.37 48.25 65.60 20.55 470.00 1.49 42.54
4.23 48.00 64.90 20.43 402.00 1.55 38.54
0.178 4.10 48.10 65.60 19.33 400.00 1.49 41.26
3.96 47.95 64.95 19.03 406.00 1.54 44.50
79
Temperature:
50 MPa and 5 min.
Temperature:
80
B.6 Temperature
Table B.10: Experimental data of samples produced under 50 MPa, wood particle size of 1 mm,
compaction duration of 5 min, tested for different temperature.

(°C) (mm) (mm) (mm) (g) (g/cm3)
3.13 48.00 64.90 14.49 15.00 1.49 2.63
180 3.11 48.00 64.65 14.39 18.00 1.49 3.18
3.18 48.00 64.50 14.71 18.00 1.49 3.03
5.73 48.20 65.50 27.80 104.00 1.54 5.47
2:1 200 5.73 48.30 65.60 28.04 76.00 1.54 4.00
5.90 48.35 65.50 28.30 84.00 1.51 4.15
4.80 48.20 65.20 25.76 168.00 1.71 12.53
220 4.90 48.20 65.10 25.89 166.00 1.68 11.86
4.96 48.15 64.90 25.99 164.00 1.68 11.40
3.75 48.00 64.80 14.86 38.00 1.27 4.63
180 3.60 47.95 64.60 14.93 64.00 1.34 8.43
3.87 48.10 64.70 14.88 38.00 1.24 4.33
4.00 48.30 66.35 18.25 96.00 1.42 10.50
1:1 200 3.93 48.20 64.50 18.48 86.00 1.51 9.44
3.90 48.60 64.60 18.66 118.00 1.52 13.07
4.67 48.00 65.10 23.27 196.00 1.59 15.47
220 4.63 48.10 65.45 23.35 264.00 1.60 21.30
4.93 48.00 65.20 23.42 242.00 1.52 17.18
4.00 47.90 65.20 14.77 162.00 1.18 17.50
180 4.10 47.80 65.20 14.79 125.00 1.16 12.88
4.00 47.75 65.10 14.67 146.00 1.18 15.79
4.15 48.40 65.35 19.35 208.00 1.47 20.72
1:2 200 4.23 48.20 65.80 19.22 214.00 1.43 20.77
4.50 48.40 64.90 19.49 254.00 1.38 21.34
4.53 48.00 64.40 20.68 284.00 1.48 23.53
220 4.33 48.00 65.00 20.33 312.00 1.50 28.60
4.60 48.00 64.45 20.66 330.00 1.45 26.54
81
Mixture proportion:
Figure B.19: Experimental data (point) of the density of samples made with 1 mm wood particle
Mixture proportion:
Figure B.20: Experimental data (point) of bending strength of samples made with 1 mm wood
82
mm, compaction duration of 5 min, tested for different temperature.

(°C) (mm) (mm) (mm) (g) (g/cm3)
3.25 47.70 63.35 14.98 36.00 1.53 5.72
180 3.75 47.95 64.40 15.31 32.00 1.32 3.87
3.73 47.85 64.30 15.37 30.00 1.34 3.67
5.20 48.20 65.90 27.87 240.00 1.69 15.44
2:1 200 5.23 48.10 65.50 27.91 208.00 1.69 13.16
5.70 48.20 65.60 28.02 154.00 1.55 8.20
4.77 48.00 64.90 25.93 220.00 1.75 16.59
220 4.90 48.00 64.80 25.86 244.00 1.70 17.40
4.88 48.05 64.55 26.09 230.00 1.72 16.45
3.43 47.60 64.10 14.86 90.00 1.42 13.04
180 3.73 48.00 64.05 14.61 116.00 1.27 14.08
4.30 48.15 65.05 18.34 120.00 1.36 11.13
5.95 47.90 64.50 27.31 344.00 1.49 16.58
1:1 200 5.83 48.00 63.95 27.42 314.00 1.53 15.58
5.75 47.85 63.90 27.58 430.00 1.57 21.98
4.87 48.00 65.25 23.43 380.00 1.54 27.66
220 4.72 48.20 65.30 23.31 368.00 1.57 28.43
4.60 47.90 65.30 23.29 360.00 1.62 29.46
4.00 47.90 64.70 14.74 124.00 1.19 13.28
180 4.17 48.30 66.25 15.31 122.00 1.15 12.26
3.88 48.15 65.35 15.54 116.00 1.27 13.29
4.43 48.35 65.35 19.49 200.00 1.39 17.50
1:2 200 4.40 48.20 66.50 19.08 262.00 1.35 23.80
4.33 48.30 65.30 19.33 282.00 1.42 25.83
4.50 48.05 64.85 20.64 456.00 1.47 38.56
220 4.50 48.00 65.25 20.46 462.00 1.45 39.39
4.37 48.25 65.60 20.55 470.00 1.49 42.54
83
Mixture proportion:
Figure B.21: Experimental data (point) of density of samples made with 0.5 mm wood particle
Mixture proportion:
Figure B.22: Experimental data (point) of bending strength of samples made with 0.5 mm wood
84
mm, compaction duration of 5 min, tested for different temperature.

