ce of the conduot.

resistance
is called resistivity
or specific conductor. SI
of proportionality which material of the cond
the material 5. Insert the plug in key K, sljde the rheostat contact to the extreme right and extreme left so that the current
where p (rho) is a constant
(ohm-m). Specific resistance is defined as
the resistance of of conductor passing through the resistánce wire is minimum and maximum.
units of p are ohm-metre
cross-section.
of unit length and unit area
of 6. Now adjust the rheostat so that a small current flows througbthe resistance coil. Becord the readings of
voltmeter and ammeter.
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
It is denoted by o (sigma). 7. Shift the rheostat condact to increase the current and agajtake the reading of voBtmeter and ammeter. Similarly
called electrical conductivity.
The reciprocal of resistivity is take at least six mofe observations every time by ingréasing the current thpoúgh the resistance coil.
SI unit of o is ohm m.
i.e. 8. Cut the wire at tfe points where it leaves the terminals between ammeter and rheostat. Stretch it and find
P
its length L
cONDUCTANCE mho. 9. Record all the 6bservations in the table.
conductance. SI unit of conductance is ohm or
Reciprocal of resistance is called
OBSERVATIONS
EXPERIMENT 2
1 . Length of the wire = L ********
Cm 6. Zero error of ammeter 1 A

2. Range of the ammeter Zero correction for ammeter = (-e1) = . . . A

ampere (A)
3. Range of the voltmeter . Volt (V) 7. Zero error of voltmeter 2 V

To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph for potential difterence versus current. 4. Least count of ammeter *****.

Zero correction ot voltmeter =-e)= V

5. Least count of voltmeter =
..
YOU NEEDb
1. A wire whose resistance per cm is to be determined 2. A voltmeter 3. An ammeter 4. A rheostat 5. One-way
ey Table for ammeter and voltmeter readings
6. A battery eliminator 7. Connecting wires, etc.
Rheostat Voltmeter reading V (volt) Ammeter reading IA)
Battery Rheostat One-way
S.
wwwww- Key 7T Observed Corrected Observed
Corrected
ANIBAEKANMKN
No. V= Va + (-e2) I = l, + (-e,)
a
.
(A) Ammeter

Battery 2.
Resistance wire 3.
Resistance wire w- 4.
wwW
5.
6.

Ammeter Voltmeter
Voltmeter CAECULATIONS
Fig. 1.10 Circuit diagram for Ohm's law Fig. 1.11 Assembly of circuit diagram Plot a graph between V and I, taking V along X-axis and I along Y-axis.
The graph comes to be straight line as shown in Fig. 1.12. s Scale used on.
THEORY Y-axis. 1 cm = vol
Now take any two points E and F on the graph and find the values
Ohm's Law. It states that the current -axis, 1 cm ... A
flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference of V at E and F, and also find the values of I corresponding points E
across its two ends, provided that the
physical conditions of the conductor remains unchanged. and F.
If I is the current flowing through the conductor and V is the
potential difference across its two ends, then CD
The resistance
where R is a
V oI
constant called resistance of the conductor. If
or V RI of the wire = R =
7A.ohm.
X
we plot
graph between V and 1, it should be
a
a straignt Length of wire = L =..em
C
line. The constant ratio V
gives the unknown value of the resistance. Vin volit)
Resistance per cm of the given wire = ...ohm/em
HOW TO Do Fig. 1.12 Graph between V and
1. Draw the circuit
diagram as
showá in Fig. 1.10 and arrange the
Fig. 1.11. apparatus n the
same manner as
show
2. Clean the ends of
connecting yíres with a sandpaper to remove RESULT
3. Make tight connections insulations.
is connected in series according
to the circuit A. Within the experimental error V-I graph is a straight line hence potential difference V across the two ends
diagram by using conhecting wires. Ensure
with yesistance and voltmeter is that the ammee of the conductor is directly proportional to the current I fowing through the conductor. Thus hm's law is
that the + ve terminals connected if parallel with the
of foltmeter and ammeter are joined resistance. Also ensu verified.
4. Determine the least count, range and zero
error of voltmeter
towyards the +ve terminal of the
battery. 2. The resistance per cm of the given wire is . ohm cm".
and ammeter.
14SaraswatiLab Manuál Physics-XIl
Saraswati Lab Manual Physics-Xll 15
 EXPERIMENT 3
GACULATIONS
Calculate the value of R, R, and Rs by substituting the corresponding values of l and R in the following relation

To verify the laws of combination (series)

of resistances using a metre bridge. r= (10-
VERIFICARION
ioU NEED Series resistance by experiment Rs
= = ...ohm
Two difierent resistors or resistors Series resistance by theoretical formula Rs = R, + Rz . . . ohm.
1. A metre bridge 2.
R Ro
coils 3. A resistance box
4. One-way key 5. A jockey
7. A Leclanche cell 8. Sandpaper
www. wWwW Within the
limits of experimental error, experimental
resistances in series is verified.
and theoretical values of Rs are same.
Hece law of
6. A galvanometer
9. Connecting wires. D
TAKE CARE
A l l the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
THEORY 2. Allthe plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
Ray connected
Iftwo or more resistors say
are
. .

