TVET PROGRAM TITLE: Information Technology Support Service

MODULE TITLE: Administrating Network and Hardware Peripherals

MODULE DISCRIPTION:  This module defines the competence required to connect, install,
configure, maintain and troubleshoot local area network and
peripherals

What is a (computer) network?

 A computer network is an interconnection of various computer systems
located at different places. In computer network two or more computers
are linked together with a medium and data communication devices for
the purpose of communicating data and sharing resources. The computer
that provides resources to other computers on a network is known as server.
 In the network the individual computers, which access shared network
resources, are known as workstations or nodes or clients.
 Computer networking arose as an answer to the need to share data in a
timely fashion.
 Personal computers are powerful tools that can process and manipulate large
amounts of data quickly, but they do not allow users to share that data
efficiently. Before networks, users needed either to print out documents or
copy document files to a disk for others to edit or use them. This is known as
"working in a stand-alone environment.
Why we use a computer network?
1. Sharing Information (or Data)
The ability to share information quickly and inexpensively has proven to be
one of the most popular uses of networking technology. By making
information available for sharing, networks can reduce the need for paper
communication, increase efficiency, and make nearly any type of data
available simultaneously to every user who needs it
2. Sharing Hardware and Software
Before the advent of networks, computer users needed their own printers,
plotters, and other peripherals; the only way users could share a printer was
to take turns sitting at the computer connected to the printer. But networks
make it possible for several people to share data and peripherals
simultaneously. If many people need to use a printer, they can all use the
printer available on the network. In addition, networks can be used to share
and standardize applications, such as word processors, spreadsheets,
inventory databases, and so on, to ensure that everyone on the network is
using the same applications and the same versions of those applications.
3. Centralizing Administration and Support
Networking computers can simplify support tasks as well. It is far more
efficient for technical personnel to support one version of one operating
system or application and to set up all computers in the same manner than to
support many individual and unique systems and setups.

. 1|Page |
Advantages of Networks
File Sharing
 The major advantage of a computer network is that is allows file sharing and
remote file access. A person sitting at one workstation that is connected to a
network can easily see files present on another workstation, provided he is
authorized to do so. This saves him/her the hassle of carrying a storage
device every time data needs to be transported from one system to another.
Further, a central database means that anyone on that network can access a
file and/or update it. If files are stored on a server and all of its clients share
that storage capacity, then it becomes easier to make a file available to
multiple users.
Resource Sharing
 Resource sharing is another important benefit of a computer network. For
example, if there are twelve employees in an organization, each having their
own computer, they will require twelve modems and twelve printers if they
want to use the resources at the same time. A computer network, on the
other hand, provides a cheaper alternative by the provision of resource
sharing. All the computers can be interconnected using a network, and just
one modem and printer can efficiently provide the services to all twelve
users.
Inexpensive Set-Up
 Shared resources mean reduction in hardware costs. Shared files mean
reduction in memory requirement, which indirectly means reduction in file
storage expenses. A particular software can be installed only once on the
server and made available across all connected computers at once. This saves
the expense of buying and installing the same software as many times for as
many users.
Flexible handling
 A user can log on to a computer anywhere on the network and access his
files. This offers flexibility to the user as to where he should be during the
course of his routine. A network also allows the network administrator to
choose which user on the network has what specific permissions to handle a
file. For example, the network administrator can allot different permissions
to User A and User B for File XYZ. According to these permissions, User A can
read and modify File XYZ, but User B cannot modify the file. The permission
set for User B is read-only. This offers immense flexibility against
unwarranted access to important data.
Increased Storage Capacity
 Since there is more than one computer on a network which can easily share
files, the issue of storage capacity gets resolved to a great extent. A
standalone computer might fall short of storage memory, but when many
computers are on a network, the memory of different computers can be used
in such a case. One can also design a storage server on the network in order
to have a huge storage capacity.

. 2|Page |
Disadvantages of Networks
Security Concerns
 One of the major drawbacks of computer networks is the security issues that
are involved. If a computer is a standalone computer, physical access
becomes necessary for any kind of data theft. However, if a computer is on a
network, a hacker can get unauthorized access by using different tools. In
case of big organizations, various network security software need to be used
to prevent theft of any confidential and classified data.
Virus and Malware
 If even one computer on a network gets affected by a virus, there is a possible
threat for the other systems getting affected too. Viruses can spread on a
network easily, because of the inter-connectivity of workstations. Moreover,
multiple systems with common resources are the perfect breeding ground
for viruses that multiply. Similarly, if malware gets accidentally installed on
the central server, all clients in the network that are connected to that server
will get affected automatically.
Lack of Robustness
 If the main file server of a computer network breaks down, the entire system
becomes useless. If there is a central linking server or a bridging device in the
network, and it fails, the entire network will come to a standstill. In case of
big networks, the file server should be a powerful computer, which often
makes setting up and maintaining the system doubly expensive.
Needs an Efficient Handler
 The technical skills and know-how required to operate and administer a
computer network is considerably high. Any user with just the basic skills
cannot do this job. Also, the responsibility that comes with such a job is high,
since allotting username-passwords and permissions to users in the network
are also the network administrator's duties. Similarly, network connection
and configuration is also a tedious task, and cannot be done by an average
user who does not have advanced knowledge of computers and/or
networking.
Lack of Independence
 Since most networks have a centralized server and dependent clients, the
client users lack any freedom whatsoever. Centralized decision making can
sometimes hinder how a client user wants to use his own computer.
Computer networks have had a profound effect on the way we communicate
with each other today, and have made our life easier. From the World Wide
Web to your local office LAN, computers have become indispensable in daily
life, and networks have become a norm in most businesses. If networks are
designed and configured keeping in mind its pros and cons, they are the best
piece of facility you could ever have.

. 3|Page |
Types of network
 There are different types of network classified based on different criteria
such as:
1. Geographical location
2. Ownership and
3. Network configuration.
Geographical Location:
Computer Networks may be classified on the basis of geographical area in three
broad categories, such as:-
A. Local Area Network (LAN)
B. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
C. Wide Area Network(WAN)
Local Area Network (LAN)
 Networks used to interconnect computers in a single room, rooms within a
building or buildings on one site are called Local Area Network (LAN).
 LAN transmits data with a speed of several megabits per second (10 6 bits per
second). The transmission medium is normally coaxial cables.
 LAN links computers, i.e., software and hardware, in the same area for the
purpose of sharing information. Usually LAN links computers within a
limited geographical area because they must be connected by a cable, which
is quite expensive.
 People working in LAN get more capabilities in data processing, work
processing and other information exchange compared to stand-alone
computers. Because of this information exchange most of the business and
government organizations are using LAN.
Major Characteristics of LAN
 Every computer has the potential to communicate with any other
computers of the network
 High degree of interconnection between computers
 Easy physical connection of computers in a network
 Inexpensive medium of data transmission
 High data transmission rate
Use of LANs
Followings are the major areas where LAN is normally used:
 -File transfers and Access
 -Word and text processing
 -Electronic message handling
 -Remote database access
 -Digital voice transmission and storage
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 It is types of network created by connecting two or more local area network
Wide area network
 The term Wide Area Network (WAN) is used to describe a computer network
spanning a regional, national or global area. The distance between computers

. 4|Page |
 connected to WAN is larger. Therefore the transmission medium used is
normally telephone lines, microwaves and satellite links.

Characteristics of WAN
Followings are the major characteristics of WAN.
Communication Facility:
 For a big company spanning over different parts of the country the
employees can save long distance phone calls and it overcomes the time lag
in overseas communications. Computer conferencing is another use of WAN
where users communicate with each other through their computer system.
Remote Data Entry:
 Remote data entry is possible in WAN. It means sitting at any location you
can enter data, update data and query other information of any computer
attached to the WAN but located in other cities.
Centralized Information:
 In modern computerized environment you will find that big organizations go
for centralized data storage. This means if the organization is spread over
many cities, they keep their important business data in a single place. As the
data are generated at different sites, WAN permits collection of this data from
different sites and save at a single site.
Difference between LAN and WAN
 LAN is restricted to limited geographical area of few kilometers. But WAN
covers great distance and operate nationwide or even worldwide.
 In LAN, the computer terminals and peripheral devices are connected with
wires and coaxial cables. In WAN there is no physical connection.
Communication is done through telephone lines and satellite links.
 Cost of data transmission in LAN is less because the transmission medium is
owned by a single organization. In case of WAN the cost of data transmission
is very high because the transmission mediums used are hired either
telephone lines or satellite links.
 The speed of data transmission is much higher in LAN than in WAN. The
transmission speed in LAN varies from 0.1 to 100 megabits per second. In
case of WAN the speed ranges from 1800 to 9600 bits per second (bps).
 Few data transmission errors occur in LAN compared to WAN. It is because
in LAN the distance covered is negligible.
Ownership
Computer Networks may be classified on the basis of ownership in two categories.
A. Private network
B. Public network
Network Configuration
Computer Networks may be classified on the basis of how the networks are
configured in two categories.
A. Peer-to- peer network
B. Server based network

. 5|Page |
Factors that must be evaluated to configure a network as peer to peer or server based
 The distinction between peer-to-peer and server-based networks is
important because each type has different capabilities.
 The type of network you choose to implement will depend on factors such as
 The Size of the organization
 The Level of security required.
 The Type of business
 The Level of administrative support available
 The Amount of network traffic
 The Needs of the network users
 The Network budget
Peer-to-Peer Networks
 In a peer-to-peer network, there are no dedicated servers, and there is no
hierarchy among the computers. All the computers are equal and therefore
are known as peers. Each computer functions as both a client and a server,
and there is no administrator responsible for the entire network. The user
at each computer determines what data on that computer is shared on
the network.
Size
 Peer-to-peer networks are also called workgroups. The term "workgroup"
implies a small group of people. There are typically 10 or fewer computers in
a peer-to-peer network.