(°C) (mm) (mm) (mm) (g) (g/cm3)
3.23 48.30 65.70 14.56 42.00 1.42 6.96
180 3.21 48.25 64.50 14.64 58.00 1.47 9.54
3.10 48.00 65.35 14.31 60.00 1.47 10.80
3.77 48.10 65.65 18.64 154.00 1.57 18.80
2:1 200 3.60 48.40 65.80 18.98 126.00 1.66 16.81
3.60 48.35 65.20 19.38 158.00 1.71 20.88
4.80 48.10 65.40 25.45 248.00 1.69 18.60
220 4.90 48.00 64.50 25.69 266.00 1.69 18.87
4.80 48.15 64.80 25.63 312.00 1.71 23.12
3.46 48.35 65.25 14.99 98.00 1.37 14.03
180 3.48 48.35 64.85 14.63 84.00 1.34 11.80
3.57 48.25 65.25 14.92 80.00 1.33 10.78
3.95 47.80 65.45 17.85 250.00 1.44 27.88
1:1 200 4.15 47.85 64.60 18.24 286.00 1.42 28.42
4.15 47.85 65.35 18.16 286.00 1.40 28.81
3.66 48.35 64.25 19.28 382.00 1.70 47.99
220 3.70 48.00 64.90 19.24 370.00 1.67 46.37
3.66 48.15 64.40 19.26 386.00 1.70 48.83
4.10 48.00 64.10 15.09 162.00 1.20 16.29
180 4.00 48.10 65.40 14.93 172.00 1.19 18.57
4.03 48.00 65.60 15.02 164.00 1.18 17.55
4.50 48.20 65.75 19.58 338.00 1.37 28.96
1:2 200 4.50 48.30 65.00 19.61 426.00 1.39 35.93
4.13 48.20 65.50 18.45 316.00 1.42 32.00
4.23 48.00 64.90 20.43 402.00 1.55 38.54
220 4.10 48.10 65.60 19.33 400.00 1.49 41.26
3.96 47.95 64.95 19.03 406.00 1.54 44.50
85
Mixture proportion:
Figure B.23: Experimental data (point) of density of samples made with 0.178 mm wood
Mixture proportion:
Figure B.24: Experimental data (point) of bending strength of samples made with 0.178 mm
wood particle size, 50 MPa and 5 min.
86
TRITA-ABE-MBT-20199
ISBN: 978-91-7873-575-4
www.kth.se

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DEGREE PROJECT IN CIVIL ENGINEERING AND URBAN

MANAGEMENT, SECOND CYCLE, 30 CREDITS

Recycling of Concrete Waste

KTH ROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Powder compaction is a new approach to completely recycle concrete waste in an

Keywords: Recycling, Concrete waste, Wooden waste, Heating powder compaction

Betong är ett av de främsta byggnadsmaterialen och används i de flesta byggprojekt. Därför

Detta examensarbete presenterar en undersökning av effekterna från olika

Nyckelord: Återvinning, Betongavfall, Träavfall, Värmekomprimering

Stockholm, June 2020

A Appearance of Samples ............................................................................................... 59

B Experimental Data ....................................................................................................... 63

(a) 5 MPa (b) 10 MPa

(c) 100 MPa (d) 400 MPa

Appendix A and B present the original data from the experiments.

2.1.1 Wooden waste flour

Figure 2.2: The production process of concrete waste powder.

2.2 Heating compaction

Samples of 5 mm × 50 mm × 65 mm were produced under a compaction pressure of 50 MPa

Figure 2.4: Samples produced under different production conditions

Figure 2.5: Bending strength test setup.

R  (3F  L) /(2W  t 2 ) (2.1)

Where R is the bending strength of the sample (MPa)

W is the width of the sample (mm)

t is the thickness of the sample (mm)

Figure 2.6: Wood and wood substance [14].

Figure 2.8: Three types of wood modification [16].

2.4.1 High moisture compaction

2.4.3 Water repellent coating

2.5 Observation of Microstructure by SEM

Sample mounted on steel stage

Scanning Electron Microscope

Microstructure of heating compacted wooden waste

3.1 The Effect of Compaction Duration

3.3 The Effect of Concrete Proportion

Table 3.1: The proportions of concrete waste.

Cement Materials Liquid Sand Gravel

3.4 The Effect of Mixture Proportion

3.5.1 Mixture proportion of 2:1

3.5.2 Mixture proportion of 1:1

3.5.3 Mixture proportion of 1:2

3.6 The Effect of Temperature

3.6.1 Wood particle size of 1 mm

3.6.2 Wood particle size of 0.5 mm

3.6.3 Wood particle size of 0.178 mm

4.1.1 Mixture proportion

Figure 4.1: Microstructure of samples of 2:1 mixture proportion.

Figure 4.3: Microstructure of samples of 1:2 mixture proportion.

4.1.2 Wood particle size

Figure 4.5: Microstructure of samples of 0.5 mm wood particle size.

Figure 4.6: Microstructure of samples of 0.178 mm wood particle size.

Figure 4.7: Microstructure of samples of 180 °C.

Figure 4.8: Microstructure of samples of 200 °C.

Figure 4.9: Microstructure of samples of 220 °C.

4.2 Statistical Analysis

Temperature Percentage of wooden waste

Figure 4.10: The influence of production condition on density.

Mixture proportion Wood particle size

Temperature Percentage of wooden waste