P 3. Null point should be taken between 40 and 60 cm.

in series as shown in Fig. 1.14, then their combined 4. The plug in key K should be inserted only when the observations are to be taken.
resistance Rs of the series combination is given as 5. Move the jockey gently over the metre bridge wire.
(100-1)-
6. The wire should not make a loop.
Rs =R +R,t. ***

The value of an unknown resistance r can be sOURCES OF ERXOR

determined by using metre bridge as Fig. 1.13 Circuit diagram for series
1.
combination of resistors The plugsmay not be clean.
2. The wire/may not háve uiform area of cross-section.
r--R 3. Instrumént screws nay be loose.
wherel is the length ofmetre bridge wire from zero
end to balance point and R is the resistance from ww 8 St EXPERIMENT 4
wwwww wwwww-

resistance box. Fig. 1.14 Series combination

HOW TO DO AIM
To verify the laws of combination (parallel) of resistance[ using a metre bridge.
1. Mark the pésistors R, and
as
R2
2. Place resístor.
in right gapff metre
bridge and resistance 1boxiñ left gap as shown in Fig. 1.9 of YOUNEED
Experimént 1 and determine i value as explained in Experiment 1. A metre bridge 2. Two different resistors or
resistors
3.
Similary observafons
repeat the itswalue.
for resistor R, and determine coils 3. A resistance box 4. One-way key 5. A jockey w
6. A galvanometer 7. A Leclanche cell 8. Sandpaper ww -
4. Now fhe
find ónnect the twoof the
resistance coilscombination
and R, inRg.series at shown
Take as
in Fig.
1,43observations
least three sets/of in the right and
gap of the metre bridge and
record them in the table. 9. Connecting wires. -R D
2

EIINIIINEIIIIIELN
OBSERVATIONS THEORY
When two resistors say Rand Ra are connected in
Table for calculation of resistances
R, Ra and Rs parallel, their combined resistance Rp is gíven as RON
Resistance SS. Resistance
coil
Length Length BC Resistance Mean
No. from AB = = (100 ) -(100- )
resistance
resistance
box R The value of an unknown resistanger can be
(ohm) determined by using metre bridge as Fig. 1.15 Circuit diagram for parallel combination of resistors
(cm) (cm) nm (ohm

r10- wwwW-
R,

wherel is the length of metre bridge wire from zero end to

balance point and R is the resistánce from resistance box.
R= HOW TO DO wwwwM
R2 =
Fig. 1.16 Pacallel combination
R2 1. Mark the resistors as R and/Ra.
Ra
Ra= 2. Place resistor R, in right/gap of metre bridge and resistance box in left gap as shown in Fig. 1.9 of
R and R Experiment 1 and determine its value as explained in Experiment 1.
in parallel 2 Rs = 3. Similarly repeat the observations for resistor Ra and determine its value.
Rs = 4. Connect the coils of resjstances R, and R, in parallel as shown in Fig. 1.15 and find the resistance of the
Rs parallel combination R, Take three sets of observations
18
Saraswati Lab Manual Physics-XII
Saraswati Lab Manual Physics-XII19
 EXPERIMENT5
AM
To compare the em.f of two given primary cells (Leclanche and Daniell cells) using a potentiometer.

YOU.NEED
1. Potentiometer 2. Leclanche cell 3. Daniell cell 4. An ammeter 5. A voltmeter 6. A galvanometer 7. A battery
8. A rheostat 9. A resistance box 10. A two-way key 11. A one-way key 12. A jockey 13. Connecting wires 14. Sand
paper.
Battery
E
Two-way
E key
Galvanometer
A
RB.
b
E2 100

J
200 Jockey

300
400
/B
K
Fig. 2.2 Circuit diagram for comparison of e.m.fs of two cells

THEORY
Het two primary cells whose e.m.fs are B, and Eg, if l, and l2 are their corresponding balancing lengths on the
potentiometer wire, then by the principle of potentiometer we have
E, «l1 or E = kl1|
E2 l p or E, = kl2

Where k is the potential gradient, i.e., potential drop per unit length.

HOWTO pO
. Drawa neat circuit diagram as ahown above in Fig. 2.2.
2. Measure the drop of potential across the battery (E) and the two primary cells E, and E,. See that E> E, and
also E> if so then start
B, it is yourexperiment.
3. Remove the qsulations from the connecing wires with the help of sandpaper.