Cost
 Peer-to-peer networks are relatively simple. Because each computer
functions as a client and a server, there is no need for a powerful central
server or for the other components required for a high-capacity network.
Peer-to-peer networks can be less expensive than server-based networks.
Operating Systems
 In a peer-to-peer network, the networking software does not require the
same standard of performance and level of security as the networking
software designed for dedicated servers. Dedicated servers function only as
servers and not as clients or workstations. They are discussed in more detail
later in this lesson.
 Peer-to-peer networking is built into many operating systems. In those cases,
no additional software is required to set up a peer-to-peer network.
Implementation
 In typical networking environments, a peer-to-peer implementation offers
the following advantages:
 Computers are located at users' desks.
 Users act as their own administrators and plan their own security.
 Computers in the network are connected by a simple, easily visible
cabling system.
Where a Peer-to-Peer Network Is Appropriate

. 6|Page |
Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for environments where:
 There are 10 users or fewer.
 Users share resources, such as files and printers, but no specialized servers
exist.
 Security is not an issue.
 The organization and the network will experience only limited growth within
the foreseeable future.
Where these factors apply, a peer-to-peer network will probably be a better choice
than a server-based network.
Peer-to-Peer Network Considerations
 Although a peer-to-peer network might meet the needs of small
organizations, it is not appropriate for all environments. The rest of this
section describes some of the considerations a network planner needs to
address before choosing which type of network to implement.
Administration
 Network administration tasks include:
 Managing users and security
 Making resources available
 Maintaining applications and data
 Installing and upgrading application and operating system software.
 In a typical peer-to-peer network, no system manager oversees
administration for the entire network. Instead, individual users administer
their own computers.
Sharing Resources
 All users can share any of their resources in any manner they choose. These
resources include data in shared directories, printers, fax cards, and so on.
Security
 On a computer network, security (making computers and data stored on
them safe from harm or unauthorized access) consists of setting a password
on a resource, such as a directory, that is shared on the network. All peer-to-
peer network users set their own security, and shared resources can exist on
any computer rather than on a centralized server only; consequently,
centralized control is very difficult to maintain. This lack of control has a big
impact on network security because some users may not implement any
security measures at all. If security is an issue, a server-based network might
be a better choice.

Server-Based Networks
 In an environment with more than 10 users, a peer-to-peer network—with
computers acting as both servers and clients—will probably not be adequate.
Therefore, most networks have dedicated servers.
 A dedicated server is one that functions only as a server and is not used as a
client or workstation.
 Servers are described as "dedicated" because they are not themselves clients,
and because they are optimized to service requests from network clients

. 7|Page |
 quickly and to ensure the security of files and directories. Server-based
networks have become the standard models for networking
Types of server
 As networks increase in size (as the number of connected computers, and the
physical distance and traffic between them, grows), more than one server is
usually needed
 Spreading the networking tasks among several servers ensures that each
task will be performed as efficiently as possible. As a result there different
types of server which is mentioned as follow
File and Print Servers
 File and print servers manage user access and use of file and printer
resources. For example, when you are running a word-processing
application, the word-processing application runs on your computer. The
word-processing document stored on the file and print server is loaded into
your computer's memory so that you can edit or use it locally.
Application Servers
 Application servers make the server side of client/server applications, as
well as the data, available to clients. For example, servers store vast amounts
of data that is organized to make it easy to retrieve. Thus, an application
server differs from a file and print server. With a file and print server, the
data or file is downloaded to the computer making the request. With an
application server, the database stays on the server and only the results of a
request are downloaded to the computer making the request.
Mail Servers
 Mail servers operate like application servers in that there are separate server
and client applications, with data selectively downloaded from the server to
the client.
Fax Servers
 Fax servers manage fax traffic into and out of the network by sharing one or
more fax modem boards.

Communications Servers
 Communications servers handle data flow and e-mail messages between the
servers' own networks and other networks, mainframe computers, or remote
users who dial in to the servers over modems and telephone lines.
Directory Services Servers
 Directory services servers enable users to locate, store, and secure
information on the network. For example, some server software combines
computers into logical groupings (called domains) that allow any user on the
network to be given access to any resource on the network.
The Role of Software in a Server-Based Environment
 A network server and its operating system work together as a unit. No matter
how powerful or physical resources. Advanced server operating systems,
such as those from Microsoft and Novell, are designed to take advantage of
the most advanced server hardware.
. 8|Page |
Server-Based Network Advantages
 Although it is more complex to install, configure, and manage, a server-based
network has many advantages over a simple peer-to-peer network.
Sharing Resources
 A server is designed to provide access to many files and printers while
maintaining performance and security for the user.
 Server-based data sharing can be centrally administered and controlled.
Because these shared resources are centrally located, they are easier to find
and support than resources on individual computers.
Security
 Security is often the primary reason for choosing a server-based approach to
networking. In a server-based environment, one administrator who sets the
policy and applies it to every user on the network can manage security.
Backup
 Backups can be scheduled several times a day or once a week depending on
the importance and value of the data. Server backups can be scheduled to
occur automatically, according to a predetermined schedule, even if the
servers are located on different parts of the network.
Redundancy
 Through the use of backup methods known as redundancy systems, the data
on any server can be duplicated and kept online. Even if harm comes to the
primary data storage area, a backup copy of the data can be used to restore
the data.
Number of Users
 A server-based network can support thousands of users. This type of
network would be impossible to manage as a peer-to-peer network, but
current monitoring and network-management utilities make it possible to
operate a server-based network for large numbers of users.
Hardware Considerations
 Client computer hardware can be limited to the needs of the user
because clients do not need the additional random access memory
(RAM) and disk storage needed to provide server services. A typical
client computer often has no more than a Pentium processor and 32
megabytes (MB) of RAM.

http://thought1.org/nt100/module3/linear_bus.html

. 9|Page |
What is Network Topology?
 The network topology defines the way in which computers, printers, and
other devices are connected.
 A network topology describes the physical layout of the wire and devices as
well as the paths used by data transmissions
Factors that affect the choice of one topology over another:
 Type of equipment the network needs.
 Capabilities of the equipment.
 Growth of the network.
 Way the network is managed.
Types of Topology
There are four types of standard topologies, such as
1. Bus
2. Star
3. Ring
4. Mesh
Bus topology
 The bus topology is often referred to as a "linear bus" because the
computers are connected in a straight line. This is the simplest and
most common method of networking computers.
 The following figure shows a typical bus topology. It consists of a single
cable called a trunk (also called a backbone or segment) that
connects all of the computers in the network in a single line .

Communication on the Bus

 Computers on a bus topology network communicate by addressing data
to a particular computer and sending out that data on the cable as
electronic signals.
 To understand how computers communicate on a bus, you need to be
familiar with three concepts:
1. Sending the signal
2. Signal bounce
3. Terminator

. 10 | P a g e |
Sending the Signal
 Network data in the form of electronic signals is sent to all the computers on
the network. Only the computer whose address matches the address encoded
in the original signal accepts the information. All other computers reject the
data. Only one computer at a time can send messages.
 Because only one computer at a time can send data on a bus network, the
number of computers attached to the bus will affect network performance.
The more computers there are on a bus, the more computers will be waiting
to put data on the bus and, consequently, the slower the network will be.
 Computers on a bus either transmit data to other computers on the
network or listen for data from other computers on the network. They
are not responsible for moving data from one computer to the next.
Consequently, if one computer fails, it does not affect the rest of the
network.
Signal Bounce
 Because the data, or electronic signal, is sent to the entire network, it travels
from one end of the cable to the other.
 If the signal is allowed to continue uninterrupted, it will keep bouncing back
and forth along the cable and prevent other computers from sending signals.
Therefore, the signal must be stopped after it has had a chance to reach the
proper destination address.
Terminator
 To stop the signal from bouncing, a component called a terminator is placed
at each end of the cable to absorb free signals. Absorbing the signal clears the
cable so that other computers can send data.
 Both ends of each cable segment on the network must be plugged into
something. For example, a cable end can be plugged into a computer or a
connector to extend the cable length. Any open cable ends not plugged into
something must be terminated to prevent signal bounce.
Network Expansion in bus topology
 As the physical size of the site grows, the network will need to grow as well.
Cable in the bus topology can be extended by one of the two following
methods:
A. A component called a barrel connector can connect two pieces of cable
together to make a longer piece of cable. However, connectors weaken the
signal and should be used carefully. One continuous cable is preferable to
connecting several smaller ones with connectors. Using too many connectors
can prevent the signal from being correctly received.

. 11 | P a g e |
 B. A device called a repeater can be used to connect two cables. A repeater
actually boosts the signal before it sends the signal on its way. The following
figure shows a repeater boosting a weakened signal. A repeater is better than
a connector or a longer piece of cable because it allows a signal to travel
farther and still be correctly received.

