26 Exact di↵erential Equations

(Matrix representation of an n-dimensional vector)

Definition 2.1.
The matrix representation of an n-dimensional vector with com-
0 1
a1
B a2 C
B C
B.C T
ponents a1 , a2 , ..., an is X = B C = a1 a2 . . . an
B.C
@.A
an
Example
0 2.2.
1 2~i +13~j
Let ~a = 0 5~k and ~b = 2~i + 6~k then we write,
2 2
~a = @ 3 A ~
and b = 0A .
@
5 6
 Exact di↵erential Equations 27

Matrix equation of system of linear equations: Consider the sys-

tem of m linear equations in n unknowns x1 , x2 , ..., xn as below:
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ... + a2n xn = b1
a31 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a3n xn = b1
.....
.....
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + ... + amn xn = b1
Then the matrix equation of the above system is AX = B
where 0 1 0 1
0 1 x1 b1
a11 a12 ... a1n
B a21 a22 ... a2n C B x C B b C
B C B 2C B 2C
B.C B . C
A=B C
B a31 a32 ... a3n C , X = B C B=B C
@ . B . C B . C
. . . A @.A @ . A
am1 am2 ... amn
xn bm
If B = 0 then the system of equations is said to be homoge-
neous, otherwise non-homogeneous.
Any n tuple x = (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) which satisfies the above
system of equations is called the solution of the system.
28 Exact di↵erential Equations

Note 2.3. It is clear that 0 = (0, 0, ..., 0) is a solution of the system

AX = 0, called the trivial solution.
Note 2.4. The set of all solutions of the homogeneous system of
linear equations are closed under addition and scalar multiplica-
tion.
i.e. If y1 and y2 are the solutions of the homogeneous system
AX = 0 then y = c1 y1 + c2 y2 is again a solution of AX = 0.
 Exact di↵erential Equations 29

Definition 2.5. (Augmented Matrix) Consider the system of lin-

ear equations AX = B then the augmented matrix is obtained
by placing the column matrix B to the right of the matrix A. It
is denoted by [A : B] .
30 Exact di↵erential Equations

Definition 2.6. (Linearly independent vectors) Let S = {v1 , v2 , ..., vn }

be the set of all n dimensional vectors. Then v1 , v2 , ..., vn are said
to be linearly independent if c1 v1 + c2 v2 + ... + cn vn = 0 implies
c1 = c2 = ... = cn == 0.
Definition 2.7. (Linearly dependent vectors) Let S = {v1 , v2 , ..., vn }
be the set of all n dimensional vectors. Then v1 , v2 , ..., vn are said
to be linearly dependent if there exists scalars c1 , c2 , ..., cn , not all
zeros such that c1 v1 + c2 v2 + ... + cn vn = 0.
Example 2.8. • Let S = {v1 = (1, 2), v2 = (2, 3)}

GB ) (8)
"

¥
-

4 (b) + =

}
Ci -12cg = 0 a = O,
G = O

linearly
'

C, V & are
+ 3 Cog = 0 . .

, V2
• Let S = {v1 = ( 1, 3), v2 = (2, 6)}.
independent .

at ;) (8)
"

¥ -

+
↳ (2) =

C , + 2C 0
C,=2
-

=
,

34 -

6cg = 0

&
i. v
, v2 are
linearly dependent .
 Exact di↵erential Equations 31

Example 2.9. Test whether the set of vectors S = {(1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 3), (0, 1, 1)
is linearly independent or not.
Let v1 = (1, 1, 2), v2 = (1, 2, 3), v3 = (0, 1, 1) be the given
vectors.

al ;) (1) (f) =L:o)

"

¥ -

+ ↳ +
↳

9
C
,
-1cg = 0

4-1%-5=0
+
2C , -13cg 1- ↳ = 0
↳
3=0
-3cg -154=0

2cg = 0

c
V2 , V3 linearity dependent
.

