BASIC COMPUTERS

& FUTURE AIR

NAVIGATION
SYSTEM (FANS)
By

Tuğrul Yazgan
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1
Unit One: Basic Computers ................................................................................................ 2
Unit Two : Future Air Navigation Systems (FANS) ........................................................ 11
Concolusion ...................................................................................................................... 23
Bibliography ..................................................................................................................... 23

ii
 Introduction

Communication is the exchange of sending data from one source to a destination in a

circumstance in which both the source and destination comprehend what is being intended to
convey. People observe this basic need at every age. In the early ages, people transferred the
information they wanted to convey from one hill to another by lighting a fire. Developing
technologies have changed communication in many areas over time. With the development of
technology, computers have moved from analog to digital. The progress of the age has affected
computers as well as communication. The main topics we will cover in this article are digital
computers and FANS systems.
 Basic Computers

A computer is a digital electrical machine that can be programmed to perform arithmetic or

logical operations (computation) in a predetermined order. Programs are general collections of
operations that modern computers can do. These applications allow computers to carry out a
variety of activities. A computer system is a "full" computer that comprises the necessary
hardware, operating system (primary software), and peripheral devices for "full" functioning. This
phrase can also refer to a connected and cooperating set of computers, such as a computer network
or a computer cluster.
Computers were originally designed to be used exclusively for computations. Since ancient
times, simple manual gadgets such as the abacus have benefited humans in completing
computations. Some mechanical devices were created early in the Industrial Revolution to
automate long, repetitive processes, such as guiding patterns for weavers. In the early twentieth
century, more complex electrical equipment performed specialized analogue computations.
During World War II, the first digital electronic calculating computers were constructed. In the
late 1940s, the first semiconductor transistors were developed, followed by silicon based MOSFET
(MOS transistor) and monolithic integrated circuit (IC) chip technologies in the late 1950s, paving
the way for the microprocessor and microcomputer revolutions in the 1970s. Since then, computer
speed, power, and adaptability have increased tremendously, with transistor counts growing at a
rapid rate (as anticipated by Moore's law), resulting in the Digital Revolution in the late twentieth
and early twenty-first centuries.
Computers can also be classified according to the functions they can do. A computer may I
take input, ii) store data, iii) process data as needed, iv) retrieve stored data as needed, and v)
output the result in the format necessary. High speed, precision, diligence, adaptability, and storage
are all important features of a computer.
There are two basic types of computers:
1. Digital
2. Analogue
The digital computer, also known as a microprocessor, is by far the most ubiquitous and is now
used in almost every area of daily life.
 1. Analogue Computers
Any device in which continuously changing physical values, such as electrical potential,
fluid pressure, or mechanical motion, are represented in a fashion that is comparable to the
corresponding quantities in the problem to be solved is called an analogue computer. The analogue
system is built up based on beginning conditions and then let to modify at will. The variables in
the analogue model are measured to get answers to the problem. When constructing a bridge, an
airplane wing, or any other structure that may move, the engineer must consider how the structure
will react to various physical elements such as wind speed and temperature.
Analog computers were widely used in scientific and industrial applications even after the
introduction of digital computers because they were typically much faster at the time. However,
they began to become obsolete as early as the 1950s and 1960s, though they remained in use in
some specific applications, such as aircraft flight simulators, aircraft flight computers, and teaching
control systems in universities. Mechanical watches are perhaps the most familiar example of
analogue computers, as the seconds, minutes, and hours needles in the clock are driven by the
constant and periodic spinning of interconnected gears. Digital computers were insufficient for
more complicated applications, such as aircraft flight simulators and synthetic-aperture radar, long
into the 1980s.

Since digital computers can now be programmed to replicate moving physical systems,
analogue computers have grown less common in recent years. The following section discusses
digital computers and their use in aeroplanes.

2. Digital Computers
Any of a class of machines capable of solving problems by processing data in discrete form
is referred to as a digital computer. It works with data encoded in binary code—that is, using only
the two numbers 0 and 1—including magnitudes, characters, and symbols. A digital computer can
control industrial processes and regulate machine operations by counting, comparing, and
manipulating these digits or their combinations according to a set of instructions stored in its
memory; analyses and organize vast amounts of business data; and simulate the behavior of
dynamic systems (e.g., global weather patterns and chemical reactions) in scientific research.
During the 17th century, France's Blaise Pascal and Germany's Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
built mechanical digital calculating devices. However, Charles Babbage, an English inventor, is
often credited with inventing the first automated digital computer. Babbage created his Analytical
Engine in the 1830s, a mechanical device that combined fundamental arithmetic operations with
judgments based on its own computations.
Functional Elements of Digital Computer (Hardware)
Input-output equipment, main memory, control unit, and arithmetic-logic unit are the four
essential functional parts of a conventional digital computer system. To enter data and programme
instructions into a computer and to view the results of the processing activity, a variety of devices
are utilised. Keyboards and optical scanners are common input devices, while printers and displays
are common output devices.