Saraswati Lab Manual Physics-XII 25

 Exp-4 Cowina rheostat,
terminal to A through a an
Connect the battery B to the ends of potentiometer wire with its positive RESULT
key Kj shown above in Fig. 2.2.
ammeter and one-way as
The ratio of the c.m.fs of the given two cells (ratio of e.m.fs of Leclanche and Daniell cells) is ... by using potentiometer.
e.m.fs are and E, to the end A and join the negative
5. Connect the positive terminals of two cells whose
Connect the common terminal c of the
terminals of these cells to the terminals a and b of the two-way key. TAKE CARE
a galvanometer to the jockeyJ.
two-way key through a resistance box and 1. All the connections should be neat and tight.
6. To take the maximum current from
the battery, make rheostat resistance minimum. 2. Confirm that e.m.f. of the battery E should be greater than e.m.fs E, and E2 of the given two cells, i.e.,
the circuit. Also insert the plug in the gap ac of the two-way key
which E> E
7. Insert the plug in one-way key K, in
the resistance box (R.B.).
and E> E,.
makescell in the circuit. Also introduce á resistance of 1000 ohm from
E, 3. All the positive terminals should be connected at the zero terminal, ie., point A of the potentiometer wire.
end A of the wire and note the direction of deflection in the galvanometer. Again 4. The plugs should be introduced in the keys only when the observations are to be taken.
8. Now press the jockey at zero
of deflection in the galvanometer.
press the jockey of the wire and again note the direction
at the other end B 5. The jockey should touch the wire gently.
are correct. If the deflections are in the same 6. The balancing length ofthe wire should always be measured from the end A (zero terminal) of the wire where
If the two deflections are in opposite direction, the connections
the battery E is less than that from each of the
direction, then either connectionsåre wrong or current from all the positive terminals are connected.
are in opposite direction.
cells E, and E2, i.e., E < E, or B< Ez. Repeat till the deflections 7. The ammeter reading should remain constant for a particular set of observations.
slide the jockey gently over the potentiometer wires and 8. The rheostat must have a low resistance.
9. After getting the deflection in opposite directions,
in the galvanometer.
obtain the null point where on pressing the jockey, there is no defiectioD
OF ERROR
10. Put the 1000 ohm plug back in the resistance box and
obtain the null'point accurately.
Note the length of the SORCES
wire AJ, and record it,ás 1. Also note the current indicated by the'ammeter. 1. The e.m.f. of auxiliary battery may not be constant.
cell E, will be in the circuit. 2. Potentiometer wire may not be having uniform cross-section throughout its entire length.
11. Now remove plug from ac and introduce it in the gap be so that
the
the potentiometer 3. End resistances may not be zero.
12. Take out 1000 ohmyresistance from resistance box and obtain núll point by sliding jockey on
of the null point,
wire. Now put the 1000 ohm plug back in the resistance box and obtain the accurate position
of the wire AJ, in this position for the cell E, VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS
i.e., when galvahometer shows no deflection. Note the length
and record itás l2. Q1. What is a potentiometer?
rheostat andobtain three sets of observations in the similar
13. Now changé the current by adjusting the more
Ans. It is an instrument used to measure the e.m.f. of a cell and potential drop along therlength of the potentiometer wire.

manner. Q2. Why is it called potentiometer?

14. Record all the observations in the table. Ans. Because it measures the potential difference between any two points.
Q3. What do you mean by potential drop?
Ans. When a constant cúrrent fiows through the wire AB of the potentiometer and endA of the wire is connected to the
ASERVATIONS positive terminal of the battery so that end A is at higher potential and the other end B is at lower potential, thus the
Range of voltmeter = V
potential drops when we move from end A to other end B on the wire.
Least count of voltmeter = . . . V Q4. What is the principle of potentiometer?
Potential drop across battery E = . V Ans. When a constant current is fowing through a wire of homogeneous compositión and uniform area of cross-section, the
the cell E, (Leclanche cell) =..V potential drop across the wire is directly proportional to its length.
Potential drop across
Potential drop across the cell E, (Daniell cell) = . . . V
Q5. What is the potential gradient?
Ans. The potential drop per unit length of the potentiometer wire is called the pqtential gradient.
Least count of ammeter = . AA
Q6. Express the potential gradient mathematically.
Lero correction for ammeter = . . A
Ans. If a potential difference V is applied across a uniform wire of length , the potential gradient k is given as k = volt/m.
Table for balancing lengths , and l2
Q7. How potential gradient k is expressed in term of the specific resistance?
Corrected Balancing length when Balancing length when Ratio Ans. If 'A' is the area of cross-section of the wire and its specific resistancé is p, let I is current fiowing through it, then
Leclanche cell E, in is Daniell cell E, is in
Ammeter the circuit 1, (cm) the circuit 1, (cm) potential gradient kcan be given as k =
. Reading
No. A (amp.)
(1) (2) Mean i (1) (2) Mean l Q8. What do you mean by e.m.f. of a cel1?
Ans. Electromotive force (e.m.f.) of a cell is the potential difference acrgss the terminals of the cell when the cell is in open
circuit, i.e., when no current is drawn from the cell.
Q9. What is the terminal potential difference of a cell?
Ans. The potential difference between the two terminals of a cell, when the cell is in close circuit, i.e., when the current is
being draivn from the cell, is called its terminal potential diference.
Q10. Are terminal potential difference and e.m.f. of a cell different?
Ans. Yes, e.m.f. is always greater than terminal potential differeDce.
Q11. Why e.m.f. is greater than terminal potential differeñce?
CALCULATIONS Ans. If a voltimeter of resistance R is connected to a cell of em.f. E and internal resistance r, the current I drawn by the
voltmeter can be given as
Mean value of I = orE =IR +ir
R+r

26Saraswati Lab Manual Physics-XIl Saraswati Lab Manual Physics-XII27

 EXPERIMENT 5. e

To determine the internal resistance of a

given primary cell using a potentiometer.
ou NEED
1.A potentiometer 2. A battery 3. A rheostat 4. A galvanometer 5. Two one-way keys 6. A jockey 7. A high resistance
box 8. An ammeter 9. A voltmeter 10. A fractional resistance box (0-20 ohm) 11. A cell (Leclanche cel) 12. Connecting
wires 13. Sandpaper.
Battery

io-r) K2

Galvanometer
High
R.

