THERMODYNAMICS

Barometer Column Rise Van Der Waals Equation

P atm−P vapor RT a
h= P= − 2
γ v−b v
Pressure at Altitude v−molar volume
P2=P1−∆ P=P sealevel −γh Ideal Gas Equation

Pressure at Depth PV =mRT =8.314 nT =0.0821 nT

P2=P1 + ∆ P=Psea level + γh Combined Gas Law

Internal Energy
∆ U =Q+W
( mT
PV
) =( PV
mT
1
) ∨(
PV
nT
2
) =(
1nT )
PV
2

Entropy
SCROLL OF SEALS 2 Enthalpy
Q
H=U + PV s=
T
Helmholtz Free Energy
Q2 Q1
F=U−TS ∆ s= −
T 2 T1
Gibbs free energy Sign Convention for Heat and Work
G=H −TS HIP to WIN
Stagnation Enthalpy Heat In Positive and Work In Negative
2
v o Compressible Liquid
h s=h o+ , kJ /kg
2000
∆ h=C p T +v ∆ P
Dynamic Temperature
Vacuum Efficiency of Condenser
2
v
T D=
o
P atm−P cond
2000 c p η vac =
Patm −Psat
Stagnation Temperature

( )
k
Ts k−1
Ps =Po
TD
 k ( T 5−T 1 ) T3
η=1− T 4= k−1
( T 3 −T 2 ) + k ( T 4−T 3 ) rk

POWER CYCLES
OTTO CYCLE

Mean Effective Pressure Compression Ratio

W net V 1 1+c Cut-off ratio

MEP= rk = =
VD V2 c V 3 c+ s i+c
rc= = =
For Isentropic Process Temperatures V2 s c
Efficiencies
k−1
k−1
k
1 T 1=¿ K c=%clearance , s=%stroke , i=%injection
Brayton, Otto, Carnot (BOC) rk =r p ; r k =r p k
T 2=T 1 r k k−1 r k =r c r e
T1 1 1
η=1− =1− k−1 =1− k−1 T 3=T 2 r p
T2 rk CARNOT CYCLE
rp k DUAL CYCLE
Series Carnot Q A =mC v (T 3−T 2)
Brayton Cycle (Actual) Temperatures
k−1
For two-stage, Q A =mC p r k (T 1 )(r p −1)
T 4−T 1 T 1=¿ K
η=1− T x = √T 1 T 2
T 3−T 2 T3
T 4= k−1 T 2=T 1 r k
k−1

For multi-stage, separate engines rk

Ericson Cycle, Sterling Cycle (ES)
T 3=T 2 r p
T2 1 1 W final=Q A ¿
η=1− =1− k−1 =1− k−1 Q A 1 =mC v (T 3 −T 2 )
T1 rk Q R=Q A ¿ DIESEL CYCLE
rp k
Temperatures T 4=T 3 r c
Diesel Cycle W net =Q A −Q R
T 1=¿ K Q A 2 =mC p (T 3 −T 2 )
Q k ( T 4 −T 1 )
η=1− R =1− T 2=T 1 r k
k−1
T4 T4
QA T 3−T 2 T 5=T 1 r p r c k = =

()
k−1 k−1
T 3=T 2 r c re rk
Dual Cycle
rc
QR Q A =mC p (T 3−T 2)
η=1−
QA k−1
Q A =mC p r k (T 1 )(r c −1)
 Superheated Steam 2%S
S O 2=
100
h=2454+2.1 T −50 P+0.74 PT
9%H
h(kJ/kg), T(ºC) and P(MPa) H 2 O=
100
Saturated Steam at T < 300ºF
(148.89ºC) %Ash
AL=
100
h f =4.187 T (℃), kJ/kg
Air to Fuel Ratio Using Heating Value
h g=2501+1.82 ( 2∨4 ) ? T (℃), kJ/kg