Advantages of Bus Topology

 Use of cable is economical.
 Media is inexpensive and easy to work with.
 System is simple and reliable.
 Bus is easy to extend.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
 Network can slow down in heavy traffic.
 Problems are difficult to isolate.
 Cable break can affect many users.
 Increasing the number of computer will slow down the performance of the
network
Star Topology
 In the star topology, cable segments from each computer are connected to a
centralized component called a hub.
 The following figure shows four computers and a hub connected in a star
topology. Signals are transmitted from the sending computer through the
hub to all computers on the network.
 The star network offers the advantage of centralized resources and
management. However, because each computer is connected to a central
point, this topology requires a great deal of cable in a large network
installation. Also, if the central point fails, the entire network goes down.
 If one computer—or the cable that connects it to the hub—fails on a star
network, only the failed computer will not be able to send or receive network
data. The rest of the network continues to function normally

. 12 | P a g e |
Advantages of a Star Topology
 Easy to install and wire.
 No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
 If the hub, switch, or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
 More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the hubs, etc.

Ring Topology
 The ring topology connects computers on a single circle of cable. Unlike the
bus topology, there are no terminated ends.
 The signals travel around the loop in one direction and pass through each
computer, which can act as a repeater to boost the signal and send it on to
the next computer. The following figure shows a typical ring topology with
one server and four workstations.
 The failure of one computer can have an impact on the entire network.
 Ring topology connects computers on a single circle of cable.
 No terminated ends:- Computers are connected on a single circle of cable in a
ring or loop. Given that the cable is connected in a ring, no termination is
required.
 The signal, or token, travels from computer to computer around the loop in
one direction only until it reaches the
destination computer with the address
that matches the address on the data.
 Each computer boosts the signal and sends
it on its way to the next computer. Upon
delivery, a verification message is sent to
the sender.
 The data is stripped from the signal and a
new free signal is created by sender.
. 13 | P a g e |
  One failed computer can affect the entire network if the physical topology is a
ring.

Token Passing
 One method of transmitting data around a ring is called token passing. (A
token is a special series of bits that travels around a token-ring network.
Each network has only one token.)
 The token is passed from computer to computer until it gets to a computer
that has data to send.
 The sending computer modifies the token, puts an electronic address on the
data, and sends it around the ring.
 The data passes by each computer until it finds the one with an address that
matches the address on the data. The receiving computer returns a message
to the sending computer indicating that the data has been received. After
verification, the sending computer creates a new token and releases it on the
network. The token circulates within the ring until a workstation needs it to
send data.
Mesh Topology
 A mesh topology network offers superior redundancy and reliability.
 In a mesh topology, each computer is connected to every other computer by
separate cabling.
 This configuration provides redundant paths throughout the network so that
if one cable fails, another will take over the traffic. While ease of
troubleshooting and increased reliability are definite pluses, these networks
are expensive to install because they use a lot of cabling. Often, a mesh
topology will be used in conjunction with other topologies to form a hybrid
topology.
No of Cable=n (n-1)/2

. 14 | P a g e |
Network Hardware Components

Basic Network Media/Transmission Media

 Transmission medium is used to connect devices on networks. A wide variety
of networking cables are available
 The vast majority of networks today are connected by some sort of wiring or
cabling that acts as a network transmission medium that carries signals
between computers. Many cable types are available to meet the varying
needs and sizes of networks, from small to large.
Types of Network Media/Cable
1. Coaxial cable
2. Twisted-pair (unshielded and shielded) cable
3. Fiber-optic cable
Coaxial Cable
 At one time, coaxial cable was the most widely used network cabling. There
were a couple of reasons for coaxial cable's wide usage:
 it was relatively inexpensive, and it was light, flexible, and easy to work with.
 In its simplest form, coaxial cable consists of a core of copper wire
surrounded by insulation, a braided metal shielding, and an outer cover.
 The term shielding refers to the woven or stranded metal mesh (or other
material) that surrounds some types of cabling.
 Shielding protects transmitted data by absorbing stray electronic signals,
called noise, so that they do not get onto the cable and distort the data. Cable
that contains one layer of foil insulation and one layer of braided metal
shielding is referred to as dual shielded. For environments that are subject
to higher interference, quad shielding is available. Quad shielding
consists of two layers of foil insulation and two layers of braided metal
shielding.
 The core of a coaxial cable carries the electronic signals that make up the
data. This wire core can be either solid or stranded. If the core is solid, it is
usually copper.
 Surrounding the core is a dielectric insulating layer that separates it from the
wire mesh.
 The braided wire mesh acts as a ground and protects the core from electrical
noise and crosstalk. (Crosstalk is signal overflow from an adjacent wire.
 The conducting core and the wire mesh must always be kept separate from
each other. If they touch, the cable will experience a short, and noise or stray
signals on the mesh will flow onto the copper wire. An electrical short occurs
when any two conducting wires or a conducting wire and a ground come into
contact with each other. This contact causes a direct flow of current (or data)
in an unintended path. In the case of household electrical wiring, a short will
cause sparking and the blowing of a fuse or circuit breaker.

. 15 | P a g e |
  With electronic devices that use low voltages, the result is not as dramatic
and is often undetectable. These low-voltage shorts generally cause the
failure of a device; and the short, in turn, destroys the data.
 A non-conducting outer shield—usually made of rubber, Teflon, or plastic—
surrounds the entire cable.
 Coaxial cable is more resistant to interference and attenuation than twisted-
pair cabling, attenuation is the loss of signal strength that begins to occur as
the signal travels farther along a copper cable.
 The stranded, protective sleeve absorbs stray electronic signals so that they
do not affect data being sent over the inner copper cable. For this reason,
coaxial cabling is a good choice for longer distances and for reliably
supporting higher data rates with less sophisticated equipment.
Types of Coaxial Cable
There are two types of coaxial cable:
 Thin (thinnet) cable
 Thick (thicknet) cable

Thinnet Cable:
 Thinnet cable is a flexible coaxial cable about 0.64 centimeters (0.25 inches)
thick. Because this type of coaxial cable is flexible and easy to work with it
can be used in almost any type of network installation.
 Thinnet coaxial cable can carry a signal for a distance of up to
approximately 185 meters (about 607 feet) before the signal starts to
suffer from attenuation.
 Thinnet is included in a group referred to as the RG-58 family and has 50ohm
impedance. (Impedance is the resistance, measured in ohms, to the
alternating current that flows in a wire.). The principal distinguishing feature
of the RG-58 family is the center core of copper. The following figure shows
two examples of RG-58 cable, one with a stranded wire core and one with a
solid copper core.

Thicknet Cable
 Thicknet cable is a relatively rigid coaxial cable about 1.27 centimeters (0.5
inches) in diameter. The following figure shows the difference between
thinnet and thicknet cable.
 Thicknet cable is sometimes referred to as Standard Ethernet because it was
the first type of cable used with the popular network architecture Ethernet.
 Thicknet cable's copper core is thicker than a thinnet cable core.

. 16 | P a g e |
  The thicker the copper core, the farther the cable can carry signals. This
means that thicknet can carry signals farther than thinnet cable.
 Thicknet cable can carry a signal for 500 meters (about 1640 feet).
Therefore, because of thicknet's ability to support data transfer over longer
distances, it is sometimes used as a backbone to connect several smaller
thinnet-based networks.
 Thinnet vs. Thicknet Cable As a general rule, the thicker the cable, the more
difficult it is to work with.
 Thin cable is flexible, easy to install, and relatively inexpensive.
 Thick cable does not bend easily and is, therefore, harder to install. This is
a consideration when an installation calls for pulling cable through tight
spaces such as conduits and troughs. Thick cable is more expensive than thin
cable, but will carry a signal farther.
Coaxial-Cable Connection Hardware
 Both thinnet and thicknet cable use a connection component, known as a
BNC connector, to make the connections between the cable and the
computers.
 The BNC cable connector the following Figure shows a BNC cable connector.
The BNC cable connector is either soldered or crimped to the end of a cable .

 The BNC T connector the following Figure shows a BNC T connector.

 This connector joins the network interface card (NIC) in the computer to the
network cable.

. 17 | P a g e |
  The BNC barrel connector, which following figure shows a BNC barrel
connector.
 This connector is used to join two lengths of thinnet cable to make one longer
length.

 The BNC terminator which shows in the following figure shows a BNC
terminator.
 A BNC terminator closes each end of the bus cable to absorb stray signals.
Otherwise, the signal will bounce and all network activity will stop .

Coaxial-Cabling Considerations
Use coaxial cable if you need a medium that can:
 Transmit voice, video, and data.
 Transmit data for greater distances than is possible with less expensive
cabling.
 Offer a familiar technology with reasonable data security.

Twisted-Pair Cable
In its simplest form, twisted-pair cable consists of two insulated strands of copper
wire twisted around each other.
The following figure shows the two types of twisted-pair cable:
A. Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) and
B. Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable

. 18 | P a g e |
Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Cable
 UTP, using the 10BaseT specification, is the most popular type of twisted-
pair cable and is fast becoming the most popular LAN cabling.
 The maximum cable length segment is 100 meters, about 328 feet
 The 568A Commercial Building Wiring Standard of the Electronic Industries
Association and the Telecommunications Industries Association (EIA/TIA)
specifies the type of UTP cable that is to be used in a variety of building and
wiring situations. The objective is to ensure consistency of products for
customers.
These standards include five categories of UTP:
Category 1
 This refers to traditional UTP telephone cable that can carry voice but not
data transmissions. Most telephone cable prior to 1983 was Category 1
cable.
Category 2
 This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 4 megabits
per second (Mbps). It consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
Category 3
 This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 16 Mbps. It
consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire with three twists per foot.
Category 4
 This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 20 Mbps. It
consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
Category 5
 This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 100 Mbps. It
consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.