V are
, >
.
- .
32 Exact di↵erential Equations

Row-reduced Echelon Form: Let A be the given matrix. Apply

row elementary transformations to the matrix A such that
• First row, first nonzero element should be 1 and all the ele-
ments below in that column should be zeros.
• In the reduced matrix, convert the first nonzero element in
the second row as 1 and all the elements below in that column
should be zeros.
• Continue the same procedure till all the rows are exhausted.
• The final reduced matrix is the Row-reduced Echelon Form
of A.
Note 2.10. Let A be the given matrix and C be the row reduced
Echelon form of A, then the number of nonzero rows in C is the
rank of A.
Hence we can define, the rank of a matrix A is the maximum
number of linearly independent rows (or columns) of A.

Let A be a
given matrix .

§% :* :) Rai
b C R, →
A =

iii. it :: form of

matrix
 -

consider a matrix

( 6)
9 9 9
A =

I 2 3

2 4

7 7 7

"

( 9)
¥ A =
9 a R→%
I 2 3

g g g pg , Pyg,
7 7 7 Ry →
Ryyp

=L: : :| : : ::
I 1 I

I 2 3 123 → 123 -
Ri
=L: : :2) 0 I
123-3123
-

R2

( to I £
0
O
O
O
O
O
) = Echelon forum
Of A

no .

of non -
zero rows __
2
=
SIA
Properties of rank of a matrix -

-
-

1 .
If A is a square matrix of
order n then
, f (A) ≤ n .

2 .

If A is an mxn matrix
,

then SCA ) ≤ min { m n } .

3- If matrix
In is an
identity
of order n then fl In ) = n
,
.

4. A matrix and its transpose have

the same rank .

5
If S (A) then A is
.

= 0 a hull
,

matrix .

6- If A is not a null matrix then

,

SCA ) ≥ 1 .
 Exact di↵erential Equations 33

Problem
0 2.11.
1 Obtain the row-reduced Echelon form of the matrix
1 2 3 2
@2 3 5 1 A
1 3 4 5

( L } } ?
)Rg→R
?
A
SE =
-

2131
,
1 3 4 5 12
}
→
123 -

Ri

t: : : :) 0 -
I -
I -3
R2 -3122×-1

% ? ?)r}→Rs
3
~
I 3

,
Ra
-

~
[ } ? }3)
O

,
I I
= Echelon
form of A

Of
'

- .
no -

non -

zero rows = 2=5 (A) .

 -

Using the row elementary

transformations ,
find the rank

of the matrix
'

f- 1)
A- = I 2 -
I 0

I 0
3 -4
Rg→RjR ,
2 I 3 -2 123-3125212 ,

I 1 I -

Ry→Ry- R ,

f 4)
' & -
I 0

~ 0 5 I
RgRy
-
-

0 -3 5 -2
0 -1 2 -

I
 ( 1)
I 2 -
I 0

~
0 -1 2 -

Ra→ -

Rog
o -3 5 -2

0 5 -
I -4

40 2)
I 2 -

I 0

0 I 1
~
-

-3 5
123-3123+3122
-

0 5 I -4
Ry→Ry 5122
-

( 1)
1 2 -
I 0

~
0 I -2 I

0 0 -

I R
>
→ -133
0 0 9 -9
Ry→Riˢ
 ;py→RñB
"

¥ I

,
-2 I

y: : : 0

O
I

O
-2

O
:)
I

= Echelon form of A

-
: no .
Of non - zero rows

= 3 =
f (A)
?⃝
E- Using row elementary
transformations ,
find the

rank of the matrix

( 1)
" Ry
A-
4
; ; ; ; -1 I .

