UNIT – II

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1.Define ALOHA?
ALOHA – It was designed for wireless LAN but is also applicable for shared
medium. In this, multiple stations can transmit data at the same time and can
hence lead to collision and data being garbled. 
 Pure Aloha: 
When a station sends data it waits for an acknowledgement. If the
acknowledgement doesn’t come within the allotted time then the station
waits for a random amount of time called back-off time (Tb) and re-sends the
data. Since different stations wait for different amount of time, the probability
of further collision decreases. 
 Slotted Aloha: 
It is similar to pure aloha, except that we divide time into slots and sending of
data is allowed only at the beginning of these slots. If a station misses out
the allowed time, it must wait for the next slot. This reduces the probability of
collision. 

2. List out advantage of CSMA/CD protocol?

Advantages of  CSMA/CD:
 This technique is efficient for light to moderate load.
 It was invented for wireless networks.
 It is inexpensive.
 It is fast. 
 Very simple to implement.
 It avoids a collision.
 It detects collision within a short time 
 CSMA/CD is a control software that is relatively simple ad produces little overhead.

3. Define MAC?
MAC Addresses are unique 48-bits hardware number of a computer, which is
embedded into a network card (known as a Network Interface Card) during the time
of manufacturing. MAC Address is also known as the Physical Address of a network
device. In IEEE 802 standard, Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers – 
1. Logical Link Control(LLC) Sublayer
2. Media Access Control(MAC) Sublayer
MAC address is used by the Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer of the Data-Link
Layer. MAC Address is worldwide unique since millions of network devices exist and
we need to uniquely identify each. 
4.Define Ethernet?
1)Ethernet is similar to IEEE 802.3 protocol.
2) It is standard wired network protocol that checks how data will be transmitted over a
LAN.
3) It works at data link layer, which checks how data can be transmitted from one device
to other device over same network segment
4) It can transmit packet as well as frame where each frame is wrapped with packet that
contains MAC address of both sender and receiver.
5) It was earlier used with coaxial wire but now it is used with twisted and LAN cables

5.Give the two techniques for implementing Ethernet switches?

An Ethernet switch creates networks and uses multiple ports to communicate between devices in
the LAN. Ethernet switches differ from routers, which connect networks and use only a single LAN
and WAN port.  A full wired and wireless corporate infrastructure provides wired connectivity and
Wi-Fi for wireless connectivity.

6. What is the function of repeaters?.List its merits and demerits

 Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate
the signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or
corrupted so as to extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over
the same network. An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they
do not amplify the signal. When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal
bit by bit and regenerate it at the original strength. It is a 2 port device.
Advantages of Repeaters :
1. Cost –
The cost of reapers is less than compared to the other network. They’re going to be
purchased at minimal expense. However, that does not deny the actual fact that it requires
other kinds of expenses. One such is that the utilization of electricity.
 
2. Network Performance –
Repeaters don’t always depend on a processing overhead. So that’s why the performance
of the system is also affected.
 
3. Enhance Signal –
Whenever a computer and a router is placed far apart, it’ll end in weak signals. Repeater
has the potential to strengthen signals so as that it are often retransmitted much stronger
with better performance.
 
4. Physical Barriers –
Physical hurdles may lead to the weakening the overall signals of wireless connectivity.
Employing a wireless repeater, these impacts are often reduced so as that there will be an
assurance that signals are getting to be delivered to the computers.
 
Disadvantages of Repeaters :
1. Network Traffic –
Repeaters are unable to segment network traffic. Hence, they lack the potential to reduce
congestion also as network traffic.
 
2. Specification – 
Repeaters are also unable to connect networks of varied architectures. For this purpose,
either a gateway or a router is required.
 
3. Number of Repeaters –
There is a restriction on the number of repeaters that can be implemented on a selected
network. If more of them are deployed, it’ll create noises on the wire and increase the
possibilities of packet collision.

4. Collision Domain –
The Repeaters cannot separate the devices as all the information is passed to several
domains. Moreover, repeaters cannot identify if it is a neighborhood of the same collision
domain. 

7. What is Hub?
Hub –  A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming
from different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects
different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected
devices.  In other words, the collision domain of all hosts connected through Hub
remains one.  Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the best path for data
packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage. 

8. Define Router?.List its types

A Router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks. 
The router basically performs two major functions: 
1. Forwarding – 
The router receives the packets from its input ports, checks its header, performs some
basic functions like checking checksum, and then looks up to the routing table to find the
appropriate output port to dump the packets onto, and forwards the packets onto that
output port.
2. Routing – 
Routing is the process by which the router ascertains what is the best path for the packet
to reach the destination, It maintains a routing table which is made using different
algorithms by the router only.
Types of Router:

 Wired router.
 Wireless router.
 Core router and edge router.
 Virtual router.

9. In what situations contention based MAC protocols are suitable?

Contention-based medium access control (MAC) protocol is a key component for the
success of wireless data networks. Conventional random access protocols like ALOHA
and Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) suffer from packet collision which leads to
low throughput. Aimed at improving the throughput performance, we use contention-
based MAC protocols for recovering collided packets.  Contention based MAC protocols
are suitable for bursty nature of traffic under light to moderate load. These methods
are always decentralized, easy and simple to implement.

10. Illustrate what is vulnerable period? How it affects the performance in MAC
protocols?
The total period of time when collision might occur for a packet is called vulnerable period. Let,
every packet have a fixed duration λ. Then vulnerable period is λ in slotted ALOHA scheme and
2λ in pure ALOHA scheme. If vulnerable period is long, likelihood of the occurrence collision
increases leading to reduction in throughput.