Self Check: Read and understand the following Category of UTP cable
1. Category 5e
2. Category 6
3. Category 7

Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable

 STP cable uses a woven copper-braid jacket that is more protective and of a
higher quality than the jacket used by UTP.
 STP also uses a foil wrap around each of the wire pairs. This gives STP
excellent shielding to protect the transmitted data from outside interference,
which in turn allows it to support higher transmission rates over longer
distances than UTP.
Twisted-Pair Cabling Components

. 19 | P a g e |
  While we have defined twisted-pair cabling by the number of twists and its
ability to transmit data, additional components are necessary to complete an
installation. As it is with telephone cabling, a twisted-pair cable network
requires connectors and other hardware to ensure proper installation.
 Connection hardware Twisted-pair cabling uses RJ-45 connectors to
connect to a computer. These are similar to RJ-11 telephone connectors.
 An RJ-45 connector is shown in the following figure. Although RJ-11 and RJ-
45 connectors look alike at first glance, there are crucial differences between
them.

 The RJ-45 connector is slightly larger and will not fit into the RJ-11 telephone
jack. The RJ-45 connector houses eight cable connections, while the RJ-11
houses only four.
Twisted-Pair Cabling Considerations
Use twisted-pair cable if:
 Your LAN is under budget constraints.
 You want a relatively easy installation in which computer connections are
simple.
Do not use twisted-pair cable if:
 Your LAN requires a high level of security and you must be absolutely sure of
data integrity.
 You must transmit data over long distances at high speeds.

Fiber-Optic Cable
 In fiber-optic cable, optical fibers carry digital data signals in the form of
modulated pulses of light. This is a relatively safe way to send data because,
unlike copper-based cables that carry data in the form of electronic signals,
no electrical impulses are carried over the fiber-optic cable. This means that
fiber optic cable cannot be tapped, and its data cannot be stolen.
 Fiber-optic cable is good for very high-speed, high-capacity data
transmission because of the purity of the signal and lack of signal
attenuation.
. 20 | P a g e |
Fiber-Optic Cable Composition
 An optical fiber consists of an extremely thin cylinder of glass, called the
core, surrounded by a concentric layer of glass, known as the cladding. The
fibers are sometimes made of plastic. Plastic is easier to install, but cannot
carry the light pulses for as long a distance as glass.Because each glass strand
passes signals in only one direction, a cable includes two strands in separate
jackets. One strand transmits and one receives. A reinforcing layer of plastic
surrounds each glass strand, and Kevlar fibers provide strength.
 The Kevlar fibers in the fiber-optic connector are placed between the two
cables. Just as their counterparts (twisted-pair and coaxial) are, fiber-optic
cables are encased in a plastic coating for protection.

Fiber-optic cable transmissions are not subject to electrical interference and are
extremely fast, currently transmitting about 100 Mbps with demonstrated rates
of up to 1 gigabit per second (Gbps). They can carry a signal—the light pulse—for
many miles.
Fiber-Optic Cabling Considerations
Use fiber-optic cable if you:
 Need to transmit data at very high speeds over long distances in very secure
media.
Do not use fiber-optic cable if you:
 Are under a tight budget.
 Do not have the expertise available to properly install it and connect devices
to it.
Signal Transmission
 Two techniques can be used to transmit the encoded signals over cable:
A. Baseband and
B. Broadband transmission.
Baseband Transmission
 Baseband systems use digital signaling over a single channel. Signals flow in
the form of discrete pulses of electricity or light. With baseband
transmission, the entire communication channel capacity is used to transmit
a single data signal. The digital signal uses the complete bandwidth of the

. 21 | P a g e |
 cable, which constitutes a single channel. The term bandwidth refers to the
data transfer capacity, or speed of transmission, of a digital
communications system as measured in bits per second (bps).
 As the signal travels along the network cable, it gradually decreases in
strength and can become distorted. If the cable length is too long, the
received signal can be unrecognizable or misinterpreted.
 As a safeguard, baseband systems sometimes use repeaters to receive
incoming signals and retransmit them at their original strength and
definition. This increases the practical length of a cable.
Broadband Transmission
 Broadband systems use analog signaling and a range of frequencies. With
analog transmission, the signals are continuous and non discrete. Signals
flow across the physical medium in the form of electromagnetic or optical
waves. With broadband transmission, signal flow is unidirectional.
 If sufficient total bandwidth is available, multiple analog transmission
systems, such as cable television and network transmissions, can be
supported simultaneously on the same cable.
 Each transmission system is allocated a part of the total bandwidth. All
devices associated with a given transmission system, such as all computers
using a LAN cable, must then be tuned so that they use only the frequencies
that are within the allocated range.
 While base band systems use repeaters, broadband systems use
amplifiers to regenerate analog signals at their original strength.
 In broadband transmission, signals flow in one direction only, so there
must be two paths for data flow in order for a signal to reach all devices.
There are two common ways to do this:
 Through mid-split broadband configuration, the bandwidth is divided into
two channels, each using a different frequency or range of frequencies. One
channel transmits signals; the other receives signals.
 In dual-cable broadband configuration, each device is attached to two cables.
One cable is used to send, and the other is used to receive.

The Network Interface Card

 Network interface cards (NICs) provide the interface between cables, and
computers.
The Role of the Network Interface Card
 Network interface cards, usually referred to as NICs, act as the physical
interface or connection between the computer and the network cable. The
cards are installed in an expansion slot in each computer and server on the
network.

. 22 | P a g e |
  After the NIC has been installed, the network cable is attached to the card's
port to make the actual physical connection between the computer and the
rest of the network.
The role of the NIC is to:
 Prepare data from the computer for the network cable.
 Send the data to another computer.
 Control the flow of data between the computer and the cabling system.
 Receive incoming data from the cable and translate it into bytes that can
be understood by the computer's central processing unit (CPU).
Preparing the Data
 Before data can be sent over the network, the NIC must change it from a form
the computer can understand to a form that can travel over a network cable.
 Data moves through a computer along paths called buses. These are actually
several data paths placed side by side. Because the paths are side by side
(parallel), data can move along them in lateral groups instead of in a single
(serial) data stream.
 On the network cable, however, data must travel in a single stream of bits.
When data travels on a network cable it is said to be traveling as a serial
transmission because one bit follows another. In other words, the cable is a
one-lane highway, and the data always travels in one direction. The computer
is either sending or receiving data, but never both at the same time.
 The NIC takes data that is traveling in parallel as a group and restructures it
so that it will flow through the 1-bit-serial path of the network cable. This is
accomplished through the translation of the computer's digital signals into
electrical or optical signals that can travel on the network's cables.
 The component responsible for this is the transceiver (transmitter/receiver).
Network Address
 In addition to transforming data, the NIC also has to advertise its own
location, or address, to the rest of the network to distinguish it from all the
other cards on the network.
 A committee of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
assigns blocks of addresses to each NIC manufacturer.
 The manufacturers hardwire these addresses into chips on the card by a
process known as "burning" the address into the card. With this process,
each NIC—and therefore each computer—has a unique address on a
network.

 The NIC also participates in several other functions in sequence as it takes

data from the computer and gets it ready for the network cable:
 The computer and NIC must communicate in order to move data from the
computer to the card. On cards that can utilize direct memory access (DMA,
defined later in this lesson), the computer assigns some of its memory space
to the NIC.
 The NIC signals the computer, requesting the computer's data.
 The computer's bus moves the data from the computer's memory to the NIC.
Because data can often move faster on the bus or the cable than the NIC can

. 23 | P a g e |
 handle, the data is sent to the card's buffer, a reserved portion of RAM. Here
it is held temporarily during both the transmission and reception of data.
Sending and Controlling Data
Before the sending NIC actually sends data over the network, it carries on an
electronic dialog with the receiving NIC so that both cards agree on the following:
 The maximum size of the groups of data to be sent
 The amount of data to be sent before confirmation of receipt is given
 The time intervals between sending data chunks
 The amount of time to wait before confirmation is sent
 How much data each card can hold before it overflows
 The speed of the data transmission
Configuration Options and Settings
 Network interface cards often have configurable options that must be set in
order for the card to function properly. Some of the older designs use
externally mounted dual inline package (DIP) switches.
 The following are examples of configurable options:
 Interrupt (IRQ)
 Base input/output (I/O) port address
 Base memory address
 Transceiver
Interrupt Request (IRQ) Lines
 Interrupt request lines (IRQs) are hardware lines over which devices such as
I/O ports, the keyboard, disk drives, and NICs can send interrupts or requests
for service to the computer's microprocessor.
 Interrupt request lines are built into the computer's internal hardware and
are assigned different levels of priority so that the microprocessor can
determine the relative importance of incoming service requests.
Base I/O Port
 The base I/O port specifies a channel through which information flows
between the computer's hardware (such as the NIC) and its CPU. The port
appears to the CPU as an address.
 Each hardware device in a system must have a different base I/O port
number. The port numbers, in hexadecimal format (the system that uses 16
rather than 10 as the basis for its numbering).

Base Memory Address

 The base memory address identifies a location in a computer's memory
(RAM). The NIC uses this location as a buffer area to store the incoming and
outgoing data frames. This setting is sometimes called the RAM start address.
Selecting the Transceiver
 The NIC can have other settings that need to be defined during configuration.
For example, some cards come with one external and one on-board

. 24 | P a g e |
 transceiver. In this case, you would have to decide which transceiver to use
and then make the appropriate choice on your card.