BRAYTON CYCLE h f =T ( ℉ )−32, BTU/lb FUELS AND COMBUSTION A

=
Q HV ( kJkg )
F 3177
For Maximum Theoretical Net Work h g=1061+0.45 T (℉), BTU/lb Specific Gravity and Volume

T 2=T 4= √ T 1 T 3 Saturated Steam at T > 300ºF SG 1 V 1=SG 2 V 2

(148.89ºC) For Pure Carbon
Back Work Ratio Heating Value
2 A
h f =906.8+1.33 (℉ )−( 1.48 ×10 ) [ T ( ℉ ) ]
−3
=11.5
( )
W T Hydrocarbons
BWR= C = 1 r k k−1 F
WT T3 h g=−29.53+ 0.97 T ( ℉ ) +9.527 ×10 [T (℉ )] Qh=13500 C +60890 H
−5 2
For complete combustion
BUREAU of standards
m 1
x=n+ − (O)
STERLING CYCLE FLUID MECHANICS Qh=51176−8793.8 ( SG ) 2 4 2
Qregen =m Cv ∆ T Pitot-Static Gage S & K Formula Nitrogen to Oxygen Ratio

√
ERICSON CYCLE o By volume :3.76
2 gh ( ρHg −ρH 2 O ) Q h=42450−93(¿ BE+10)¿
v=
Qregen =m C p ∆ T ρ H 2O By volume :3.31
Lower Heating Value
Bulk Modulus LHV =HHV −9 H 2 (2442)
PURE SUBSTANCE ∆P
BM =−v ( ) H 2=0.26−0.15 ( SG )
∆V
Approximate Formulas for Steam
Weight of Flue Gas per kg of Fuel
Tsat (ºC) and Psat (kPa) relation

T sat =
237.7[ ln ( 1.638 Psat ) ] W FG= ( AF ) +1−(S O + H O+ Ash Loss)
a
2 2

17.27−[ln ( 1.638 Psat ) ]

Where:
 Diversity Factor ms ( h s−h f ) 2257 ESE Pump Work is Negligible
η= =
∑ of Individual Max Demand mf Q h Qh h3 ≈ h 4
DVF=
Maximum Simultaneous Demand
Maximum Allowable Working Pressure STEAM ENGINE
σ u × t ×η Always Double-acting
P=
r i (FS)
kA A +A
IMEP= ; A= 1 2
L 2
Mechanical Efficiency

BP BMEP ηtb η eb
ηm = = = =
BOILERS IP IMEP ηti η ei

VARIABLE LOAD Equivalent Evaporation

Number of Hours of Operation

CF
ESE=ms × FE=m s ( h s−h f
2257 ) STEAM CYCLE
t=8760
UF Equivalent Specific Evaporation Cogeneration Efficiency
Load Factor
( )
ms h s−h f W T +QR STEAM TURBINE
ESE= ASE × FE= η=
Average∨Energy Consumed mf 2257 QA Rankine Equivalent Engine Efficiency
LF=
Peak ∨Max Demand
Percent Rating ηT W T + ηCond QR h1−h 2
Plant Factor
η Actual = EER=
QA h1−hf 2

PF=
Average∨Energy Consumed
Euipment Supply Rating(kW ) %R=
DBH
=
(
35322
ms ( hs −hf )
) ηBoiler

( )
RBH H .S . A. Heater Efficiency
GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT
Capacity/Annual Capacity/Use Factor c
Heat absorbed m Liquid ( h3 +h 2) Overall Efficiency
η= =
Energy Consumed ( kWh) c=0.91 for water tube Heat Supplied mSteam ( h1 +h3 )
CF / ACF /USF= Output
Capacity(kW )× Time(hour) η=
c=1.1 for fire tube Effectiveness mg h f
Demand/Utilization Factor
Boiler Efficiency h1−h2
Peak ∨Max Demand ( kW ) ε=
DMF /UTF = T surr ( s 1−s2 ) +h 1−h2
Capacity∨Connected Load (kW )
 √
h fb =30 d
Peripheral coefficient =Speed ratio=Speedfactor
P=P s
520 (
520−0.0036 h 29.92−0.001h
29.92 ) Energy consumption ( kWh ) =(Water power)(time )
T =520−0.0036 h , R Specific Speed HEAT TRANSFER
B=29.92−0.001 h ,∈ Hg Specific speed=Rated speed Qrad =5.67 × 10 εA ( T H −T L ) , W
−8 4 4