The data that a computer receives from its input unit is stored in the main memory or, if not
needed right away, in an auxiliary storage device. The control unit chooses and calls up instructions
from memory in the correct order, then passes the directives to the relevant unit. It also
synchronises the input and output devices' various working speeds with that of the arithmetic-logic
unit (ALU) to guarantee that data is properly moved throughout the computer system. The
arithmetic and logic techniques used to handle the incoming data at extremely high speeds—often
in nanoseconds—are performed by the ALU (billionths of a second). The central processing unit
(CPU) of most digital computer systems is comprised of the main memory, control unit, and ALU,
while peripheral equipment includes input-output devices and auxiliary storage units.

The essential components of all computers are represented in the picture below:

Figure 1: Digital Computer Central Processing Unit (CPU) Components Model

 1. Input Unit
To solve any problem, computers require data and instructions. As a result, we must enter
data and instructions into computers. One or more input devices comprise the input unit. One of
the most often utilized input devices is the keyboard. The mouse, floppy disc drive, magnetic tape,
and other input devices are all frequently used. The following functions are carried out by all input
devices:
• Accept the information and commands from the outside world.
• Convert it to a format that the computer recognizes.
• Transfer the transformed data to the computer system for further analysis.

2. Output Unit
The information and outcomes of a calculation are sent to the outside world through a
computer's output unit. The most popular output devices are printers and Visual Display Units
(VDUs). Previously, a CRT monitor was used as a VDU; however, LCD displays are now
extensively utilized. Floppy disc drives, hard disc drives, and magnetic tape drives are all typical
output devices.
An airplane, these sensors may include Rad Alt, Baro Alt, TAS, fuel flow, and so on. These
are fed out through its output port to a Visual Display Unit (Monitor) or printer after processing.
The output of an EFIS Symbol Generator or the FMS Control and Display Unit of an aircraft can
be sent to an EFIS Symbol Generator or the FMS Control and Display Unit (CDU).The BIOS
(Basic Input Output System) translates the input signals into a format that the computer can
understand, and the output signals into a format that the operator or another aircraft system can
comprehend.

3. Storage Unit
Before the actual processing begins, the data and instructions that are fed into the computer
system through input units must be stored inside the computer. Similarly, the computer's results
after processing must be stored someplace within the computer system before being sent to the
output units. Furthermore, the computer's interim findings must be saved to continue processing.
A computer system's Storage Unit, often known as the primary or main storage, is designed to
accomplish all these activities. It has room for storing data and instructions, as well as space for
intermediate results and final outcomes. In a nutshell, the storage unit's specific functions are to
store:
• All the data that must be processed, as well as the instructions for doing so (received from
input devices).
• Processing findings in the middle.
• The results of processing before they're sent to an output device.
 Working Memory: A computer requires working memory in order to execute the programme
of instructions (software). The memory only has to be read if the software is fixed, like in a
computer-controlled piece of equipment. A Read Only Memory (ROM) is employed to do this.
The manufacturer has coded this ROM. If the user wants to create or alter the programme
themselves and preserve it permanently in the memory, a Programmable Read Only Memory
(PROM), Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM), or Electronically Erasable
Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM) would be used.

NON-VOLATILE MEMORY is memory that preserves data even when the power is turned
off. VOLATILE MEMORY is memory that loses data if the power goes off or the computer is
turned off. If the programme needs be altered while it is running, the memory must be able to be
both written to and read from. Random Access Memory (RAM) is employed to do this. This
enables instructions to be typed in, read out, and changed at any time. A RAM is also needed to
hold the data for processing, which will change on a regular basis. Normally, RAM is considered
volatile memory.

• Permanent Memory: As previously stated, RAM is volatile, meaning that work is lost
when power is turned off. Computer programmes and the work they do can be permanently
saved in three different ways.
• A computer Chip : Solid-state memory is often referred to as "Flash Memory." It's re-
writable and has a rapid access time. It is possible to rewrite them forever.
• Optical Disk is a kind of optical disc. A laser is used to read compact discs (CDs). These
can be read-only or re-writable, but there will be a limit to how many times they can be re-
written.
• Disk with magnets Internal, exterior, or detachable options are available. It is possible to
rewrite them forever. A computer's internal "hard drive" is generally a magnetic disc.
Removable "floppy discs" are now almost extinct.

4. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) of a computer system is the location where
instructions are executed during processing processes. The ALU performs all calculations and
makes all comparisons (decisions). Prior to processing, data and instructions are stored in main
storage and transmitted as needed to the ALU, where processing takes place. In the primary storage
unit, no processing takes place. The ALU's intermediate results are momentarily transported back
to primary storage until they're needed again. Before the processing is completed, data may transfer
from primary storage to ALU and back to storage many times. The final findings, which are saved
in the storage unit, are delivered to an output device when processing is completed. The real
computations take place in the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU). It is made of of circuits that
conduct math operations.
 During these processes, the ALU accesses data from the CPU's temporary storage, which
is referred to as registers. Registers are a collection of cells that are used to access memory,
manipulate data, and process information. Some of the registers are general-purpose, while others
are only used for certain purposes. It's a fast memory that only stores data from current processing
and the outcomes of that processing. If the results are not required for the next instruction, they
are returned to main memory, and the registers are filled with new data for the following
instruction. The computer system's actions are made up of thousands of separate stages. These
actions should be performed in a certain order and at regular intervals. The Clock Unit generates
these intervals. Every action in the CPU happens at the same time as the clock pulse. No task, no
matter how basic, can be completed in less time than the period that passes between the ticks of
this clock. However, some processes necessitated the use of several clock pulses. The computer
operates better when the clock runs quicker. Megahertz (Mhz) or Gigahertz (GHz) is the unit of
measurement for clock rate (Ghz). Larger systems are even more efficient. The clock unit used to
be independent from the CPU and resided on a separate chip in previous systems. The clock is
frequently integrated within the CPU of most current microprocessors.

5. Control Unit
What tells the input device when it's time to transmit data into the storage unit? How does
the ALU figure out what to do with the data once it arrives? And how come only the final findings,
not the intermediate ones, are conveyed to the output devices? All of this is feasible because to the
computer system's control unit. The control unit can maintain order and govern the functioning of
the entire system by choosing, interpreting, and overseeing the execution of program instructions.
The control unit serves as a central nervous system for the other computer components, even
though it does not do any real data processing. It oversees overseeing and coordinating the whole
computer system. It gets instructions from the programs stored in main memory, interprets them,
and sends signals to other parts of the system to execute them. The control unit guides and regulates
the internal and external devices' activity. It deciphers the retrieved instructions. into the computer,
assesses what data, if any, is required, where it will be stored, and where the operation's results
will be stored, and transmits control signals to the components involved in the execution of the
instructions.
Software in Digital Computer
Software is a set of instructions that inform a machine how to do certain tasks. This is in
contrast to hardware, which is what the system is made of and does the real job.Executable code
is made up of machine language instructions that are supported by a single processor—typically a
central processing unit (CPU) or a graphics processing unit (GPU)—at the lowest level of
programming (GPU). Machine language is made up of sets of binary values that represent
processor instructions that modify the computer's state from the previous one. An instruction, for
example, may modify the value stored in a specific storage area in the computer, which is not
immediately visible to the user. An instruction may also cause state changes that should be visible
to the user by invoking one of numerous input or output processes, such as displaying text on a
computer screen.Unless the processor is told to "jump" to a new command or the operating system
interrupts it, the processor executes the instructions in the sequence they are given. As of 2015,
most personal computers, smartphone devices, and servers include processors with multiple
execution units or several processors working in tandem, making computing considerably more
concurrent than in the past.
High-level programming languages are used to write the bulk of software. Because they are
closer to natural languages than machine languages, they are easier and more efficient for
programmers. Compilers, interpreters, or a mix of the two are used to translate high-level
languages into machine language. Low-level assembly languages, which have a strong correlation
to the computer's machine language instructions and are converted into machine language via an
assembler, can also be used to write software.

Assembly Language; A programming language for computers and other programmable devices
at a low level. It's a graphical depiction of the machine codes and other constants required to
programme a particular CPU. The maker of the device generally defines the code.

High Level Language; An sophisticated computer programming language that is not confined by
the machine or to a single task, and is easier for the author to understand than assembly code.
FORTRAN, ALGOL, BASIC, and C++ are examples of high-level languages.

Scripting Language; A programming language that allows one or more apps to be controlled.
"Scripts" are separate from the application's core code and are only applicable to a single program.
They're normally written in a separate language (like Basic) and are frequently generated or
updated by the end-user.
Avionics Software
Avionics software is embedded software that must meet legal safety and reliability
requirements. The key distinction between avionic software and traditional embedded software is
that the development process is regulated and optimised for safety. The procedure described below
is believed to be just somewhat slower and more expensive (about 15%) than standard ad hoc
processes used for commercial software. Because most software fails as a result of human error,
reducing errors at the earliest feasible stage is also a reasonably cheap and reliable technique to
develop software. However, in certain projects, errors in the specs may not be discovered until
after the project has been deployed. They can be quite costly to repair at that time.
Every phase of the design process includes outputs termed "deliverables," according to any
software development methodology. Normal human errors cannot readily turn into harmful or
expensive problems if the deliverables are verified for accuracy and repaired. The waterfall
approach is used by the majority of manufacturers to manage the design process, but virtually all
expressly allow previous work to be changed. The end product is frequently more akin to a spiral
model.See embedded system and software development paradigms for an overview of embedded
software. The remainder of this article assumes that you are already aware with that knowledge
and compares and contrasts commercial embedded systems and commercial development
methodologies.
Any computer program used to execute a flight must be safe to operate and devoid of any
mistakes that might jeopardize the flight's safety. To that goal, a specification has been agreed
upon, to which any software connected to airplanes must adhere. EUROCAE ED12B is the code
name for this. Software is classified into five layers. The required level will be determined by the
applicant. The galley oven controller, for example, could withstand a significant failure without
jeopardizing the flight, but any malfunction within the Flight Control Computer may jeopardise
the flight.