11. What do you mean by Back off time Random access protocol?
Back-off algorithm is a collision resolution mechanism which is used in
random access MAC protocols (CSMA/CD). This algorithm is generally used in
Ethernet to schedule re-transmissions after collisions.
If a collision takes place between 2 stations, they may restart transmission as
soon as they can after the collision. This will always lead to another collision
and form an infinite loop of collisions leading to a deadlock. To prevent such
scenario back-off algorithm is used.
11. List three categories of multiple access protocols?

12. Define CSMA and CDMA?

CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

It is a carrier sense multiple access based on media access protocol to sense the traffic on a
channel (idle or busy) before transmitting the data. It means that if the channel is idle, the
station can send data to the channel. Otherwise, it must wait until the channel becomes idle.
Hence, it reduces the chances of a collision on a transmission medium.

CSMA/ CD

It is a carrier sense multiple access/ collision detection network protocol to transmit data

frames. The CSMA/CD protocol works with a medium access control layer. Therefore, it
first senses the shared channel before broadcasting the frames, and if the channel is idle,
it transmits a frame to check whether the transmission was successful. If the frame is
successfully received, the station sends another frame. If any collision is detected in the
CSMA/CD, the station sends a jam/ stop signal to the shared channel to terminate data
transmission. After that, it waits for a random time before sending a frame to a channel.

13. Explain how performance is improved in CSMA/CD protocol compared to

CSMA protocol?
In CSMA scheme, a station monitors the channel before sending a packet. Whenever a
collision is detected, it does not stop transmission leading to some wastage of
time. On the other hand, in CSMA/CD scheme, whenever a station detects a
collision, it sends a jamming signal by which other station comes to know that a
collision occurs. As a result, wastage of time is reduced leading to improvement
in performance.
14. How throughput is improved in slotted ALOHA over pure ALOHA?
15. State Vulnerable Time?
The time required to send a frame is called frame time. Vulnerable time is the time during which
no transmission should be done to avoid any collision. The stations participating in aloha don't
need to transmit frame starting at the initial time t=0. But the vulnerable time(T) is added to
initial time to create some kind of check points (t, t+T, t+2T,...). So if a station decides to send a
frame somewhere between (t, t+T), the transmission time will cross the t+T point and use some
of the time between t+2T. In order to avoid collision we have to include the next duration (t+T,
t+2T) also into vulnerable time because another station might decide to transfer between time
period (t+T, t+2T) causing collision. 

16. Distinguish between FDMA and TDMA?

Sr.
No. FDMA TDMA

FDMA stands for Frequency TDMA stands for Time Division

1. Division Multiple Access. Multiple Access.

Overall bandwidth is shared Time sharing of satellite

2. among number of stations. transponder takes place.

Guard bands between adjacent Guard time between adjacent

3. channels is necessary. slots is necessary.

4. Synchronization is not required. Synchronization is necessary.

5. Power efficiency is less. Power efficiency is high.

It requires stability of high It does not require stability of

6. carrier efficiency. high carrier efficiency.

It is basically used in GSM and It is basically used in advanced

7. PDC. mobile phone systems.

17. Define Bandwidth.

Network bandwidth is the maximum capacity of a wired or wireless communications link to
deliver data via a network connection in a given amount of time. Bandwidth is typically defined
as the number of bits, kilobits, megabits, or gigabits that may be sent in one second.
Bandwidth and capacity are terms that are used interchangeably to describe the pace at
which data is delivered. It is a common misconception that bandwidth is a measure of network
speed. Throughput is what bandwidth is all about. Bandwidth in networks refers to how much
digital data we can send or receive through a link in a given length of time. It’s also referred to
as data transfer rate.

18. Describe in brief about Types of Ethernet cabling.

Types of Ethernet Cables:
Mainly there are three types of ethernet cables used in LANs i.e., Coaxial cables, Twisted Pair
cables, and Fiber optic cables.

1. Coaxial Cables : A coaxial cable is used to carry high-frequency electrical signals with
low losses. It uses 10Base2 and 10Base5 Ethernet variants. It has a copper conductor in the
middle that is surrounded by a dielectric insulator usually made of PVC or Teflon. It is usually
used in telephone systems, cable TV, etc.
2. Twisted Pair Cable:  Twisted pair is a copper wire cable in which two insulated copper
wires are twisted around each other to reduce interference or crosstalk. It uses 10BASE-T,
100BASE-T, and some other newer ethernet variants. It uses RJ-45 connectors.
3. Fiber Optic Cable: Fiber optic cables use optical fibers which are made of glass cores
surrounded by several layers of cladding material usually made of PVC or Teflon, it transmits
data in the form of light signals due to which there are no interference issues in fiber optics.

19. Define the functions of MAC?

 It provides an abstraction of the physical layer to the LLC and upper layers of the OSI
network.
 It is responsible for encapsulating frames so that they are suitable for transmission via
the physical medium.
 It resolves the addressing of source station as well as the destination station, or groups
of destination stations.
 It performs multiple access resolutions when more than one data frame is to be
transmitted. It determines the channel access methods for transmission.
 It also performs collision resolution and initiating retransmission in case of collisions.
 It generates the frame check sequences and thus contributes to protection against
transmission errors.

20. What is Gate way in communication networks?

 A network gateway joins two networks so the devices on one network can
communicate with the devices on another network. Without gateways, you wouldn't be
able to access the internet, communicate and send data back and forth. A gateway
can be implemented completely in software, hardware, or a combination of
both. Because a network gateway by definition appears at the edge of a network,
related capabilities such as firewalls  and proxy servers tend to be integrated with it.
 Gateways are network protocol converters. Often the two networks that a gateway
joins use different base protocols. The gateway facilitates compatibility between the
two protocols. Depending on the types of protocols they support, network gateways
can operate at any level of the OSI model.