O 100
A

200

300
Jockey
400
B

Fig. 2.3 Circuit diagram for internal resistance of a cell

AEORY
E is the e.m.f. of cell, r is its internal resistance and R is the resistance of the external circuit, then current I
ilowing in the circuit is given by
E
I = E = IR + r)
.(1)
R+r
V is the terminal potential difference of the cell in the close cireuit, then

V = IR
.(2)
Saraswati Lab Manual Physics-XII 29
 p5
.(3)
or CALCULATIONS
Find mean , and for each set of observation and calculate the value of'r by substituting the values
from the end A of potentiometer when cell E is in the open
circuit, then R in the formula: of l,. 2 and
Let 1, is the balancing length
.4)
E
the end A when cell is connected by connecting a resistance R in parallel, then
If l, is the balancing length from for each set of observations. Take mean values of r.
terminal potential difference V of the cell
...(5)

Hence, from Eqn. (4) and (5), we have

AESULT
..(6) The internal resistance of the given cell (Leclanche cell) is . . . . ohm.
From Eqn. (3) and (6), we have TAKE CARE
r-( 1. The e.m.f. of the
2. Rheostat should be
battery should
adjusted
be greater than that of the given cell.
for the minimum resistance so that the initial null point lies on the last wire of
HOWTO Do the potentiometer.
1. the neat circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 2.3.
Dxaw 3. For one set of
observation, the ammeter reading should remain constant.
2. Clea the ends of connecting wires with sahdpaper. 4. The cell should not be disturbed
and the cell E, that E. If it is then start your during the experiment.
3. Measdre the drop of potential across the battkry E, see
E> so,
5. Current should be passed for the short time while determining the null point.
experimnt. all the plugs of the resistance box. Make
6. Other precautions are the same as in previous Experiment 5.
4. Make nea and tight circuit connections as in shown Fig. 2.3. Tight
connected at the end A o( the potentiometer wire.
sure that the positive terminals of the battery and cell are
96URCE OF ERROR
5. Make the rhkostat resistance minimum so that maxikum current can be drawn from \he battery.
1. The c.m.f. of auxiliary battery may not be constant.
6. Insert the plux in key K and take out 1000 ohm resistance from high resistance box. Now place the jockey
2. Potentiometer wire may not be having uniform cross-section throughout
first at the end and then the end B. If the galvanometer shows deflection in opposite tirection in the two its entire
length
3. End resistances may not be zero.
cases, then connections are correct.
shows
rheosta (without inserting the plug in key K2) su that null point (when galvandmeter
no
7. Adjust the
deflection) is obtainei roughly on the last wire ofthe potentioneter. Now plug back the1000ohmplug innthe VIVA VOCE QUESTIONNS
high resistance box an determine the accurate position of the nu point by slightly ndjusting the jockey
ear

the null Q1. What do you mean by internal resistance of a cel1?

the previously obtained position of null point. Measure accuratelythe length of wire from end A to
Ans. by
The resistance ofered the electrolyte
to flow the current through it is called internal resistance of the cel.
pointJ. Let it be , and record it. 2 . On what factors does the internal resistance of a eell depend?
s. Take out 1000 ohm plug asain
from the high resistance box and inserdthe plugs
in key n key E K, as well
Take out a small resistance say 2 ohm plug from resistance box R conncoted in parallel with the cell and slide Ans. It depends upon the following factors:
the jockey along the potentiometer wire and find the null point. (i)It is directly proportional to the distance between the electrodes.
ii) It is inversely proportional to the surface area of the two electrodes dipping in the electroiyte.
9. Now plug back the 1000 ohm plux in the high resistance box and determine the exact position of the nul point
without disturbing the previous pdeition ofthe rheostat. Measure the balancing leng l from the end A. (u) Tt is inversely proportional to the specific conductivity of the electrolyte.
10. Repeat the steps 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 for the different values of R say 3, 4 and 5 ohrqs. (iv) It decreases when high current is drawn from the cell.
11. Record all the observations in the table. Q3. Does internal resistance also depend upon the resistance in the external circuit?
Ans. It depends upon the amount of current drawn from the cell, and hence, the resistance in the external cireut. In most of