Table 1: Safety Criticality (EUROCAE-ED12B)

Aircraft Systems
Systems which are computer controlled include:

• Flight Management System (FMS)

• Digital Flight Guidance System (DFGS)
• Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS)
• Traffic Alert Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)

Fly-by-wire aircraft, on the other hand, take computer control a step further, with the whole flight
envelope being controlled by a computer process with input from the crew as needed.

Currently, the utilisation of dedicated computers for each system is preferred. However, in the
future, we may see computing power shared in the form of an Integrated Hazard Warning System
(IHWS). A sophisticated central processor takes inputs from the stall warning system, windshear
detection, GPWS, TCAS, and even the Weather Radar, evaluates the data, and prioritises alerts to
the crew.

Analogue to Digital Conversion (A to D); Many aircraft sensors produce analogue information in
the form of varying voltages, pressures, temperatures, etc. Of course digital computers use digital
(binary) information and a device called an Analogue to Digital Converter is required in the
interface between the sensor and the computer input device.

Digital to Analogue Conversion (D to A); When a digital computer has to pass information to an
analogue device the process is reversed and a Digital to Analogue Converter is used.

Chapter Summary

In this section, we learned that the computer is divided into analog and digital. Learned
the components and functions of the Digital Computer. In addition, its use in the field of aviation
was also examined. In the next section, FANS Systems will be examined.
 Future Air Navigation Systems (FANS)

Communication is the exchange of sending data from one source to a destination in a

circumstance in which both the source and destination comprehend what is being intended to
convey. People observe this basic need at every age. In the early ages, people transferred the
information they wanted to convey from one hill to another by lighting a fire. Developing
technologies have changed communication in many areas over time. Communication between
Aircraft and the Ground is one of the most necessary elements for taking action in the aviation
industry. This significant communication on the board includes data, voice, and visual
transmission. In the aviation industry, there are five methods for communication: auditory and
nonauditory, graphical, textual, and person-machine and machine-machine interactions.
Communication and data transformation plays an important role in the avionics branch, which
concerns the electronics part of the aviation industry. Sound, data, continuous-wave
communication elements, announcement devices, in-flight radios, and cassette recorders are
indeed samples of data that can be carried from one segment of the aircraft to the another, including
between air and ground terminals. Although the main principles used in the space, military, and
commercial aviation industries are the same or similar, the system integration used by the aircraft
is completely different.
Input parameters (heat condition, pressures, GPS data, cetera.) collected at various parts of the
aircraft, as well as information delivered by electromagnetic waves, are converted into signals, and
sent to the appropriate mechanisms after becoming analyzed in appropriate circuits. With this
simple definition, it is understood how the data transmitted in the aircraft or from the aircraft to
the ground is created. Aircraft traversing the North Atlantic provide position updates every 10
degrees of longitude up to 70 degrees north, and every 20 degrees north of that, giving ATC a
position update every 30 to 60 minutes. Because of the challenges connected with HF
communications, the pilot seldom communicates directly with the ATC controller in these distant
places, but rather through a third party that passes signals between the two.

General Communication
To recognize a visual cue from a person on the ground, all an airplane pilot had to do was wave
the wings of the aircraft or bend the tail part of the aircraft quickly. The evolution of electronic
communications technology has been virtually as spectacular as that of airplanes. The radio age
began virtually simultaneously with the Wright Brothers' flight. Older aviation
telecommunications employ analogy to transmit voice via radio waves that are either Very High
Frequency or High Frequency in frequency. In the mid-1980s, data-based communications were
initially deployed. As new criteria develop and the range of communications technology improves,
airspace management is expanding into the digital revolution, and the air traffic may be safely
controlled.
 Aircraft are now being outfitted with communications technology that allows them to send and
receive data through satellite plus while on the ground; mobile communication and, in certain
circumstances, broadband networks can receive and transmit strategic information on aircraft
status and maintenance trends. HF (High Frequency), VHF (Very High Frequency), and the most
current SATCOM are used for onboard data communications (Satellite Communication). The
aggregated data is ready to send as soon as it is saved. The aircrafts are equipped with three types
of transmission via using frequency: HF (High Frequency), VHF (Very High Frequency), and the
most modern SATCOM (Satellite Communication). Radio waves are for transmission use both HF
and VHF frequency range. HF is better for long-distance communication, whereas VHF is better
for short-distance communication. SATCOM, the most contemporary technology in use today,
provides for satellite uplink communication.
The aircraft automatically switches between the three transmission systems and transmits data
as needed. On the opposite end of the transmission to and from an airliner, data exits a transmitter
and is picked up by an antenna. The Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System
receives all data generated by operators and aircraft (ACARS). Between air and Earth’s surface,
there are three basic modes of communication.
1. Voice Communications
Radio communications in aviation take place on VHF and HF frequencies. In simple terms,
VHF is close communication and HF is far distance form of communication. For example, an
aircraft on the approach line with VHF may communicate with the ground station or tower. Or,
while the aircraft is on the ground, the flight attendant and the cockpit can still communicate via
VHF radio. In HF, intercontinental communication is provided.
In Summary, radiotelephony has typically been used to communicate voice/audio between an
airplane and the ground, transmitting and receiving on the following frequencies:

i. UHF
ii. VHF
iii. HF
1.1 Ultra High Frequency (UHF)