Considering Density
N √ hp /¿ runner Q=FUA ∆ T mean
Ns= 5
IP 2 ρ2 P2 /T 2 4
= = h F=Configuration factor
IP 1 ρ1 P1 /T 1
Impulse turbine Steady-State
FP 1=FP 2
2< specific speed<10 Qcond =Qconv +Q rad
Generator Output
Pipe Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
W =pf (kVA )
Q=UA ∆T mean

1
=
1
+
ln
+
1 ( )
ro
ri
MACHINE FOUNDATION U A o h A o 2 πkL h Ai
HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT
Height 1 1 x 1
DIESEL POWER PLANT Hydraulic Efficiency = + +
h=( 3.2¿4.2 ) Engine Stroke U h k h
Single or Multi-cylindered Utilized / Effective head
ηh = Weight Composite Wall (Series)
For 4-stroke, Use N = ½ Nactual hnet
Q AC =Q AB =QBC
W F =( 3¿5 ) W m=4 W m
kA Volumetric Efficiency
IMEP= A (T A −T C )
L Q−Leak−Evap . loss W F =e W m √ N Q AC =

( )( )
ηv= x1 x2
Mechanical Efficiency Q +
use e=0.11if not given k1 k2
BP BMEP ηtb ISFC IHR Reynold’s Number
Soil Bearing Capacity
ηm = = = = = Composite Wall (Parallel)
IP IMEP ηti BSFC BHR ρvD ρvD
N R= = Sb W M +W F Total Weight
μd (Pa−s) μk (m2 / s) = = ∆ T (k 1 A1 +k 2 A2 )
Engine Operating at Higher Elevation FS bL Base Area Q=
x
Considering Temperature and Pressure Laminar <2100<Transition<4000<Turbulent Use FS=2∨5∨1 (trial and error)
Effect Conversion:
Outlet velocity is a lost energy Depth of Foundation Bolts
 √
BTU W 2 Pw D 1 2 3 Q= ( n−1 ) mC p (T x ,1−T 1 )
1 =1.73 v=
o
hr . ft . F mK ρ 1 1 1
ρg
Both Diameter and Speed are Variable
μ= Dynamic viscosity Actual Velocity Q H P FANS AND BLOWERS
ν=Kinematic viscosity v A =0.4 v N 1 2 3 Fan Affinity Law
D 3 2 5
Reynold’s Number ρ 0 0 1 Q H P
ρvd v N 1 2 3
ℜ= = PUMPS
μ ν D 3 2 5
Similar Pumps
NPSH ρ 0 1 1
Prandtl Number N √ Q/ ¿ suction
Pv Ns= 3
μCp NPSHA=havailable − −hlosses hs h
N PR= γ h4 =
k ηs ηf
h available =h p +h v + h z For SI
Nusselt Number