eSERVATIONS V
the cells, it is directly proportional to the amount of drawn current.
4 . Is there any change in the internal resistance of the cell in open and close circuit?
Least count of voltmeter =
.. Ans. No, it remains same in open and close circuit.
Potential drop across the battery = E, = . V
Q5. Why a cell should not be disturbed during the experiment?
Potential drop across the cell = E = . V
Ans. If we disturb the cell, the factors on which the internal resistance depends (aa given Q2) may be also changed w huch
Least count of ammeter =.... A causes the change in the internal resistanee of the cell.
Table for balancing lengths , and !, Q6. Can shunt resistance R (connected in purullel with the cell) be varied over a large range?
Ammeter Shunt Balancing lengths for the cell (in cm) Ans. No, as large variation of R eauses large variàtion of the current trom the cell which make the internal resistance to
No. reading
Internal
resis resistanee change widely.
tance Without shunt resistance With shunt resistunce Q7. What will be the range of R?
A) R
increasing decreasingmean , inerensing decreasing mean l , r
a Ans. It should be less than 10 ohm.
(ohm) Q8. Whut is the order of internul resistance of u
secendury cell'?
(ohm) Ans. It is about 0.02 ohm.
Q9. Can you determine it with the help of the potentioeter?
Ans. No, because the junetion resistunces under the terminals okthe potentiometer
wires are also of the same'order.
Q10, Can you find the internal resistunco ot un uceumulaton?
small 0.01 that this method be used.
Ans. No, internal resistance of uceumulutor is s 0 (=
ohm a0 cannot

30 Saraswati Lab Manual PhysicS-XII Saraswati Lab Manual Physics-XII

 full scale deflection when , current passed through it and Adjust the value of R so that the defection in the
Let G is the resistance
of a galvanometer which gives the galvanometer is converted into voltmeter
A.
galvanometer is maximum,
R is a high resistance connected in series with
the galvanoeter, so a
scale. Record this value of R and deflection
9
even
numhr and within the
of given range V volt.
5. Now insert thekey K2 also and without changing the value of R, adjust the
V RAG) that deflection in the galvanometer valug of shunt resistance S 50
redúces to exactly half the value 9, i.., /2 Note the value of S and B/2.
6. Repeat the steps 3 to 5 three
R+G (b) Figure of Merit
timesfnore by taking out different values of R and adjusting S
everytine.
7. Measure the e.m.f. of the attery E with the help of the voltmebér by connecting +ve terminal of the
voltmeter with of
+ve
the battery and -ve of the voltmeter witb-ve terminal of the battery.
pr
- 8. Make the neat and
9.
tight connection as shown in Fig. 3.6.
Introduce a resistaíce R from the resistance box and
volt, resistance R is connected in insgft the plugs in key K, to get the deflection 9 in
Hence, for conversion ofaalvanometer into
series with the galvanometer.
a voltmeter of range V a high the galvanometgr. Note these values of R and 9.
10. Now change tHe value of R from the resistance
box and note the galvanometer deflection again.
11. Repeat theAteps 9 and 10 for three more observations.
EXPERIMENT76 OBSERVATIONS
1. Table for resistance of galvanometer by half-deflection method

To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and find its figure of merit. Resistance Deflection in the Shunt Half Galvanometer Resistance
No. R galvanometer 0 Resistance deflectiom
G S
o u NEED S 9/2 G R-S
1. A weston type galvanometer 2. Resistance box of the range 0 to 5000 ohm 3. Resistance box of the range 0 to (ohm) (divisions) (ohm) (divisions) (ohm)
500 ohm 4. A battery 5. Two one-way keys 6. Connecting wires.

DiarAm Battery
Key
Galvanometer 4
= onm
Mean value of the Galvanometer resistance
Resistance of Galvanometer by half-defection method = G = . . . ohm.

R.8 Table for figure of merit

s Resistance Galvanometer 2.
box S. e.m.f. of the cell Resistance from Deflection in the Figure of merit
Shunt Resistance
YO. resistance box galvanometer

Fig. 3.5 Circuit for the determination of resistance Fig. 3.6 Determination of figure of merit K (R+G
of a galvanometer by half-defiection method of the galvanometer (volt) (ohm) (divisions)
(amp/div.)

THEORY
The resistance of the galvanometer G by half-defection method is given by
2.
R:S
G R-S
R
where is the resistance connected in series with the galvanometer and S
Figure of merit K is given as
is the shunt resistance.
Mean K =.amp/div.
K R6) CALCULATIONS
where 6 is the deflection produced with resistance R and E is the e.m.f. of the cell. 1. Caleulations for Galvanometer Resistance G: Caleulate the value of G by using the formula
RS
HOW O Do G
R-S
(a) Resistance of Galvanometer by Half-deflectian Method 2. Caleulation for Figure of Merit K:
1. Draw
àhneat
circuit diagram as shown in Fig.
3.5. E
2. Make
neatand
tight connections as shown in the cixeuit diagram and clean insulations of wires with the K (R+G)6
help of
sandpaper,
also check that all the plugs of the
3. Now introduce
resistance
boxes are tight.
the values of £, R, Gand 0 from Table 2, cateulate the.value.of K
ahigh
resistance (about 5000 ohms) in the resistance box R and insert the By putting
key Ky. plug in the

Physics-Xll35
34 Saraswati Lab Manual
Rhysics-XIl Saraswati Lab Manual
RESULTS
1. The resistance
of the given galvanometer by half-deflection method is G =. ohm.
2. Figure of merit, K= . amp./division.
TAKE CARE
1 . All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. All the plugs in both of the resistance boxes should be
tight.
3. First the high resistance R from the resistance box should be
introduced, then the battery key Kj plug should
be inserted to avoid any damage to the galvanometer.
4. The e.m.f. of the battery should be constant.
5. The value of R should be large as compared to G.