Summary on Network Cabling and Connectors

 The network interface card performs three important functions in
coordinating activities between the computer and the cabling:
 It makes the physical connection to the cable.
 It generates the electrical signals that travel over the cable.
 It Controls access to the cable by following specific rules.
 To select the appropriate NIC for your network, you first need to determine
the type of cabling and cabling connectors it will have
 As discussed in the previous lesson, each type of cable has different physical
characteristics that the NIC must accommodate. Each card is built to accept at
least one type of cable. Coaxial, twisted-pair, and fiber-optic are the most
common cable types.
 Some NICs have more than one interface connector. For example, it is not
uncommon for a NIC to have a thinnet, thicknet, and twisted-pair connector.
 If a card has more than one interface connector and does not have built-in
interface detection, you should make a selection by setting jumpers on the
card itself or by using a software-selectable option. Consult the NIC
documentation for information on how to properly configure the card. Three
examples of typical connectors found on NICs are shown in the following
three illustrations.
 A thinnet network connection uses a coaxial BNC connector
 A thicknet network connection uses a 15-pin attachment unit interface
(AUI) cable to connect the 15-pin (DB-15) connector on the back of the NIC
to an external transceiver.
 An unshielded twisted-pair connection uses a RJ-45 connector, as shown in
as shown in the following figure .The RJ-45 connector is similar to a RJ-11
telephone connector but is larger in size and has eight conductors; a RJ-11
only has 4 conductors.

Wireless networking
 The wireless environment is an often appropriate, and sometimes necessary,
networking option.
 The phrase "wireless environment" is misleading because it implies a
network completely free of cabling. In most cases, this is not true.
 Most wireless networks actually consist of wireless components
communicating with a network that uses the cabling discussed earlier in this
chapter in a mixed-component network called a hybrid network.

. 25 | P a g e |
Wireless Network Capabilities
Wireless networks are attracting attention because wireless components can:
 Provide temporary connections to an existing cabled network.
 Help provide backup to an existing network.
 Provide some degree of portability.
 Extend networks beyond the limits of physical connectivity.
Uses for Wireless-Network Connectivity
 Busy locations, such as lobbies and reception areas.
 Users who are constantly on the move, such as doctors and nurses in
hospitals.
 Isolated areas and buildings.
 Departments in which the physical setting changes frequently and
unpredictably.
 Structures, such as historic buildings, for which cabling presents challenges.

Types of Wireless Networks

Wireless networks can be divided into three categories based on their technology:
1. LANs
2. Extended LANs
3. Mobile computing
LANs
 Except for the media used, a typical wireless network operates almost like a
cabled network: a wireless network interface card with a transceiver is
installed in each computer, and users communicate with the network just as
if they were using cabled computers.
Access Points
 The transceiver, sometimes called an access point, broadcasts and receives
signals to and from the surrounding computers and passes data back and
forth between the wireless computers and the cabled network.
Transmission Techniques
 Wireless LANs use four techniques for transmitting data:
1. Infrared transmission
2. Laser transmission
3. Narrowband (single-frequency) radio transmission
4. Spread-spectrum radio transmission

Infrared Transmission
 All infrared wireless networks operate by using an infrared light beam to
carry the data between devices. These systems need to generate very strong
signals because weak transmission signals are susceptible to interference
from light sources such as windows.
 This method can transmit signals at high rates because of infrared light's high
bandwidth. An infrared network can normally broadcast at 10 Mbps.
There are four types of infrared networks:
 Line-of-sight networks:
. 26 | P a g e |
 as the name implies, this version of infrared networking transmits only if the
transmitter and receiver have a clear line of sight between them and they
have to be activated .
 Scatter infrared networks
In this technology, broadcast transmissions are bounced off walls and
ceilings and eventually hit the receiver. They are effective within an area
limited to about 30.5 meters (100 feet).
 Reflective networks
Optical transceivers situated near the computers transmit to a common
location that redirects the transmissions to the appropriate computer.
 Broadband optical telepoint
This infrared wireless LAN provides broadband services and is capable of
handling high-quality multimedia requirements that can match those
provided by a cabled network

Laser Transmission
 Laser technology is similar to infrared technology in that it requires a direct
line of sight, and any person or thing that breaks the laser beam will block
the transmission.
Narrowband (Single-Frequency) Radio Transmission
 This approach is similar to broadcasting from a radio station. The user tunes
both the transmitter and the receiver to a certain frequency. This does not
require line-of-sight focusing because the broadcast range is 3000 meters
(9842 feet). However, because the signal is high frequency, it is subject to
attenuation from steel and load-bearing walls.
 Narrowband radio is a subscription service. The service provider handles all
the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) licensing requirements. This
method is relatively slow; transmission is in the 4.8 Mbps range.
Spread-Spectrum Radio Transmission
 Spread-spectrum radio broadcasts signals over a range of frequencies. This
helps it avoid narrowband communication problems
Extended LANs
 Other types of wireless components are able to function in the extended LAN
environment similarly to their cabled counterparts. A wireless LAN bridge,
for example, can connect networks up to 4.8 kilometers (three miles) apart.
Types of Extended LANs
Multipoint Wireless Connectivity
 A wireless bridge is a component that offers an easy way to link buildings
without using cable. In the same way that a footbridge provides a path
between two points, a wireless bridge provides a data path between two
buildings.
 With variations that depend on atmospheric and geographic conditions, this
distance can be up to 4.8 kilometers (three miles).
The Long-Range Wireless Bridge

. 27 | P a g e |
  If the wireless bridge will not reach far enough, another alternative to
consider is a long-range wireless bridge. These also use spread-spectrum
radio technology to provide both Ethernet and Token Ring bridging, but for a
distance of up to 40 kilometers (about 25 miles).
 As with the original wireless bridge, the cost of the long-range bridge might
be justified because it eliminates the need for T1 line or microwave
connections.
NOTE A T1 line is a high-speed communications line that can handle digital
communications and Internet access at the rate of 1.544 Mbps.
Mobile Computing
 Wireless mobile networks use telephone carriers and public services to
transmit and receive signals using:
1. Packet-radio communication.
2. Cellular networks.
3. Satellite stations.
 Traveling employees can use this technology with portable computers or
personal digital assistants (PDAs) to exchange e-mail messages, files, or other
information.
 While this form of communication offers convenience, it is slow.
Transmission rates range from 8 Kbps to 19.2 Kbps. The rates slow further
when error correction is included.
 Mobile computing incorporates wireless adapters that use cellular-telephone
technology to connect portable computers with the cabled network. Portable
computers use small antennas to communicate with radio towers in the
surrounding area. Satellites in near-earth orbit pick up low-powered signals
from portable and mobile networked devices.
Packet-Radio Communication
This system breaks a transmission into packets.
These radio packets are similar to other network packets. They include:
 The source address.
 The destination address.
 Error-correction information.
The packets are linked up to a satellite that broadcasts them. Only devices with the
correct address can receive the broadcast packets.

Cellular Networks
 Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) uses the same technology and some of
the same systems that cellular telephones use. It offers computer data
transmissions over existing analog voice networks between voice calls when
the system is not busy. This is very fast technology that suffers only sub
second delays, making it reliable enough for real-time transmission.
 As in other wireless networks, there must be a way to tie the cellular network
in to the existing cabled network. An Ethernet interface unit (EIU) can
provide this connection.

. 28 | P a g e |
Satellite Stations
 Microwave systems are a good choice for interconnecting buildings in small,
short-distance systems such as those on a campus or in an industrial park.
 Microwave transmission is currently the most widely used long-distance
transmission method in the United States.
 It is excellent for communicating between two line-of-sight points such as:
 Satellite-to-ground links.
 Between two buildings.
 Across large, flat, open areas, such as bodies of water or deserts.
A microwave system consists of the following:
 Two radio transceivers: one to generate (transmitting station) and one to
receive (receiving station) the broadcast.
 Two directional antennas pointed at each other to implement communication
of the signals broadcast by the transceivers. These antennas are often
installed on towers to give them more range and to raise them above
anything that might block their signals.

. 29 | P a g e |
Understanding Network Architecture
Access Methods
 The set of rules that defines how a computer puts data onto the network
cable and takes data from the cable is called an access method. Once data is
moving on the network, access methods help to regulate the flow of network
traffic.
Major Access Methods
The three methods designed to prevent simultaneous use of the network media
include:
1. Carrier-sense multiple access methods (with collision detection or with
collision avoidance)
2. Token-passing methods that allow only a single opportunity to send data.
Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) Access Method
 Carrier sense—each station continuously listens for traffic on the medium
to determine when gaps between frame transmissions occur.
 Multiple access—Stations may begin transmitting any time they detect that
the network is quiet (there is no traffic).
 Collision detect—If two or more stations in the same CSMA/CD network
(collision domain) begin transmitting at approximately the same time, the bit
streams from the transmitting stations will interfere (collide) with each
other, and both transmissions will be unreadable. If that happens, each
transmitting station must be capable of detecting that a collision has
occurred before it has finished sending its frame.
 Using the method known as carrier-sense multiple access with collision
detection (CSMA/CD), each computer on the network, including clients and
servers, checks the cable for network traffic.
 Only when a computer "senses" that the cable is free and that there is no
traffic on the cable can it send data. Once the computer has transmitted data
on the cable, no other computer can transmit data until the original data has
reached its destination and the cable is free again.
 Remember, if two or more computers happen to send data at exactly the
same time, there will be a data collision. When that happens, the two
computers involved stop transmitting for a random period of time and then
attempt to retransmit. Each computer determines its own waiting period;
this reduces the chance that the computers will once again transmit
simultaneously.
CSMA/CD Considerations
 The more computers there are on the network, the more network traffic
there will be. With more traffic, collision avoidance and collisions tend to
increase, which slows the network down, so CSMA/CD can be a slow-access
method

. 30 | P a g e |
Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) Access Method
 Carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) is the least
popular of the three major access methods.
 In CSMA/CA, each computer signals its intent to transmit before it actually
transmits data. In this way, computers sense when a collision might occur;
this allows them to avoid transmission collisions. Unfortunately,
broadcasting the intent to transmit data increases the amount of traffic on
the cable and slows down network performance.
Token-Passing Access Method
 In the access method known as token passing, a special type of packet, called
a token, circulates around a cable ring from computer to computer. When
any computer on the ring needs to send data across the network, it must wait
for a free token. When a free token is detected, the computer will take control
of it if the computer has data to send.
 The computer can now transmit data. Data is transmitted in frames, and
additional information, such as addressing, is attached to the frame in the
form of headers and trailers, discussed later in this chapter.
 In the following Figure, the server is shown transmitting data. It takes control
of the free token on the ring and sends data to the computer with the address
400080865402.