N NU =
hL
k
NPSHR=Quoted by the Manufacturers
NPSHA N =
( s )
rad
√Q /¿ suction REFRIGERATION
NPSH Margin Ratio= s 3
Miscellaneous Losses
NPSHR ( gh ) 4
Grashof Number
NPSHA should be greater than NPSHR ℜ f ' g . Capacity=(1+%loss)(Cooling Load )
3 3
d ρ βg ∆ T Boiler Feed Pump
N GR = 2 NPSH40,000 Heat Rejected by the Condenser
μ ℘=γQh=v ∆ P=m ∆ h
the manufacturer effectively guarantees no Q R=Q A + W C
Slip
loss of performance or parts replacement
Energy Efficiency Ratio
for 40,000 hours (about 4.5 years) of Slip=V D−Q
continuous operation Q A ( BTU / hr )
EER=3.412 COP=
W C (Watts)
CHIMNEY
Vapor Pressure Integrated Energy Efficiency Ratio
Draft Head
20.386−
5132
IEER=1.43 EER
h w ρw =H ( ρa− ρg ) Pv =e T (K )
, torr AIR COMPRESSOR
Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio
Draft Pressure Pump Affinity Law n-Stage Intercooler Pressure
SEER=0.8 IEER
Pw =hw ρw g Constant Diameter OR Speed P x, r= √ P1n−r × P2r
n

Standard Refrigeration Cycle

Theoretical velocity Q H P n-Stage Intercooler Heat Rejected
N 1 2 3 T evap=−15℃ ,T cond =30℃
COP Heating=COP Cooling+ 1 100−RH t a −t b Range
DPD=T db −T dp= ηv= =
5 t a−t wb 1 Range+ Approach
Dew Point Approximation (RH > 50%) Latent Heat Load
100−RH Q L=m ( ω 2−ω 1) h v
T dp =T db−
5
kJ
Wet Bulb Depression h v =2442 ( average )
kg
T db −T dp 100−RH
WBD=T db −T wb = =
3 15
DRYER
Wet Bulb Temp. Approximation
Moisture Removed
DPD T db−T dp
T wb =T db − =T db − mR =mP −mF
3 3
Humidifier Efficiency (WoiWosi) mR =ma (ω 1−ω 2)

ωout −ω¿ Dry Basis

η=
ωout , sat −ω ¿ ms ms
mR = −
Bypass Factor (Tcoci) xP xF

BPF=
T coil −ωout
ωcoil −ω¿
mR =mP
| |
xP
xF
−1

| |
Sensible Heat Per Person xF
mR =mF −1
BTU xP
Qs =225
hr
lb/lb of Ammonia Gas from The
Evaporating Coils
1−x1
lb / lb=
AIR-CONDITIONING x 1−x 2

Enthalpy
h=C p T + ω h g COOLING TOWER

Dew point depression Cooling Tower Efficiency

 ( )
ft
3
Q= Δ U +W n r1 ω
Q=100 √ m (lb ) , α 1=cot
−1
+cot β
min vr1
For Steady-flow Work
Free aperture cross-section Q
Q= Δh+W s v r 1=
F=0.138 √ m(kg) , m 2 2 π r1 B
Solar Energy
Minimum discharge capacity of the Pitot Static Gauge
Q=kA (transmissivity)(absorptivity )
relief device

C=fDL, kg /s (L and D is in meter)

Pitot static-gage v=
√ 2 gh( ρfluid −ρ H 2 O )
ρH 2 O
Length of Discharge pipe of PRV

L=
9P d2

16 C r 2
5
P – lb/in2
√
v= 2 gh(
ρ Hg−ρw
ρw
Cylindrical Flash Tank
¿ )= 2
√
(P2 −P 1)
ρ1
¿ Velocity at Discharge

v=√ 2 ∆ h , h=enthalphy
PJ Bier’s Formula
d – in Q
A= =2 bl
( )
0.466
v P
Cr – lb/min D=0.176
H
Particulate Released from Boiler
Fluid force /Thrust force
Collector Efficiency
3804 lb
2
F=ρA v =ṁ(v 2−v 1) m= ,
( )
n
BTU BTU η=1−( 1−e )
QA
Fluid Power hr
Average velocity for a fully developed
1 3 1 2 Shear Stress in Oil laminar pipe flow
P= ρA v = ṁ v
2 2 v max
Equivalent/ Hydraulic Diameter
τ =μ ()
v
t
μ is in Pa-s v ave =
2
4A t is in m Colebrook Equation
D h=
Pwetted