OURCES OF ERROR
1. The plugs of the resistance boxes may not be clean and tight.
2. The e.mf. of the battery may not be constant.
3. The galvanometer divisions may not be equal.
 EXPERIMENT ? 7
A
n d the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.
YOU NEED

A n optical bench with four uprights

2. Two needles
mirror
3. A convex

4. A convex lens

5. A knitting needle
6. A mirror holder
7. A lens holder
S. A half metre scale.

EOR
Let a convex lens L is introduced between the convex mirror M and object needle O as shown in Fig. 1.13(a)

Image MEConvex mirror

Object
needle
Convex lens
(a)

Image
needle
Object
needle
(b)
Focal length of convex mirror using convex lens
Fig. 1.13 (a) and (b)
The object needle is placed at a distance equal to 1.5 times the rough focal length ofthe convex mirror. Now adjust
he relative positions of M, L and O in such a way so that a real and an inverted image of object needle O is formed
needle O and its image at 0. In such a situation, the
at O itself, in this position there is no parallax between object
gnt rays are incident normally over the convex mirror to retrace their path. In the absence of convex mirror, these
mirror.
ays Would have met at centre of curvature C of the convex
mirror.
The distance PC gives the radius of curvature R of the convex
is removed without disturbing the positions of lens L and object
T0 locate the position of C, the convex mirror M of the image l' the object 0, formed by the lens L by using
edle O. An image needle is placed at the position of of the image needle
the parallax between tip of the inverted image of O needle and tip
Prallax method i.e.,, remove
at l' as shown in Fig. 1.136). Now measure PC, then
PC = PI' = R

and

Saraswati Lab Manual Physics-XII63

 HOWTO DO
distant object on the wall or on the
screen.
EXPERIMENT
focal length of the convex lens by focussing
1. Fitd the rough needle O on an optical bench so that tip
of the
2. Mountkgiven convex lens L, convex mirror M at P and dbject AIM
at s a m e Keep object needle O atf and 2f
height.
object needle 0, centre
of convex lens and convex mirror àre the focal length
1.13(a). find ot a convex lens by plotting graphs between u andu between and.
of the convex lens as shown Fig. lens or
in or
that real inverted
with respect to the mirror
so a
object needle O OU NEED
3. Adjust the positions of the convex of the needle and itself tip to
image of is forrued on the
itself. Remove parallax between the inverted image An optical bench with three uprights 2. A convex lens with lens holder 3. Two needles 4. A
L and P the bench scale. knitting needle
tip. Note the positions of O, metre scale.
on
the other 5. Half
4. Remove the mirror M gently without disturbing O and L.ofTake another needle I' and place it on side
the needlel so that there is no parallax between I PAEORY
of the lens as shown in Fi 1.13(6). Adjust the position needle O is to be disturbed
lens L
and the inverted image of objèct needle O
formed by the lens. (In càse, or no The relation between u, U and f for a convex lens is given as:

during the same set.)

5. Take four sets of observations for different positions of O and L.

the
mirror M and image needle{'.
6. Find the index correction between the convex
where u is the distance of object needle from optical centre of the lens, v is the distance of image needle from optical
isERVATIONS centre of the lens and f is the focal length of convex lens.
of the lens Cm
Rough focal length
=
1. convex . .

Image of
2. Length of the knitting needle x cm = =
object
.

I' needle AB
3. Observed distance between mirror M and needle y = = . cm

4. Index correction between M and I' (* = . . cm =

- y)
Table for the focal length of convex mirror
A
Position (in em) of Object
needle Image
Observed Corrected needle
Image PI PI'
Object Lens Mirror needle (cm) (cm) 3 0 cm
No. needle L

Fig. 1.14 Determination of focal length of convex lens

HOW TO Do
1. Focus distant object on a white sheet of paper or wall to get a sharp, clear and inverted image of the distant
object. Meaaure the distance of image from the lens which gives the rough focal length of the lens.
2. Mount the convex lens with its holder on the central upright ofthe optical bench. Also mount the two needles
Mean Pl' = .... cmn
on the other uprights, one on each side of the lens so that tips at the needles are at the same height as the
optical centre of the lens.
ALCULATIONS 3. Measure the length of the knitting needle and also the distance between each needle and the lens when held
Corrected distance PI'= ... cm at a distance equal to length of the knitting needle. Find the index cotection for u and u.
4. Mark one needle as object needle (let AB is the object needle) and other neede as image needle (CD is the image
Focal length of convex mirror =f= Cm
needle).
BESULT 5. Placeobject needle AB between and 2f (approx. 3/2 times the rough focal hapgth). Look on the other side
The focal length of the given convex mirror by using convex lens i s . cm.
of the lens for the inverted imageof the object needle at a distance more than 3( Adjust the position of the
image needle CD till the parallax isemoved tip to tip between the image needle nd the image of the object
TAKE CARE needle. Note the positions of the lens, the object needle and the image needle on the bench scale and find the
observed value of u and u.
All the upright should be vertical. 6. Repeat the above steps for five diíferent setsdfobservations by placing the object needle be qnd 2f and between
2. The tip of the needle, centre of the mirror and centre of the lens should be at same height.
3. Tip to tip parallax should be removed and while removing the parallax the eye should be kept at least 30 cm fand 2f.
from the needle.
4. The lens L must have sufficiently large focal length. OSERVATIONS
1. Rough focallength ofthe lens = Cm
5. Convex mirror should be placed close to the convex lens.
6. Index correction should be applied between the image needle I' and back surface of the convex mirror.
2. Actual length of the knitting needle = *
=. Cm
3. Observed d i s t a n c e between t h e lens a n d t h e object needle = y = . . . cm

sOURCES OF ERROR 4. Observed distance between the lens and the image needle =z =. Cn