Token-passing access method

Access Methods Summary

Feature or function CSMA/CD CSMA/CA Token passing
Type of Communication Broadcast- Broadcast- Token-based
based based
Type of access method Contention Contention Non contention

 The CSMA/CA access method has become the standard access method for use
in wireless networking.

. 31 | P a g e |
Mode of Data Transmission
Types of transmission mode
1. Simplex
2. Half-Duplex
3. Full-Duplex
Simplex
 The most basic form of data or information transmission is called simplex.
This means that data is sent in one direction only, from sender to receiver.
(See Figure 1.) Examples of simplex transmission are radio and television.
With simplex transmission, problems encountered during the transmission
are not detected and corrected. Senders cannot even be sure that the data is
received.
 In the next level of data transmission, called half-duplex transmission, data
is sent in both directions, but in only one direction at a time. With half-duplex
transmission, you can incorporate error detection and request that any bad
data be resent. Surfing the World Wide Web is a form of half-duplex data
transmission. You send a request for a Web page and then wait while it is
being sent back to you. Most modem connections use half-duplex data
transmission.
 The most efficient method of transmitting data is to use a full-duplex
transmission, in which data can be transmitted and received at the same
time. A telephone is a full-duplex device because it allows both parties to talk
at the same time.

Digital and analogue signals

 All data stored in computers is stored in digital form (i.e. it is a sequence of 0s
and 1s). Exactly how this digital data is transmitted over the physical cabling
of the network can vary. Although the data itself is in digital form the
communication method can be either digital or analogue. Figure 2 illustrates
the difference between digital and analogue transmission. If the digital signal
is transmitted in analogue form then some kind of conversion must take
place at both the sending and receiving computers.

. 32 | P a g e |
Figure 1 – Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex information
transmission

Figure 2 – Digital vs. analogue signals

 Analogue signals consist of a number of components: the amplitude is the
height of the waveform, the wavelength is the length of a single wave, and the
phase can be thought of as the starting point of the wave.
 For example, an analogue wave that starts at zero and goes upwards (as in
the wave in Figure 2) will have a different phase to one that starts at zero and
goes downward.
 The analogue signal Figure 2 is transmitting at a single frequency only (the
frequency is the inverse of the wavelength). However, a single channel will
typically transmit at a number of frequencies simultaneously, by summing
the waveforms of the different frequencies.
 The bandwidth of a communications channel determines a channel's
information-carrying capacity. Bandwidth is defined as "the range of

. 33 | P a g e |
 frequencies that the channel is capable of transmitting without interference
or signal loss" and is measured in Hertz.
 The greater the range of frequencies a medium can handle, the greater is its
information-carrying capacity.
 In data communications, bandwidth is generally specified in bits per second
(bps). A channel that supports a 2 Mbps bandwidth can support a
transmission rate of two million bits per second.

Digital transmission of digital data

In digital transmission, signals flow in the form of discrete pulses of electricity

(voltage) or light. The entire communication channel capacity is used to transmit a
single data signal (i.e. all frequencies are used). Because of the problem of
attenuation of the signal (i.e. signal loss over distance), digital transmission
systems use repeaters to boost the signal back to its original strength when
transmitting over long distances.

When transmitting a digital signal in digital form over a network, a number of

techniques can be employed to encode the data stream. Two of the more common
techniques are described below.

A. Nonreturn to zero (NRZ)

The most common and easiest way to transmit digital signals is to use two different
voltage levels for the two binary digits (0 and 1). For example, a voltage level of zero
could represent a 0 digit, and a constant positive voltage could represent a 1 digit.
More commonly, a negative voltage is used to represent one of the binary digits and
a positive voltage to represent the other. In this case the scheme is known as
Nonreturn to zero (NRZ), because the signal is never at zero voltage.
Although it is the easiest and most common technique, NRZ and similar schemes
have an important disadvantage. Suppose that the sender simply sends a stream of
bits down the cable. The sender has a clock that controls the timing of the
transmitted bits. For example, if the data are transmitted at a rate of 1 Mbps (1
million bits per second), then one bit will be transmitted every microsecond, as
measured by the sender’s clock. The receiver will then attempt to read one bit every
microsecond, according to its own clock. If the senders and receivers clocks are not
precisely aligned, then eventually there will be problems. If the clocks are
misaligned by just 0.01 microseconds, then after 50 or more bits have been received
the receiver may be in error because of the drift in timing. This is known as the
synchronisation problem in digital communications. To overcome this problem a
technique is required for synchronising the sending and receiving of the data.

. 34 | P a g e |
Figure 5 – The NRZ and Manchester encoding digital transmission
techniques

Manchester encoding

Manchester encoding and related techniques offer one means of overcoming the
synchronization problem. With Manchester encoding data is transmitted not by the
voltage level of the stream, but by a transition in this voltage level. For example, a
low-to-high transition could represent a 1, and a high-to-low transition could
represent a 0. As well as representing the data, this transition acts as a clocking
mechanism. When the receiving computer notices the voltage transition it can
resynchronise its clock to align with that of the sender. Figure 5 illustrates the use of
Manchester encoding to transmit a bit stream.

B. Synchronous and asynchronous communication

There are two other common approaches for synchronising the sender and the
receiver in data communications. These are known as asynchronous and
synchronous transmission.
In asynchronous transmission the timing problem is avoided by not sending long
uninterrupted streams of bits. Instead, data are transmitted one character at a time.
A character can consist of anything between 5 and 8 bits. Synchronisation must only
be maintained within each character; the receiver has a chance to resynchronise at
the beginning of each character. It is common to use asynchronous communication
to overcome the timing limitation of NRZ signalling. Figure 6 shows a character of 8
bits transmitted using asynchronous communication with NRZ encoding. Before
transmission the channel is in an idle state (the same as binary 1). Each character is
preceded by a start bit (same as binary 0). After transmission of the data bits there
follows a stop bit (same as binary 1), followed by another idle period. Using
asynchronous communication, the sender and receiver must agree on the number of
bits in a character before transmission begins.

. 35 | P a g e |
Figure 6 – A character transmitted using asynchronous
communication
In synchronous transmission the data bits are transmitted in a continuous stream
without interruption. To prevent timing drift between the sender and receiver, their
clocks must be somehow synchronised. One possibility is to provide a separate clock
line between the sender and receiver. One side (either the sender or receiver) will
transmit a regular pulse onto the clock line, and the other side will use these regular
pulses to synchronies its clock.
Analogue transmission of digital data
The alternative to transmitting the digital data inside the computer as a digital
signal is to convert the digital data into analogue form, transmit it over the network,
and then convert it back into digital data at the receiving computer. The signals are
continuous and non-discrete, and flow across the physical medium in the form of
electromagnetic or optical waves. While digital systems use repeaters, analogue
systems use amplifiers to regenerate analogue signals at their original strength.

Three of the more common schemes for analogue transmission of digital data are
illustrated in All are called carrier modulation schemes, because they transmit data
by modulating (changing) some part of the waveform. In amplitude modulation
(AM), or amplitude shift keying (ASK), the amplitude, or height of the wave, is
modulated to represent the 1s and 0s of the signal. Usually constant positive
amplitude represents one binary value, and zero amplitude represents the other. In
frequency shift keying (FSK), the frequency is modulated, with two different
frequency values representing the two binary values. In phase shift keying (PSK), it
is the phase that is modulated: to transmit a binary 0 the phase should remain the
same as the previous bit transmitted, for a binary 1 the phase should change by 180 o
(i.e. the opposite phase).

Any analogue signal has a modulation rate. This is the number of times per second
that the signal can be safely modulated (changed), without interference or signal
loss. Therefore using any of the encoding techniques just described the modulation
rate represents a limit on the speed at which the digital data can be transmitted.
More efficient transmission can be achieved if each signalling element is made to
represent more than one bit. For example, instead of using a phase-shift of 180 o, the
quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK) technique uses phase shifts of multiples of
90o:
45 o phase shift = binary 11
o
135 phase shift = binary 10
225 o phase shift = binary 00

. 36 | P a g e |
 315 o phase shift = binary 01
Thus, for each modulation change, two bits are transmitted instead of one.
This scheme can be extended. It is possible to transmit 3 bits at a time by using 8
different phase shifts. Furthermore, phase shift techniques can be combined with
amplitude modulation techniques to make even more values possible.
It is evident, therefore, that the data rate R (in bits per second) is not the same as the
modulation rate D (in Hertz). In fact the relationship between the two can be
expressed as
R = D.b
where b is the number of bits transmitted with each modulation change. This can
also be written
R = D.log2 L
where L is the number of different signal elements (e.g. 4 for QPSK).