The UHF (Ultra High Frequency) range is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that
covers a wavelength of 0.1–1 m and a frequency range of 3,000–300 megahertz. UHF has a
frequency ranging from 300 MHz to 3 GHz. Satellite technology and broadcasting, cellular and
messaging systems, and 3rd (3G) wireless services all use the UHF spectrum. Multiband
modulation and multipath modes are effective since the frequency is high and the bandwidth is
large (in the 2.7 kHz range from low to high end).

Ultra-High Frequency (UHF) radio stations are currently used for Air Traffic Control air-
ground voice communications for armed services aircraft flying as operational air traffic (OAT)
and the ability to handle non-8.33 kHz State aircraft flying as General Air Traffic/Instrument Flight
Rules (GAT/IFR) in 8.33 kHz airspace.

1.2 Very High Frequency (VHF)

VHF is a communication system that broadcasts very high frequency and is widely used for
communication in the sea and air vehicles. The principal mode of communication between aircraft
and the ground has traditionally been very high frequency (VHF) radio. Its working principle is
receiving data and transmitting antennas see each other. VHF is the frequency band (30 – 300
MHz) suitable for TV and FM radio broadcasting (88-108 MHz). Therefore, the general use of the
VHF communication system is FM radio broadcasting between 88–108 MHz frequencies and
television broadcasting with UHF. Besides the VHF communication system, FM radio broadcast
and television broadcast; It is also used in land mobile stations, range data communication, long
radio modems, maritime communication, air traffic control communication, and air navigation
systems (DME, ILS, VOR). In VHF, wavelengths are short, so the antenna sizes used are small.
Landforms and factors such as long-distance make communication in the VHF band difficult and
sometimes impossible. In such cases, devices called relays or relay stations are used. The relay
provides a wide communication area proportional to the altitude of the place where it is located,
with the help of the filter unit of the relay device, the heard messages are broadcast from the
transmitters as amplified.
This system that provides communication at VHF line-of-sight distance in air navigation
systems. It provides the communication between aircraft or the communication of aircraft with
ground stations. VHF communication is utilized for a variety of reasons, including air traffic
control (ATC), approach and departure information, meteorological information transfer, aircraft
ground handling, company communications, and the Aircraft Communications and Reporting
System (ACARS). It broadcasts between 30-300 MHz or 10 meters - 2 meters.
1.3 High Frequency (HF)

High-frequency (HF) radio allows airplanes to communicate effectively over lengthy oceanic
and trans-polar flights. It broadcasts in the frequency range of 3 MHz – 30 MHz. It enables
efficient, cost-effective communication even over long distances more than 3000 kilometres.
Additionally, by employing strategically situated HF data link (I-IFDL) ground stations,
worldwide data connectivity has just become viable. These allow users to connect to the ARINC
and SITA airline networks. Thus, HF communication is no longer limited to speech, and it is
experiencing a renaissance of attention as a way of long-distance data transfer to supplement
existing VHF and SATCOM data linkages. Spot frequencies in the HF band are used by aircraft
HF radio systems.

HF sends and receives information to receivers and transmitters. Transmission circuits

modulate the RF carrier signal using the in-flight audio system. This audio information goes to
other aircraft and ground stations. Receiver circuits demodulate the received RF carrier signal to
separate the audio signal. The received audio signal is used by the flight crew or aircraft systems.
The wave from the transmitting antenna is sent to the ionosphere with a certain pain, it is reflected
from there and returns to the receiving antenna. The wave is very advantageous for communication
at long distances, it can provide a broadcast reach of more than 3000 km when the weather
conditions are good. The wave is not affected by the landforms, that is, it can communicate even
in mountainous areas at long distances by using the HF wave.
2. Data Communications
2.1 Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS)

The Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) is a digital datalink
system that uses air band radio or satellite to send brief messages between aircraft and ground
stations. The name ACARS refers to the entire air and ground system, which includes onboard
equipment, ground equipment, and a service provider. The FAA or airline services units are
frequently ACARS ground units, with the federal agency dealing with flight certifications and
flight operations handling gate assignments, station maintenance requests, and other civil aviation
needs. Led to the advent of datalink in aviation, all connection between the air and ground
employees was handled by the flight crew using voice communication through VHF or HF voice
communicators. Dedicated radio operators and digital communications delivered to an airline
teletype system or successor systems were used in several circumstances to transmit voice-related
information. Furthermore, the hourly rates for flight and cabin crew compensation differed
depending on whether the plane was in the air or not, and whether it was at the gate or not. The
flight crews communicated these times to geographically distant radio operators through voice.
Airlines intended to get rid of self-reported timings to avoid errors, whether they were intentional
or not. The requirement for human radio operators to receive the information was also decreased
because of this. In July 1978, the engineering department at ARINC devised the ACARS system,
which is basically an automated time clock system, to minimise crew burden and increase data
integrity. The avionics were made by Teledyne Controls, and Piedmont Airlines was the first
client. "Arinc Communications Addressing and Reporting System" was the abbreviation's initial
extension. "Aircraft Communications, Addressing, and Reporting System" was later included.
ARINC 597 was the first avionics standard, and it established an ACARS Management Unit with
discrete inputs for the doors, parking brake, and weight on wheels sensors that could automatically
detect the flying phase and create and transmit telex signals. Around 4,000 transactions were
processed on the first day of ACARS operations, although it was not widely adopted by major
airlines until the 1980s. To aid aircraft, early ACARS systems were upgraded over time to
incorporate digital data bus interfaces, flight control systems, and printers.

The primary function of ACARS is to automatically detect and notify changes in the essential
flying phases of out of the airport, off the ground, on the ground, and into the gate (OOOI). These
OOOI events are detected independently by aircraft sensors such gates, brakes, and stabilizer
switch sensors. At the beginning of each flight phase, an ACARS information is transmitted to the
ground, identifying the flight phase, the time it took place, and other information such as the
quantity of fuel on board and the trip origin and destination. The purpose of these messages is to
maintain track of the status of aircraft and personnel.
 Through its connection with flight management systems, ACARS transfers flight plans and
weather information from the ground to the FMS (FMS). This enables the airline to update the
FMS while in flight, allowing the flight crew to analyse new weather conditions or make
alternative flight plans. ACARS sends real-time data from the aircraft to ground stations on the
status of various aircraft systems and sensors. Maintenance faults and abnormal occurrences are
received by ground stations, along with comprehensive communications, which are used by the
airline to monitor equipment health and better plan maintenance, repair, and operations (MRO)
activities. Automated ping signals are delivered to test an aircraft's connection with the
communication station. The ground station can ping the aircraft if the ACARS device has been
silent for longer than a certain time interval (directly or via satellite). A ping response shows that
ACARS communication is working properly. ACARS connects to cockpit interactive display
systems, which allow flight crews to transmit and receive technical communications and reports
to and from ground stations, such as weather requests, clearances, and the status of connected
aircraft. The ground station's reaction is also received on the aircraft through ACARS. Each airline
customises ACARS for this purpose to meet its own requirements. If a VHF ground station
network is present in the aircraft's current region, ACARS can deliver communications over VHF.
The band 117.975–137 MHz is used for ACARS signals sent over VHF data lines. If VHF is not
accessible, an HF network or satellite communication may be employed.

ACARS messages are included 3 basic contents:

i. Air Traffic Control (ATC)

ii. Aeronautical Operational Control (AOC)
iii. Airline Administrative Control (AAC)

ATC communications comprise aircraft clearance requests as well as clearances and directions
sent by ATC to aircraft. Pre-Departure, Datalink ATIS, and en route Oceanic Clearances are all
common uses for them. While the ACARS system now serves an important 'niche' function in
ATC communications, it is not considered a viable system for the more general ATC use of
datalink known as Controller Pilot Data Link Communications (CPDLC). For communication
between an aircraft and its base, AOC and AAC messages are utilised.
 These messages can be standard or user-defined, but they must all comply with ARINC Standard
618 at the very least. Any message content is conceivable, including:

i. Final load and trim sheets upload to the aircraft.

ii. Weather or NOTAM information upload to the aircraft.
iii. Status, position, eta, and any diversion download from the aircraft.
iv. And download of spot weather observations from aircraft sensors:
v. Technical performance data downloads, such as automatically triggered exceedance or
abnormal aircraft system status information, and
vi. 'Housekeeping' data, such as catering uplift needs, special passenger advise, and ETA.

2.2 Controller Pilot Data Link Communications (CPDLC)

CPDLC (Controller–pilot data link communication) is a method of communication between the

controller and the pilot that use a data link for ATC communication. At its most basic level, the
notion is straightforward, with an emphasis on human interaction at both ends and flexibility in
application. For the ATC service, the CPDLC programme offers air-ground data transmission.
This provides collection of clearance/information/request message elements that correlate to air
traffic control operations' voice phraseology. Level assignments, crossing limitations, lateral
deviations, route adjustments and clearances, speed assignments, radio frequency assignments, and
other requests for information are all available to the controller.