A. The uprights may not be vertical. . Index correction for u = (x - y ) = . . . Cm

2. The parallax removal may not be 6. Index correction for v = (* - z) = . . Cm.

perfect.
64 Saraswati Lab Manual Physics-XI Saraswati Lab Manual Physics-XII 65
 and -

ance Corrected distance

=OC 1

cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)

RESULT
The focal length of the given convex lens as determined from
1. u, v graph is... cm.

2. graph is. . .cm.

TAIZ CARE
1. Tips of the object needle and the image needle should lie at the same height as the centre of the lens.
2. The uprights should be rigid and vertical.
3. Parallax should be removed tip to tip by keeping the eye at a distance at least 30 cm away from the needle.
4. Principal axis of the lens should be parallel to the scale of the optical bench.
5. The object needle must be placed at such distance so that only real, inverted image of it is formed.
6. The index correction for u and v should be applied.

SpURCES OF ERROR
1. The uprights might be shaky.
2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.

Saraswati Lab Manual Physics-XII67

 Place the given concave lens L between Pánd L without disturbing O and L. Shift the
image needle back
EXPERIMENT{ and adjust its position so that the parállax is again removed tip to tip
between image needle I' and the new
image of the object O formed bythe combination of the two lepecs L, and Lg. Note this of I of the
image needle and La on the bénch scale.
position
AIM
lens, using a convex len8. Repeat the experiment jor three more sets of
To find the focal length of concave 6.
observations by changing the position of Lz with respect to
L, or
by changing the position of O with respect to L, or both.
fOU NEED 7. Find the index correction between concave lens L, and the image needle I.
lens 2. A convex lens (focal length of convex lens should be smaller than that of concave lens)
1. A given concave
Two lens-holders 4. An optical bench with four uprights 5, Two needles 6. A knitting needle 7. A half metre rod.
OBSERVATIONS
Rough focal length of the convex lens
1. = . . . cm.
2. Actual length of the knitting needle = x = . . . C.
3. Observed distance between the concave lens and image needle when knitting needle is placed between them
y . Cm.
4. Index correction for u as well as b = X - y = . . . cm.
Image needle
Object
needie
Table for u, v and ffor the focal length of eoncave lens

Position of Observed Corrected distance

S. f
u-
No. u2 u
=La D
Ll
(cm) (Cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (Cm) (Cm (Cm)

(b)

Mean f= . ****** CIN

Fig. 1.17 (a) & (b) Determination of focal length of concave lens using convex lens
ALCULATIONS
THEQRY Put the value of u and v in the formulaf= and calculate f for each set of observations, and compute the mean

know that u-U

Aswe a concave lens
always forms a virtual image, its focal length cannot be found directly as in case of
convex lens, so we use indirect method, which is described
value of f.
below
I be a RESULT
Let real image of object O
an formed by a convex lens L, as shown in Fig. 1.17a). fa given concave lens
length of given lens using convex lens is. cm.

isinterposedbetween
Por
L,
lenslens and image I in a way so that the real
such and I' acts as real image of 0 is now formed as as shown I The focal concave

in ig. 1.1706). concave I acts as

Hence, O=u and
virtual objeet concave lens can beimage of virtual object I formed by lens
TAKE CARE
OJ"=u.
The focal
length fof the caleulated using the
formula 1. The uprights should be rigid and vertical.
the lens and object needle should not be disturbed.
2. While locating I, convex

or f= of the convex lens should be less than the focal length of the concave lens so that the combination
3. Focal length
On substituting the values of and with proper
u u
sign, we can calculate the T. 1s convex.

removed tip to tip.

HOW TO DO 4. Parallax should be
lens. It
image of needle may be formed due to reflection from
concave
a faint, real and
inverted
1. Select a convex lens of such 5. Sometimes
L a focal length that it makes a converging system when comDinea with the given the bold and bright image formed by the lens combination.
concave lens. should not be confused with
2.ind the rough focal length of the convex Jéns L, by focussingá distant object on wall or white paper.
SOURCES.OF ERROR
3. the convex lens L
Mount in a
clamp ang> place it on one central upright of
the optical De as0 mount two
thick.
needles on the two other uprights on píther side of the convex lens L, in such a way so that keeping tipsof 1. Lens may be
the needles at the same height as thé centre O, of the cønvex lens. Mark one neeale as o e needle O and 2. Uprights may be shaky.
the other as image needle I.
4.
Pace the obet
other side needlle Obetwee f and 2f of the cogvex lens. Adjust the image needlle bevond 2f
of the lens such that/the tip to tip parallax is removed
on the
Ehe object needle O as shown iD Fig. 1.17(a). Note the positions of O and L
between 1mage
and
ie bne image
on the Dencn scale,
of
Saraswati Lab Manual Physics-XII 69
68 Saraswati Lab Manual PbÝsics-XIl
chapte HOW TO Do