I -3 7 6

Y 1)
-
' -3 76

4 -1 I
Rq→Rj4R ,

3 -2 3 4
123-3123-3131
2 -2 5 3
Ry -3124-2121
v40 )Rq→?;ˢ
'

I -3 7 6

11-37--23

0 7-18-14

0 4 -9 -9

µ
I -3 7 6

~
1 -271, , •
-

0 7 -18 -14 ↳ → 123-7122

0 y g Ry → Ry 4122
-

g -

}
18+(27,7×7)

(
-

I -3 7 6
~

iu+EY
-

0 I -271, , -23111
¥, , -9+(7%4)
o g -

g, ,
0 0 9h , -7g , -9+(23,1-4)
 Ry → Ry + R
,

( ]
" "
° " °
~

0 I -271, , -23111
o o → y
,, ,
,,
O O O O

=
Echelon form of A

i. Here no .

of non -

Zero

rows = 3 =
f (A) .
-

Using row
elementary
transformations ,
find the

rank of the matrix

a-
1 : : : :6)
2 4 2

R →
Ra
-

212 ,
,

i : : : :)
O O O O
RgR}
% : :1) 0 3 5

= Echelon form of A

-
'

.
no .
Of non -

zero rows

=
2 =
f (A) .
 ( Consistency )
DEI
A system of linear equations A✗ = B is said

be
to
consistent if the system has a solution ,

otherwise it is

Consider A ✗ = B -

Augmented matrix [A :B]

↳ f ([ A :B ] ) = ?

( f)
Echelon
form

A B
 N-mo-E-i-oystemof-W.gg
*

SIA :B ] )=S( A)

40 No

L
g
The system is The system is

consistent inconsistent

SEA :B ])=HA)=n
f¢A :B] )=f( A) < n
L S

Unique Infinitely
801h many son
Gauss Elimination Method -

-
-

[A :B ]
µ /
{ ? {
let =

⑤ ⑥ 7
Probing
Test the
consistency and solve

the system of equations by

Gaius elimination method .
.

}
Rt + 2 = 6

N -

Y -122=5
-

⊕
3k +
y +2 =
8
EE -

The matrix equation of ④ is -

µ 2)
' '
A✗=B , where A-
I -

, ,

=P:) ,
•
=L:) .

I
:{
l I 1 : 6

÷ :
""
'

!
" "
3 I 1 : 8
Rg → Ra Ri , R> → R ,-312 ,
-

% ::: :
 123 →
Rz
-

Ra

1)
6

{
1 I 1 :

~ 0 -2 1 : -
→ Echelon

O
form of A
O -3 : _
q

'

•
.
I [A :B ] =3

( 1)
I 1 1
Echelon forum of A =
O -2
0 0 -3

f (A)
^

- .
= 3

i. f [A :B ] =P (A) = 3 = no .
of
unknowns
'

-
.
The system is consistent and

has a unique soil .

The equivalent matrix equation is ,

( 1) ( F.) (& ;)
I 1 I
=
◦ -

a
O O -

N +
y + 2 = 6 K -15 = 6 k

2Y I 3=-4
→Y + I =) =
-

2
- -

= -

y
32 -9
2=30
-
=

(§ )
"
required is
'

. . The 801 ✗ = .
Probing
Test the
consistency and solve

the system of equations by

Gaius elimination method ,

}
he
ay + 32 =
14

4N + 5
-

⊕
Y -172 = 35

3N -1 3
y -142=21

? matrix equation of ⊕ is A✗ B
¥
=
The ,

( :?) =p;) 13=1:?)

i
where A- _
✗

3 3 4
 [, ! ! }
Augmented matrix [A :B] =

4 5 7 : 35

R2 → Rg -

4 R,
,
R} → R} -

312 ,

% : : : :| 0 -3 -5 :
-21

123 → Rs -

Ra

% : : : :] 0 -3 -5 : -2 ,
→ Echelon forum

'

-
.
S [ A :B ] = 2

% 5)
& 3
Echelon form of A is 0 -3 -
-

, ,

i f (A)
-
=
2
 "

-
.
I [ A :B] = f (A) = 2 < 3 = no .
of unknowns

System
'

is consistent and have

.
.

infinitely
solutions
many
.