Figure 7 – Amplitude modulation and frequency shift keying analogue transmission

techniques
Generally, the word modulation refers to the conversion of digital data to analogue
signals. Demodulation refers to the opposite process. Since computers store all
information in digital form, and telephone lines always use analogue transmission, it
follows that the computer’s data must be modulated before transmission and
demodulated upon reception. The device that performs these tasks is called a
modulator/demodulator, or modem.
Digital vs. analogue transmission
The techniques described above show that there is a wide range of choices for
transmission of digital data. So which is the best? Digital transmission has the
appeal of simplicity, since no modulation and demodulation of the data is required.
However, for longer distances analogue transmission may be preferable: oscillating
signals are known to travel longer distances with less attenuation than constant
amplitude signals. In practise, large WANs like the Internet will employ a range of
different communication techniques, although most LANs use digital transmission
only.
7. Multiplexing

. 37 | P a g e |
The technique of allowing multiple signals to be transmitted at the same time over
the same cable is called multiplexing. This is illustrated in Figure 8 – in this case
three different sources can transmit to three different destinations over a single
channel. The role of the multiplexor is to accept data from more than one source,
and transmit it over the shared channel. The demultiplexor accepts data from the
shared channel, and sends it on to its correct destination.

Figure 8 – The roles of a multiplexor and demultiplexor

The two main types of multiplexing - time-division multiplexing (TDM) and

frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) - both aim to maximise the number of
message signals that can be transmitted over the shared transmission link.

A. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

FDM was the earliest and least sophisticated method of multiplexing, and can be
employed only if the data is being transmitted in analogue form. Because analogue
data communication does not necessarily use the entire bandwidth of the
communication channel, it offers the possibility of dividing the bandwidth of the line
into independent, permanently assigned, lower-speed sub channels that operate on
particular frequencies within the spectrum. The speed (bits per second) at which
the channel operates depends upon the amount of bandwidth (Hz) assigned to each
channel; the required bandwidth increases or decreases in proportion to the
operating speed. Therefore, the slower the transmission rates, the more sub
channels can be assigned within the bandwidth; the faster the rates, the fewer sub
channels can be assigned.

B. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Rather than divide a communications link into frequency-separated channels
as FDM does, TDM divides time into slices called time slots. With TDM, each
computer takes its turn at transmitting and receiving data; the order in which
the multiplexer serves the computers is fixed. Depending upon the multiplexer type,
the device accepts only one bit, byte, or packet of data from each input line; puts it
into a specifically allocated time slot on the high-speed transmission line; and then
moves on to the next terminal in the sequence. If the inputting device has no data to
send, the TDM fills out the assigned slot with some type of information. The process
of accepting data from many computers in succession is called interleaving. TDM can

. 38 | P a g e |
be used with either digital or analogue transmission. TDM can be used with both
digital and analogue transmission.

Error checking
No transmission medium is perfect. Whether the data is transmitted using UTP/STP
cable, coaxial cable, fibre-optic cable or wireless networking, the transmitted data
will be subject to noise, or errors. Clearly these errors should be avoided if possible.
If the error could be detected then the receiving computer could send a message to
the sending computer asking for the corrupted data to be resent. A number of
schemes exist for detecting errors in data communication. The simplest scheme is
called parity checking.

A. Parity checking
In the parity checking scheme the stream of 1s and 0s is broken down into
characters (groups of 5 to 8 bits). At the end of each character an extra bit is
appended, known as the parity bit. The value of this bit is chosen so that the total
number of 1s in the character is even (even parity) or odd (odd parity). For example,
if the sender is transmitting the character 1110010 and using odd parity, the parity
bit will be set to 1. Therefore the actual transmitted data will be 11100101, making
the total number of 1s equal to 5. The receiver examines the received character, and
if the total number of 1s is odd, assumes that no error has occurred. If one bit has
been changed due to noise on the transmission medium the receiver detects an
error and requests the character to be resent. Note, however, that if two bits (or any
even number of bits) are changed due to errors, an undetected error occurs.

This simple parity-checking scheme can be extended to correct for as well as detect
errors. Consider Figure 9. As before, the data bits are divided into characters, in this
case of 8 bits, each with an associated parity bit. But this time, the characters are
also grouped together into blocks of 8, making an 8x8 grid of data bits. Parity bits
are added not just to the rows of bits, but also vertically, to the columns. Figure 9(a)
shows such a scheme with no transmission errors. Now when an error occurs, as
shown in Figure 9(b), two parity errors occur, indicating respectively the row and
column at which the error has occurred. This extended parity checking scheme can
detect and correct for a single transmission error. However, if two errors occur on
the same row or column, the error will be detected but cannot be corrected for.
B Checksum
An alternative error-checking scheme is called checksum. This technique
works by considering the data stream as a sequence of integer values. After
the sending computer has transmitted n integer values, the arithmetic sum of
the n integers is computed and transmitted. The receiving computer
computes the same sum and compares it against the received checksum
value.
Checksum can normally detect, but not correct for, multiple bit errors. However,
there are cases in which checksum can miss transmission errors. For example,
consider the following sequence of integers: 11, 34, 3, 0, 12. The checksum
generated by this sequence would be 60, so the transmitted sequence would be 11,

. 39 | P a g e |
34, 3, 0, 12, 60. Now assume that two bits in this sequence are corrupted and their
values flipped, so that the transmitted sequence is actually 11, 32, 3, 2, 12, 60. The
receiving computer would calculate the checksum value as 60 (=11+32+3+2+12)
and assume that there has been no error. In fact, undetected transmission errors can
occur with checksum whenever the same bit is changed in two different integers in
the sequence: in the example described above the second bit in the integers 34 and 0
was flipped, one changing from 0 to 1 and one changing from 1 to 0.

Figure 9 – An extended parity-checking scheme:

(a) with no transmission errors (b) with a single error
C. Cyclic redundancy check
One of the most common and powerful schemes is called the cyclic redundancy
check, or CRC. This technique works as follows. Given a k-bit data sequence, then
sending computer generates an extra n-bit sequence, known as the frame check
sequence (FCS).
The extra n bits are generated so that the resulting sequence, consisting of k+n bits,
is exactly divisible by some predetermined number. The receiving computer will
divide the received sequence by the predetermined number and if there is no
remainder, assumes that there was no transmission error. The CRC error-checking
scheme can detect, but not correct for, almost all transmission errors.
Baseband and broadband transmission
Two common terms that you may come across in data communications textbooks
are baseband and broadband. Communication can be referred to as baseband when
the signal is digital and no multiplexing is being used. Therefore only a single
channel of data is transmitted. Broadband is a general term for a communication
channel with a large bandwidth. Broadband systems are usually analogue and use
multiplexing to allow multiple channels of data to be transmitted over the same
cable.

. 40 | P a g e |
 Chapter Four
Network Operating Systems
4.1 Introduction to Network Operating Systems
Just as a computer cannot operate without a computer operating system, a network
of computers cannot operate without a network operating system. Without a
network operating system of some kind, individual computers cannot share
resources, and other users cannot make use of those resources.
This lesson provides a general introduction to network operating systems
(sometimes referred to as NOSs). It describes the basic features and functions of an
NOS and contrasts these with the capabilities of a stand-alone operating system.
 0perating system is an interface between a user and the computer hardware
Function of network operating system
 It provide an environment in which a user can execute programs
 To make the computer system convenient to use
 To manage and use the computer hardware (resources) in an efficient
manner
 Oversee/control/monitor operation of computer
 Store and retrieve files/programs
 Schedule programs for execution
 It controls the allocation and use of hardware resources such as:
 Memory.
 CPU time.
 Disk space.
 Peripheral devices.
In a networking environment, servers provide resources to the network clients, and
client network software makes these resources available to the client computer. The
network and the client operating systems are coordinated so that all portions of the
network function properly.

A network operating system

 Ties together all computers and peripherals.
 Coordinates the functions of all computers and peripherals.
 Provides security by controlling access to data and peripherals.
4.2. Components of Network software
There are two major components of network software such as:
 Network software that is installed on clients.
 Network software that is installed on servers
A. Client Software
In a stand-alone system, when the user types a command that requests the
computer to perform a task, the request goes over the computer's local bus to the

. 41 | P a g e |
computer's CPU (see Figure 4.2). For example, if you want to see a directory listing
on one of the local hard disks, the CPU interprets and executes the request and then
displays the results in a directory listing in the window.
In a network environment, however, when a user initiates a request to use a
resource that exists on a server in another part of the network, the request has to be
forwarded, or redirected, away from the local bus, out onto the network, and from
there to the server with the requested resource. This forwarding is performed by
the redirector.
The Redirector
A redirector processes forwarding requests. Depending on the networking software,
this redirector is sometimes referred to as the "shell" or the "requester." The
redirector is a small section of code in the NOS that:

 Intercepts requests in the computer.