With the
o Daw a straight
help of drawing pins,
line XX nearly
fix
at
a white sheet of paper on the drawing board.
thecentre of the paper and parallel to the length of thé paper.
Markpoints O1, O2, Og . .
on the line
XX at the suitable distances (about 5 or 6 cm) and draw normals N,O,
N,O, N,O3 . on points O1, O2 Og "... as shown in Fig. 2.1.
REFRACTIVE INDEX
2 Draw stràight lines T101,720, T,03... making angles of 30°, 35°, 40°,.60° with
N,O3 respectively.
the normals N,O,, N,O,
K Place the prism with one of its
refracting surfaces on the line XK and point 0, in the middle of the
Mark the boundary of the prism ABC as shown in Mg. 2.1. prism.
REFRACTION to another is called refraction of light
light.
of ray of lightwhen it passes from one
medium 6. Fix two pins P and 1 vertically on the line 7,0, (incident ray line). The distance between the pins should be
The phenomenon of bending
about 8 to 10 cm. Now view the images of P and Qythrodgh the face AC of the prism. Keeping one eye
REFRACTIVE INDEX closed
and bring open eye in the line of the two images of Pj and . Fix two pins R, and S, on the paper vertically
is called the refractive index of that medium
m
vacuyum to the speed of light a íedium
in
The ratio of speed of light in and about 8 to 10 cm apart such that the tips of these pins and the tips of the images of the incident ray pins
P and Q all lie on the same straight line.
Refractive ind x of a medium
Speed oflight in vacuum 7. Remove the pins P, Q, and R, S, and encircle their pin pricks onthe paper.
Speedof light in medium 8. Join the points(pin pricks) and S and produce it backwards to ueet the incident ray 7,0, produced (as
SNELL'S LAW shown by dotted line in Fig. 2.1) R,S, is the emergent ray corresponding to the incident ray T,0O. Mark arrow
medium and is the angle of refraction in second medium, then according to heads to show the direction of incident and emergent rays.
angle of incidence in first
r
Let i is the
9. Measure the angle E,F,S, with the help of the protractor. This gives the angle of deviation D
Snell's
law, Pgin r 10. Repeat the stops 5 to 9 for different values of angle of incident and measure the corresponding angle of deviation.
Take the vaues of angle of incidence rariging from 30°, 35, 40°, 45, 50°, 55° and 60°.
EXPERIMENT 10 11. Meastre angle BAC in the boundary of theprism. This gives angle of the prism A.
12. Record all the observations in the table.
Al graph between the angle
i ) To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given glass prism by plotting a
OBSERVATIONS
of deviation.
of incidence and angle
(ii) To determine the refractive index of the material of the prismn.
Angle of prism 'A' = . .

Table for angle of incidence and angle of deviation

XOU NEED S.No. Angle of incidence i Angle of deviation D

1. A drawing board 2. A glass prism 3. A white sheet of paper 4. Drawing pins 5. A pencil 6. A scale 7. A graph paper
8. A protractor.

3.
N3 Na

35
7. 60
45
B O A B No
48
N/ B
ALCULATIONS
R
VDA-EA Flot a graph between angle of incidence i and
and D
angle of deviation D, taking i along X-axiscurve 14

along Y-axis. The graph comes to be a as

shown in Fig. 2.2.
S E S2 From this graph, determine the value of angle of
Fig. 2.1 Refraction minimum deviation D,, corresponding to the lowest Scale used on.
through prism at different angle of incidence and
studying angle of deviation point of the graph, as shown in the Fig. 2.2.
X-axis, 1 DIg square .
Y-axis, 1 big square = ....

The value of angle of minimum deviation from

THRORY Braph = D = . . substitute the values of A
Zhe refractive index (p) of the material of the
prism is given by: and D,, in the formula to compute the value of :
Sin A+D

where A is the
angle of the prism and D, is the angle of minimum
sin
2
(A+D 20 30 40 0 50 70

sin deviation. Angle of incidence () (in degree)

sin2 Fig. 2.2 Graph between angle of incidence

and angle of deviation

74Saraswati Lab Manual Physics-Xll Saraswati Lab Manual Physics-Xll 75

ESULT
The graph between i and D indicates that as angle of incidence i increases, angle of deviation D first decrease8,
a minimum vaue
attains D, and then again starts increasing for further increase in angle of incidence.
2. The angle
of minimum deviation, Dm = .
3. The refractive index of the material of the prism (glass) 1 is
.
AKE CARE
1. The pin should be fixed vertical.
2. Encircle the pin pricks after they are removed.
3. Pins must be at a distance of about 8 to 10 cm.
4. The angle of incidence should lie between 30° to 60°.
5. The same angle of prism should be used for all the observations.
6. Draw the arrow to indicate the incidence, the refracted and the
emergent rays.
7. The curve should be free hand and smooth which should
pass through as many points as possible.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. Measurement of the angle may be
wrong.
2. Pin pricks may be thick.
3. The incident ray pins and
emergent ray pins may not be along the same straight line.