The equivalent matrix is

,

(: : : ) (1) =/÷ )
◦ → -

Nt
say + 32 = 14

3
Y 5,2
-

-
= -

21

Let then
, -39 = -

21 + 5k

y=7-5↳
n + 2 ( 7- % K ) + 3k =
14

N -1 I 4 -

¥ K + 3k =
14
 n + 14
÷ 14
-

a 14 14 +
¥
= -

¥
=

-
^

.
Required so
↑ is ✗ =

( )
¥-33k
K ,

where k is
any real no .
-
For what value of Max ,
the system of

equations

}
set y -12=6

N
-12 Y -132=10 ⊕

N
-12g -1×2=14

"

¥
-
The matrix eat of ⊕ is A- ✗ =
B
,
where

f. ; ;) =/ 1)
'

f :)
a- ✗
⇐
, ,
µ

[ ! ! !}
1

Augmented matrix is [A :B ] =

I 23 : 10

, ,

R,
R2 → R2 123-3123 Ri
-
-

e: : : : : -1
0 I 2 : u
 R →
Rz Rg
-

( ; ; ;; ! ]
0 I 2 :

,
U

, ,
→ Echelon form

(I ) The system has unique soil if

f [ A :B ] = f [A] = 3

E. e. possible if × -

31=0 a µ be any real no

.

Tie if ✗ ≠ 3 & µ be any real no .

[Ii ,
The system has infinitely many soil if

f [ A :B ] = f [A] < 3
I. e I [A ]
f [ A :B ] =

E. e. possible if × -

3=0 & IU
-

10=0

I. e if ✗ =3 & µ = 10
Ciii ) The system has no soil if

f[ A :B ]
f- f[ A ]
I. SEA ] & =3
e. = 2 I [A :B ]
E. e. possible if × -3=0 AM -101=0

Tie if ✗ =3 & µ -1-10 -

¥ Solve by Gauss Elimination method :

Ni t 4 6
222 3kg Ny
-
-
=

Mi t 3kg 1-
Nz 2kg = 4
-

224 +
5kg 2kg Sky 10
-
-
=

80¥ Augmented matrix

[A :B] =
I 3 I -2
! ! !4) :
 R > → R , -212 ,
R2 →
R2 R,
-

i:::i 0 I 4 2 : -2

123 →
Rs Ra
-

4 2 :
:g)
-
→ Echelon forum

i. I [ A :B ] = 3

Echelon form of A =
0
? ? ?}
I 4 2

i.
SEA ] =3
 '

-
.
f [A ] = I [ A :B ] =3 < 4 = no -

of unknowns

'

System is consistent and have

infinitely
.
.

many 801ns .

The equivalent matrix egn is -

to : : :X !;) g)
"
0 1 u a
^

Ni t 2kg
-

3h54 My = 6 -

N2 + 42512 My =
-2 -

M
① =) N
, +
2kg 3kg 6
-
=

% +4
Ng = -

g
?⃝
 Put k =) 2 k
My 4kg
=
- -

Nz

2-yk.tk
= -

+ 2k 3
-2¥
,
-

✗
= 6

n + 2k
-16-1,311
,
= 6

R
8k+n<
,
+
= 6

Ñky)
N = 6-
,

2u-;
=

*
=

j8-
÷:÷×=f¥/
where k is any
Geometrical concept of Nature

oflhesysntymofF-qns.net
34=3

> ×

The
-169=-8 Ll

↳
 "
"
Y
a-

34-129=12

"

+24=4 .

2×+49=8
2 .
Inverse of a matrix
using row

reduced elementary transformation :

-
3 .
Gauss Jordan Method (To find
the inverse
of a )
matrix

let A be a square matrix

.

( A / I ) Apply now elementary

transformation to make A as an

identity matrix , simultaneously

apply the same transformation

to I .
-

Using Gauss Jordan method find the

inverse of the matrix A = (§ )

'
,
.