The pilot has the power to react to communications, obtain clearances and information, report
information, and declare or revoke an emergency. A downstream air traffic service unit provides
the pilot with the option to obtain conditional clearances (downstream) and information (ATSU).
To share information that does not adhere to established standards, a "free text" feature is also
available. Auxiliary capacity allows a ground system to transfer a CPDLC message to another
ground system using data connection. A 'conversation' is a series of communications sent from the
controller to a pilot in connection with a certain transaction (for example, the request and receipt
of clearance). The dialogue can have numerous message sequences, each of which is ended by
suitable messages, generally recognition or acceptance. Because there might be several
conversations between controller and pilot while an aircraft transits ATSU airspace, closing the
dialogue does not necessarily end the link.
The CPDLC programme performs three main tasks: sending controller/pilot messages to the
current data authority, transferring data authority between the current and next data authorities,
and delivering downstream clearance to a downstream data authority. Simulations at the Federal
Aviation Administration's William J. Hughes Technical Center revealed that using CPDLC
reduced the amount of time it took for a plane to reach its destination "During actual operations in
congested en route airspace, the voice channel occupancy dropped by 75%. As a result of the lower
voice channel occupancy, flight safety and efficiency have improved because of more efficient
communications." [3]

2.3 Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast (ADS-B)

ADS-B (automated dependent surveillance-broadcast) is a cooperative surveillance technique that

allows airplanes to be tracked. The airplane establishes its own position using satellite navigation
(GPS) and transmits it on a radio frequency on a regular basis. One of the technologies chosen for
the Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen) and the Single European Sky ATM
Research is ADS-B. (SESAR).
By January 1, 2020, most aircraft operating in US airspace will be required to have some form of
ADS-B, while in EU airspace, planes weighing more than 5,700 kilogrammes (12,600 lb.) or with
a maximum cruise speed of more than 250 knots will be required to have ADS-B starting in 2017
(new planes from 2015).
2.4 Automatic Dependent Surveillance - Contract (ADS-C)

Automatic dependent surveillance — contract (ADS-C): method of exchanging the terms of an

ADS-C agreement between the ground system and the aircraft through a data link, indicating when
ADS-C reports will be launched and what data will be included in the reports. Data is generated
by an aircraft in response to a request made by the ground system under the conditions of the ADS
contract. This contract specifies the types of information to be delivered by the aircraft, as well as
the conditions under which they must be sent. Some types of data are included in every report,
while others are only delivered if an ADS contract request specifies them. The aircraft can also
transmit uninvited ADS-C emergency reports to any ATSU with which the aircraft has an ADS
contract. With a single aircraft, an ATSU system can request numerous ADS contracts at the same
time, including one periodic and one event contract, as well as any number of demand contracts.
With a single aircraft, up to five different ground systems can seek ADS contracts.
Difference between ADS-B and ADS-C; ADS-C is a two-way communication system that delivers
essential flight safety data. The two-way approach agreed upon by ICAO and ATC broadcasts
position reports of the aircraft on an agreed set frequency, normally between 10 and 14 minutes,
but going to shorter intervals of 3.2 minutes in the future to minimise separation criteria.
In the seas, positioning is merely one of the factors of safe air traffic management. Additionally,
aircraft must be outfitted with communications capabilities that include a controller-to-pilot
datalink service as well as voice communications — all these services are provided by SB-S and
Classic Aero. Space-based ADS-B, on the other hand, is a one-way broadcast of simply the
airplane's location. Because aeroplanes require the all-important communications capacity, which
space-based ADS-B does not supply, it does not give enough information to adequately separate
aircraft over the ocean.
Furthermore, space-based ADS-B position reports lack the necessary data for the FAA's air traffic
control automation system, which is the world's most advanced and requires data to identify
aircraft conflicts up to two hours in advance.

2.5 Air Traffic Service Unit (ATSU)

The ATCSU is able to provide the following services to aircraft:

Flight Information Service

Alerting Service
Air Traffic Advisory Service
Air Traffic Control Service Area
Approach
Aerodrome

2.6 Communications, Navigation and Surveillance Systems/Air Traffic Management

(CNS/ATM)

CNS/ATM is a Seamless Global Air Traffic Management System that combines various levels of
automation, digital technologies, and satellite systems. The services provided by an ATSU are
known as Communications, Navigation, and Surveillance Systems. The services provided by an
Aircraft Operational Centre are known as Air Traffic Management (AOC). This is the airline or
organisation that is in charge of flying the plane.
2.7 Transponders
A transponder for machine-to-machine communications is required on every commercial aircraft.
Identification codes and flight information like as altitude are transmitted (squawked) by the
transponder to ground-based radar stations, which combine the data with heading and range
location information. This data is then shown in alpha-numeric form on the radar screen of air
traffic control to monitor a specific aircraft. A transponder (short for transmitter-responder) is an
electrical device that responds to a radio-frequency query by emitting a signal. All contemporary
transponders in controlled air space employ pressure altitude-reporting Mode C or Mode S
transponders, which eliminates the need for pilots to regularly transmit current altitude to air traffic
controllers via human-to-human contact. Transponders do not always send; when queried by
radars, they communicate (squawk) identifying information. Transponders operate on two
frequencies: 1030 MHz for receiving and 1090 MHz for transmitting.

