Science 10: 1st Quarter Reviewer

Unit 1 Module 1 – Plate Tectonics

Two kinds of Crust:

-Continental Crust - thicker but less dense
-Oceanic Crust - thinner but denser
-The entire lithosphere of the Earth is broken into numerous segments called plates
-an earthquake releases three types of waves; Primary(P-waves), Secondary(S-waves), and Long surface
waves(L-waves) -P-waves and S-waves travel into the Earth’s interior while L-wave travels on the surface
-The epicenter can be determined using the triangulation method. Distance of epicenter from each of the
stations:

Types of Plate Boundaries:

-Divergent boundary - Plates move apart, creating a zone of
tension -Convergent boundary - Plates move toward each other
-Transform Fault boundary - Plates slide or grind past each other without diverging or converging

Converging Oceanic Crust Leading Plate and Continental Crust Leading

Plate -Formation of a volcanic arc near the edge of a continental leading plate
^the denser oceanic crust undergoes subduction process or bending of crust toward the mantle
-For oceanic crust, a trench is formed
-Occurrence of earthquakes

Convergence of Oceanic Plates

-Formation of trenches, and will be cause of earthquakes
^underwater earthquakes can cause tsunami
-Causes tsunami
-Formation of volcanic arc parallel to the trench
^the leading edge of the subducted plate will eventually reach the mantle causing it to melt and turn
to magma ^the molten material will rise to the surface creating a volcanic arc
-Volcanic Arc – chain of volcanoes positioned in arc shape
-Many parts of the Philippines originated from oceanic-oceanic convergence

Convergence of Continental Plates

-A collision zone is formed
-No trench, no volcano, no island are created
-Mountain Range is formed – a large group of tall mountains

Divergence of Plates
Continental: Formation of rift valleys – down faulted valleys
Oceanic: Formation of oceanic ridges – underwater mountain ranges
-Most divergent boundaries are situated along underwater mountain ranges/oceanic ridges
-As plates separates new materials from mantle oozes up and slowly cool to form new
ocean floor -The spreading rate may vary from 2 to 20 cm per year

Transform Fault Boundaries

-Most transform faults join two segments of a mid-ocean ridge
-Earthquake activities triggered by movements along the fault system

Hot Spot with Plate Tectonics

-There is a source of molten materials from the mantle called mantle plume that forms volcanic island chains
^As the Pacific plates moves, different parts of it will be on top of the mountain plume creating the volcanic islands
^As one island volcano becomes extinct, another develops over the hotspot, and the cycle is repeated.

Glossary of Terms
Continental volcanic arc – mountains formed in part by igneous activity associated with subduction
of oceanic lithosphere beneath a continent
Convergent boundary – a boundary in which two plates move toward each other, causing one of the slabs of the
lithosphere to subduct beneath an overriding plate
Crust – the outer portion of the earth
Continental Crust – the thick part of the Earth’s crust, not located under the ocean
Oceanic Crust – the thin part of the Earth’s crust located under the oceans
Divergent boundary – a region where the crustal plates are moving apart
Earthquake – vibration of Earth due to the rapid release of energy
Fault – a break in a rock along which movement has occurred
Fracture – any break in a rock in which no significant movement has
taken place Geology – the science that studies Earth
Hot spot – a concentration of heat in the mantle capable of creating magma
Magma – a mass of molten rock formed at depth, including dissolved gases and crystals.
Mid-ocean ridge – a continuous mass of land with long width and height on the ocean floor
Plates – rigid sections of the lithosphere that move as a unit
Plate tectonics – a theory which suggests that Earth’s crust is made up of plates that interact in various
ways, thus producing earthquakes, mountains, volcanoes, and other geologic features
Primary (P) wave – the first type of seismic wave to be recorded in a
seismic station Rocks – consolidated mixture of minerals
Secondary (S) wave – second type of earthquake wave to be recorded in a
seismic station Seismogram – a record made by a seismograph
Seismograph – a device used to record earthquake waves
Subduction – an event in which a slab of rock thrusts into the mantle
Transform fault boundary – a boundary produced when two plates slide past each other
Trench – a depression in the seafloor produced by subduction process
Volcanic Island arc – a chain of volcanoes that develop parallel to a trench

7 Main Tectonic Plates:

Pacific Plate
North American Plate
Eurasian Plate
African Plate
Antarctic Plate
Indo-Australian Plate
South American Plate
Unit 1 Module 2 – The Earth’s Interior

Seismic waves - the energy from an earthquake that radiates in all directions from the focus in
the form of waves. ^It is recorded in seismographs
Two Main Types:
-Body wave and Surface wave

Surface waves
-Can only travel through the surface of Earth
-They arrive after the main P and S waves are confined to the outer layers of the Earth.

Two Types of Surface waves:

-Love waves
^Named after A.E.H. Love, a British mathematician who worked out the mathematical model for
the kind of wave in 1911.
^It is faster than Rayleigh wave and it moves side-to-side horizontal motion.
^Cause the most damage to structures during an earthquake.
-Rayleigh waves
^It was named after John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh, who mathematically predicted the
existence of this kind of wave in 1885.
^A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground and it has low frequency
^It moves the ground either up and down or side-to-side similar to the direction of the
wave’s movement. ^Most of the shaking felt from an Earthquake is due to the Rayleigh
wave

Body waves
-Unlike surface waves, body waves can travel through the
Earth’s inner layers -They are used by scientists to study the
Earth’s interior.
-These waves are of a higher frequency than the surface waves

Two Types of Body waves:

- P-waves
^A Pulse energy that travels quickly through the Earth and through liquids.
^ P-wave travels faster than S-wave
^After an earthquake, it reaches a detector first
^P-waves are also called compressional waves, travel by particles vibrating parallel to the
direction the wave travel ^They force the ground to move backward and forward as they
compressed and expanded
^They travel through solids, liquids, and gases
^Longitudinal
- S-waves
^A pulse energy that travels slower than P-wave through Earth and solids
^ Force the ground to sway from side-to-side in rolling motion that
shakes the ground back and forth perpendicular to the direction of waves
^ The idea that S-waves cannot travel through any liquid medium conclude that the outer core is
liquid
^ Transverse
 -Mohorovicic discontinuity - It is the boundary between crust and mantle. It includes lithosphere
(rocky part) and asthenosphere (semi-solid part)
-Gutenberg discontinuity - the boundary between mantle and outer core -
Jeffreys discontinuity - the boundary between outer core and inner core

Thickness of the Different Layers of the Earth

Crust – 40 kilometers
Mantle – 2900 kilometers
Outer Core – 2200 kilometers
Inner Core – 1278 kilometers

The Crust
-Thinnest and outermost layer of the Earth
-extends from the surface from up to 32 km below and in some mountains, 72 km below
Two types of crust:
-Continental Crust and Oceanic Crust

Continental Crust
-Mainly made up of silicon, oxygen, aluminum, calcium, sodium, and potassium.
-The thickness is mostly 35-40 km
-Found under land masses and made of less dense rocks such as granite

Oceanic Crust
-Heavier that continental crust
-Around 7-10 km thick; average thickness is 8 km
-Found under the ocean floor and is made up of dense rocks such as basalt

The Mantle
-Extends to about 2900 km from the Earth’s surface
-Makes up about 80% of Earth’s total volume and about 68% of
total mass -Mainly made up of silicate rocks
-It is solid since S-waves and P-waves can pass through it
-Mostly made of elements silicon, oxygen, iron, and
magnesium -The lower mantle is denser than the upper portion
-The high temperature and pressure in the mantle allows the solid rock to flow
slowly -Lower mantle: Olivine, iron/magnesium, silicates, (high-density
perovskite) -Upper mantle: Olivine, silicate minerals (peridotite)

Lithosphere
-The crust and the uppermost part of the mantle form a cool rigid shell called the lithosphere
^The lithosphere is about 50 to 100 km thick and it moves relative to each other

Asthenosphere
-Beneath the lithosphere lies the soft, weak layer known as the asthenosphere
-Made of hot molten material
-About 300 to 800oC
-The lithosphere, with the continents on top of it, is being carried by the flowing asthenosphere
 The Core
-Subdivided into inner and outer core
-2900 km below the Earth’s surface and 2250 km thick
-Mainly made up of iron and nickel moving around the solid inner
core -Outer Core: reaches up to 2000oC, and with that, iron and
nickel melt -Inner Core: made up of solid iron and nickel
-radius of 1300 km
-temperature reaches to about 5000oC: could have molten iron and nickel but is believed to
solidify by pressure freezing

The Continental Drift

-In 1912, Alfred Wegener proposed a theory that continents were once on landmass which is the Pangea
(“All Earth”) -Pangea > Triassic (Laurasia and Gondwanaland) > Jurassic > Cretaceous > Present

Evidence
Continental Jigsaw Puzzle
-Edge of one continent matches the other: South Am. and Africa, India, Antarctica, and Australia, Eurasia and North Am.

From Fossils
-Fossils of an extinct plant Glossopteris: found on different continents and the large seeds of it can’t travel by wind or water
-Also some fossils of animals

From Rocks
-Rock formations in Africa line up with that of South Africa as if it was a long mountain range

Coal Deposits
-Antarctica can’t sustain amount of life. If there is a substantial quantity of coal in it, it means it was once with other continent

Seafloor Spreading
-Scientists found a system of ridges or mountains in the seafloor similar to those found in the continents. These are called
mid-ocean ridges. Example is the famous Mid-Atlantic Ridge, an undersea mountain chain in Atlantic Ocean

Magnetic Reversal
-When North Pole is transformed to South Pole and South Pole to North Pole
-When magnetic reversal occurs, there is also a change of polarity in rocks and this allowed scientists to
cisualize the magnetic stipes in the ocean floor

Possible Causes of Plate Movements

-Convection current – a circular movement of magma produced due to uneven heating
-Slab-pull – a mechanism that returns slab at new crust back into a hot region of mantle
-Slab-push – sliding of plates due to gravity. This happens when the rising magma heats the rocks in
lithosphere and causes rock expansion
-Hot Plume – an upward flow of hot material due to difference in density (less dense materials tend to move upward)
 Glossary of Terms
Asthenosphere - soft, weak upper portion of the mantle where the lithospheric plates float and move around

Continental Drift Theory - states that all the continents were once onelarge landmass that broke apart,
and where the pieces moved slowly to their current locations

Convection current - current in the mantle because of the heat from the inner layers of the Earth, and is
the force that drives the plates to move around

Lithosphere - the topmost, solid part of the Earth that is composed of several plates

Lithospheric Plates - the moving, irregularly-shaped slabs that fit together to form the surface of the Earth

Mid-ocean ridge - area in the middle of the ocean where a new ocean floor is formed when lava erupts
through the cracks in the Earth’s crust

Mohorovičić Discontinuity (Moho) - the boundary that separates the crust and

the mantle Plasticity - the ability of solid to flow

Seafloor spreading - process by which new ocean floor is formed near the mid-ocean ridge and

moves outward Subduction - the process in which the crust plunges back into the Earth Tectonics -

branch of geology that deals with the movements that shape the Earth’s crust

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