11 (§ / 9)
'
( AH ) =
'

, ◦

R, →
Rya

Is :/ :)
~
" "
:

Ra →
R2
-
312 ,

( 42
/ Ya
]
l 0
~
0
112 -

% I

R ,
→ Ri -

Ra

( / 1)
' 0 2 -

I
~
0
42 %
-
 R
, -32122

( / 1)
l 0 2 -
I
~

0 I -3

=L:-D
'
i. A-
 -

Using Gauss Jordan method find

the inverse of the matrix

a-
f. ÷ :) .

So In _

=L : : :| : : : )
=

* I -
I 1 0 I 0

R2 → R2 -

R
, , 123-3123 Ri -

( f- )
1 I 0 I 0 0
~
0 -2 I I 1 0

0 -2 2 I 0 I
-
 Rz → R
}
-

R2

( :*: :)
O -2 I -

I 1 0

R R
→
R2
-

, }

% :| : : :) 0 -2 0
-

I 2
-

R2 → Ra /-2

i : : :of : : : )
0 1
% -1 ¥
 R → R
R2
-

, ,

( : : :| )
I 0 0 42 I -112
-
" " "
0 -

I 1

2)
'

(¥
A- 42 I "
_

- . = .

"
:
-

Using Gauss Jordan method find

the inverse of the matrix

a-
f. : :)
-
I -

2 0
Gauss -
Jordan Method
-
( To solve system of
_
-

linear equations )

Using Gauss Jordan method ,

-

solve the
system of
-

equations .

}
N+ y -12=9

2k ⊕
3Y -142=13
-
-

3k + Yy -152=40

KI -

The matrix egn is -

[ all:/ :[:|
I 1 I
=
• →

3 4 5

Roy → R2 QR , R}→ R} 312 ,

-
-

[÷: :X:| -1%1

'

R
}
→
1231-1-5 R2
 [ : -6:/
'
=
◦ → •

◦ ◦ "

R
}
→
123×5-12

¥:*.tt:1
Roy → R2 2123
-

[÷ :#HE:L
Ra 13
→

pi://i.tt:1
0 0 I

R → Ri -

Ra
,

µ : :X:H :|
R, → R, -
R
}

µ ; :X .tt:1 :

1%1=1;)
-

Using Gauss -
Jordan method , solve the system

of equations .

}
Nt QY -
32 = 2

k -13 y -
92 = 6 -
⊕

7N + 13
thy -
212 =

11 .
The matrix earn is -

[ : :
+ in
::
→
=L:/
R2 →
R2
-
R
, ,
R
,
→ 13-7-12 ,

[ 3) (g) [& /
I 2 -

0 I -6 =

,
O O O 2-2=0

3- 2×-6
R → R
-

2122
-

,
,
= -
3+12

[ ]
= a
I 0 9
◦ i -6
O O O
 f [ A :B ] =3

8 [ A] =
2

system is inconsistent
.

-
.
The -
_

Using Gauss -
Jordan method , solve the system

Of equations .

}
get y -122=10
⊕
+ 2g -12=8
-

3kt y -
2=2

[ 8)
I 2 : 10
2
K¥ [A :B ] =

I 2 1 :

3 I -1 : 2

R → R'
, 12

% I
:::
2 1 :

:| 8

Rg → R2 R, R} → R 312 ,
- -

, }

i. ÷ 0
312 : : :]
0 :

:
3
 R2 →
132×2-3

i. ÷ : : :2) 0 I 0 :

Rz -3133 -1¥ R2

1: :::
"

: :
:

123-3123
Ty
5

%
1 :

0 0 1 : 3

R .

,
→ Ri -

3- R2 R , → Ri -

Rs

[ g) [ 2)
I 0 I 0 0 : I
~
1 : y ~
01 0 :
0 I 0 :
0 0 1 ? 3
0 0 1 : 3

The soil is
[§ ]
'

-
.