3. Visual Communications
Visual communications can be achieved by employing an Aldis Lamp to flash Morse Code
signals between aircraft and ground stations, or by adopting traditional norms associated with
emergency circumstances. Simple instructions may be sent to aircraft in flight or on the
maneuvering area using light signals and pyrotechnics. Aerodrome control towers occasionally
employ this as a backup in the event of a radiocommunication breakdown.
A constant green light, for example, denotes "cleared to land" for air traffic and "cleared for take-
off" for ground traffic. "Do not land for the present being, notwithstanding any previous orders,"
a red pyrotechnic would signify.
 Future Air Navigation Systems (FANS)

The Future Air Navigation System (FANS) is an avionics system that allows the pilot and
the air traffic controller to communicate directly over a data link. ATC clearances, pilot requests,
and location reporting are all part of the conversations. The flight crew of a FANS-B equipped
Airbus A320 family aircraft can read and respond to controller–pilot data link communications
(CPDLC) messages received from the ground using an Air Traffic Services Unit (ATSU) and a
VHF Data Link radio (VDR3) in the avionics rack and two data link control and display units
(DCDUs) in the cockpit.
FANS aims to offer an integrated air traffic control system in places where radar is
unavailable by combining GNSS to define aircraft location with data link and voice
communications through geostationary and lower orbit satellites that give worldwide coverage to
ATC centres. This will offer ATC with real-time information on the plane's location as well as
direct pilot-to-controller contact. When in use, this will considerably minimise separation
distances, and if position accuracy is compromised for whatever reason, the aircraft will still have
TCAS to warn of any possible clash.
Datalink services are accessible on most marine routes across the world, as well as in
certain domestic airspace. The services are crucial at transfer locations where planes enter or depart
domestic airspace and enter oceanic airspace. The improved communication capabilities benefit
ATC on both sides of the oceanic tracks, especially when an aircraft is handed over to another air
traffic control centre, because the handoff occurs seamlessly behind the scenes with a FANS-
equipped aircraft. Without ground surveillance help, the flight crew must phone ATC to offer
verbal updates on the aircraft's position along routes that have not yet been mandated for FANS.
Because of the lack of good location data, ATC is forced to maintain a wider space between planes.
ATC can follow aircraft along the whole path with FANS, allowing for more aircraft to be safely
and effectively accommodated in the airspace. FANS-1/A-equipped aircraft have access to the
bulk of these upgraded services. FANS work stations are being installed at ground facilities all
around the world. There are two systems established to give the required global coverage

Figure 2: Typical Architecture for General Data Base

 1. FANS-A

FANS A provides a communications, navigation and surveillance (CNS) system and an automatic
dependent surveillance system (ADS). Communications utilize current frequency allocations in HF, VHF
and GNSS provide the navigation input for the surveillance. Currently it is used by some AOCs to
monitor the progress of aircraft at all stages of flight. So, for example, the aircraft system will
automatically inform the AOC of gate departure, take-off, landing and gate arrival. In-flight progress and
the operation of on-board systems can also be monitored and, where necessary, messages can be passed to
alert/assist the crew when potential problems are detected. FANS A is used over oceanic and remote
airspace, and is transmitted over the ACARS network, operated by ARINC.

In non-FANS procedural aircraft separation, errors in navigation and potential errors in

voice communication between the flight crew and ATC are considered when determining the
necessary airspace separation between aircraft. Through a satellite data link, aircraft equipped
with FANS can transmit Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Contract (ADS-C) reports with
actual position and intent information at specified time intervals automatically. The position
report is based on the accuracy of the GPS position sensing. Digital data communication between
the flight crew and the ATC drastically reduces the possibility of error, and allows reduced
aircraft separations in airspace. Increased airspace capacity means a greater availability of
desired routes for the aircraft operating within that airspace.
The components of the FANS A system are: ADS-C , CPDLC , AFN

2. FANS B

FANS B is very similar to FANS A but operates within High Density airspace having good VHF
coverage. FANS B is operated over the Aeronautical Telecommunications Network (ATN), which
is operated by SITA. The ATN is an internetwork architecture that allows ground/ground,
ground/air and avionic data subnetworks to inter-operate

Chapter Summary
In this section, the communication tools used in aviation were discussed in detail and the
FANS System was tried to be explained.
 Conclusion

In today's world, the computer revolution has impacted every aspect of existence. It is
beneficial in many aspects of life. As a result, computer expertise is a must for everyone's
survival in our global village. The introduction of the computer has converted our basic manual
labor into a complex life of automated labor to fulfil the worldwide need for enhanced
productivity and efficiency while maintaining high accuracy. The change and development of
aviation communication devices is accelerating in front of our eyes. With the rapid development
in technology, more information transfer is needed on the aircraft. The ACARS System's
transmission of data serves the same purpose as the Air Traffic controller signals the aircraft with
a green or red light. This need consists of sending the data to the receiver for processing by the
sender. With these avionic data transfer systems mentioned, this need is largely met. As a result
of the increase in the use of aviation in transportation, studies have been carried out on new
methods to safely control aircraft in airspaces with limited usage capacity. To prevent the
negative impact of the increasing number of aircraft on air traffic, it is necessary to focus on
communication.

Bibliography

CAE Oxford Aviation Academy ATPL Book 5 Instrumentation.