( )
v is in m/s ε
Joule Thomson Coefficient 1 D 2.51
Propeller Efficiency =−2.0 log +
ΔT √f 3.7 ℜ √ f
JTC= 1
ΔP η= Condenser Load
∆v
1+
ALIEN FORMULAS 2 v1 CL=Compressor capacity∗heat rejection factor
Airflow of Mechanical Ventilation
For Non-Flow Work Guide Vane Angle Heat
 Q=U +( p 2 v 2− p 1 v 1)+ w −h (ft)
30 t (℃ )+8000
Pe =P0 ×e
Air Compressor Isothermal Efficiency Day 1

Wt Capillary Rise Day 2

ηt = To Spin Water Out of the Top
Wa 2 σ cos θ Actual Air to Fuel Ratio
h= 2
γr v
( AF ) ( FA )
Nozzle Efficiency h=
2g = (1+ e ) (1+ ω)
E = v(actual)^2/v^2 Surface Tension Actual Theo
Hydraulic Radius
For a bubble Bomb Calorimeter
D A
4σ rh = = mTotal Cp(t 2−t 1)=mf Q h
Pi−P o= 4 Pwetted
r
Hydrocarbons Heating Value
For a droplet which has only one
surface Qh=13500 C +60890 H

2σ 12 n m
Pi−P o= C= ; H=
r 12n+ m 12n+ m
Coefficient of Drag Enthalpy and Internal Energy

F/A F/A dh=Cpdt

CD= =
P dynamic 1 2
ρv du=Cvdt
2
Percent Mass of CO2
Shear Stress in Fluid
3.67 %C
dv %mCO 2=
τ =μ m product
dt
m product =m air +mfuel −mimpurity
( )
2
v 2 d ¿center
=1−
v max t Sensible Heat

Enthalpy of Moist Air Qs=mCpT

h=ha +ω hv Heat (Pipe or Sphere)

h=C p T + ω ( 2501+1.82T ) dt
Q=−kA
dr
Pressure at Elevation and Temperature
Pelton wheel
 ( )
π 2 Number of Jets
P=γQh=γ ( Av ) h=γ d ( √ 2 gh ) h
4 P capacity Pcapacity
n= =
P jet γQh

Day 3 Pipe Head Loss

Root Mean Square Velocity Critical Radius Day 4 v 2 fL v 2 v2
hloss =Cf entran + +Cf exit
v rms= √3000 RT 2 g 2 gD 2g
h Enthalpy of Saturated Vapor
rc=
k Engine Heat Balance
Average Velocity kJ
h g=2501+1.82 t ,
Sp. Gravity Given Weight in Water kg Energy Diesel (Qh) Otto (Qh)
v ave =
√
8000
π
RT
SG=
W air
W air +W water
Equivalence Ratio
Brake Power
Cooling loss
Exhaust loss
34 %
30 %
10 %
25 %
30 %
8%
Most Probable Velocity A/ F theo
∅= (by volume) Friction loss 26 % 37 %
Water Jet Force A /F actual
v m=√ 2000 RT
F=ρvQ sinθ=ρA v 2 sin θ Heat Transfer Sphere
Incident radiation
Equivalent Length of Pipe diameter ∆t
Incident =Reflect +Transmit + Absorb Q=
1 r −r
Transmissivity
Df =kl ∑ hA +∑ o i
4 πk r r o i
Deaerator
Transmitted Coefficient of Velocity
Transmissivity=
Incident m1=m2 +m3+ m4
v actual
m1 h1=m2 h 2+ m3 h3 +m4 h 4 C v=
v theo
Coefficient of Contraction
Jet Area
C c=
Orifice Area
Coefficient of Discharge
Q actual
C D=
Qtheo
Water Jet Force
F=ρvQ= ρAv 2