 Determines if the requests should continue in the local computer's bus or be
redirected over the network to another server.
Redirector activity originates in a client computer when the user issues a request for
a network resource or service. The user's computer is referred to as a client because
it is making a request of a server. The request is intercepted by the redirector and
forwarded out onto the network.
The server processes the connection requested by client redirectors and gives them
access to the resources they request. In other words, the server services—or fulfills
—the request made by the client
Server Software
With server software, users at other machines, the client computers, can share
the server's data and peripherals including printers, plotters, and directories.
In Figure 4.5, a user is requesting a directory listing on a shared remote hard disk.
The request is forwarded by the redirector on to the network, where it is passed to
the file and print server containing the shared directory. The request is granted, and
the directory listing is provided.

Function of Server Software

A. Resource Sharing
Sharing is the term used to describe resources made publicly available for access by
anyone on the network. Most NOSs not only allow sharing, but also determine the
degree of sharing. Options for sharing include:
 Allowing different users different levels of access to the resources. For
example, an office manager wants everyone on the network to be familiar with a
certain document (file), so she shares the document. However, she controls access to
the document by sharing it in such a way that:
 Some users will be able only to read it.
 Some users will be able to read it and make changes in it.
B. Managing Users
Network operating systems also allow a network administrator to determine which
people, or groups of people, will be able to access network resources. A network
administrator can use the NOS to:

. 42 | P a g e |
 Create user privileges, tracked by the network operating system, that
indicate who gets to use the network.
 Grant or deny user privileges on the network.
 Remove users from the list of users that the network operating system
tracks.
C. Managing the Network
Some advanced NOSs include management tools to help administrators keep track
of network behavior. If a problem develops on the network, management tools can
detect signs of trouble and present these in a chart, or other, format. With these
tools, the network manager can take corrective action before the problem halts the
network

4.3 Choosing a Network Operating System

In planning a network, the choice among network operating systems can be
narrowed significantly if you first determine which network
architecture—client/server or peer-to-peer—best meets your needs. This choice
can often be made by deciding which kinds of security are called for. Server-based
networking allows you to include security capabilities well beyond those available
to a peer-to-peer network. If security is not an issue, a peer-to-peer networking
environment might be appropriate.
After your network security needs have been identified, your next step is to
determine the kinds of interoperability necessary for the network as a whole. Each
NOS addresses interoperability in different ways, so you should keep your own
interoperability needs in mind when evaluating each NOS. If your network choice is
peer-to-peer, your options for security and interoperability will be diminished
because of the limitations inherent in that architecture. If your network choice is
server-based, further assessment is needed to determine whether interoperability
will be dealt with as a service on the network server or as a client application on
each networked computer. Server-based interoperability is easier to manage
because, like other services, it is centrally located; client-based interoperability
requires installation and configuration at each computer, making interoperability
much more difficult to manage.
It is not uncommon to find both methods—a network service on the server and
network client applications at each computer—in a single network. For example, a
NetWare server is often implemented with a service for Apple computers, whereas
Microsoft Windows network interoperability is achieved with a network client
application at each personal computer.
When choosing a network operating system, first determine the networking
services that will be required. Standard services include security, file sharing,
printing and messaging; additional services include interoperability support for
connections to other operating systems.

For any given NOS, determine which interoperability services or networking clients
are best implemented to suit your needs.

4.4 Types of network operating System

. 43 | P a g e |
A. Novell Operating Systems
In this lesson, we take a look at Novell's network operating systems, in particular
NetWare, one of the most popular NOSs. Novell also offers client software that is
designed to run on top of other computer operating systems.
Introduction to NetWare
The NetWare NOS consists of server and client applications. The client application is
designed to run on a variety of client operating systems. The server application can
be accessed by client users from computers running MS-DOS, Microsoft Windows
(versions 3.x, 95, and 98, and Windows NT), OS/2, AppleTalk, or UNIX. NetWare is
often the NOS of choice in mixed operating-system environments. In small networks,
however, NetWare can be expensive and complicated for an inexperienced network
technician to install and administer.
The NetWare NOS consists of server and client applications. The client application is
designed to run on a variety of client operating systems. The server application can
be accessed by client users from computers running MS-DOS, Microsoft Windows
(versions 3.x, 95, and 98, and Windows NT), OS/2, AppleTalk, or UNIX. NetWare is
often the NOS of choice in mixed operating-system environments. In small networks,
however, NetWare can be expensive and complicated for an inexperienced network
technician to install and administer.
Version 3.2 of NetWare is a 32-bit NOS that supports Windows (versions 3.x, 95, and
98 and Windows NT), UNIX, Mac OS, and MS-DOS environments. With NetWare
version 4.11, also called IntranetWare, Novell introduced its new NOS, Novell
Directory Services (NDS). Version
5, the latest version to be released, addresses the integration of LANs, WANs,
network applications, intranets, and the Internet, into a single global network.
Novell Directory Services (NDS) provides name services as well as security, routing,
messaging, management, Web publishing, and file and print services. Using X.500
directory architecture, it organizes all network resources, including users, groups,
printers, servers, and volumes. NDS also provides a single-point logon for the user;
with it, a user can log on to any server on the network and have access to all their
usual user rights and privileges.
Other NOSs provide client software for interoperability with NetWare servers. For
example, Windows NT provides Gateway Services for NetWare (GSNW). With this
service, a Windows NT server can obtain access to NetWare file and print services
NetWare Services
With NetWare Client installed, any client workstation can take full advantage of the
resources provided by a NetWare Server. The following is a summary of some of the
more important services provided.
File Services
NetWare file services are part of the NDS database. NDS provides a single-point
logon for users and allows users and administrators alike to view network resources
in the same way. Depending on the client software installed, you can view the entire
network in a format that is native to your workstation operating system. For
example, a Microsoft Windows client can map a logical drive to any NetWare file
server volume or directory, and the NetWare resources will appear as logical drives

. 44 | P a g e |
on their computer. These logical drives function just like any other drive in their
computer.
Security
NetWare provides extensive security, including:
 Logon security Provides authentication verification based on user name,
passwords, and time and account restrictions.
 Trustee rights Controls which directories and files a user can access and
what the user is able to do with them.
 Directory and file attributes Identifies the kinds of actions that can be
carried out on a file (viewed, written to, copied, made shareable or nonshareable, or
deleted).
Printing Services
Printing services are transparent (invisible) to the user of a client computer. Any
print request from a client is redirected to the file server, where it is handed off to
the print server and finally to the printer. (The same computer can serve as both file
server and printer server.) You can share printer devices that are attached to the
server, to a workstation, or directly to the network by means of the devices' own
network interface card (NIC). NetWare print services can support up to
256 printers.
Sending Messages to Others
By using some simple commands, users can send a short message to other users on
the network. Messages can be sent to groups as well as to individuals. If all the
intended recipients are in the same group, address the message to the group rather
than to each individual. Users can also disable or enable this command for their
workstations. When a user disables the command, no broadcast messages will be
received by that workstation.
Messages can also be handled through the Message Handling Service (MHS). MHS
can be installed on any server and configured for a fully interconnected message
infrastructure for e-mail distribution. MHS supports most popular e-mail programs .
Interoperability
Full NOS interoperability is not always possible. This is especially true when two
dissimilar networks, such as NetWare and Windows NT, are being connected.
A NetWare environment, centered on its directory services, and Windows NT,
operating on a domain model, are inherently incompatible. To overcome this
problem, Windows NT developed NWLink and GSNW, discussed earlier, that allow
them to interoperate. These services allow a server on the Windows NT network to
act as a gateway to the NetWare network. Any workstations on the Windows NT
network can request resources or services available on the NetWare network, but
they must make the request through the Windows NT server. The server will then
act as a client on the NetWare network, passing requests between the two networks.

B. Microsoft Network Operating Systems

. 45 | P a g e |
Introduction to Windows NT
Unlike the NetWare operating system, Windows NT combines the computer and
network operating system in one. Windows NT Server configures a computer to
provide server functions and resources to a network, and Windows NT Workstation
provides the client functions of the network.
Windows NT operates on a domain model. A domain is a collection of computers
that share a common database and security policy. Each domain has a unique name.
Within each domain, one server must be designated as the Primary Domain
Controller (PDC). This server maintains the directory services and authenticates any
users that log on. The Windows NT directory services can be implemented in
various ways by using the account and security database.
There are four different domain models to choose from.
 Single-domain A single server maintains the security and accounts database.
 Single-master A single master network may have several domains, but one
is designated as the master and maintains the user-accounts database.
 Multiple-master A multiple master network includes several domains, but
the accounts database is maintained on more than one server. This model is
designated for very large organizations.
 Complete-trust A "complete trust" means there are several domains, but
no single domain is designated as a master. All domains completely trust each other.
Windows NT Services
The following services are among the most important services Windows NT Server
and Workstation provide to a network:
File Services
There are two approaches to sharing files on a Windows NT network. The first
is based on simple file sharing, as on a peer-to-peer network. Any workstation
or server can publicly share a directory to the network and set the attributes of the
data (No Access, Read, Change, or Full Control). One big difference between
Windows NT and Windows 95 and 98 operating systems is that in order to share a
Windows NT resource, you must have administrative privileges. The next level of
sharing takes full advantage of Windows NT's security features. You can assign
directory-level and file-level permissions. This allows you to restrict access to
specified individuals or groups. In order to take advantage of the more advanced file
sharing, you will need to use the Windows NT file system (NTFS). During installation
of Windows NT, you can choose between NTFS or a 16-bit FAT (MS-DOS) file
system.
You can install both systems on different hard drives or on different partitions of a
single hard drive, but when the computer is running in MS-DOS mode, the NTFS
directories will be unavailable. Any client not using NTFS can share to the network,
but is limited to public sharing and cannot take advantage of the security features of
NTFS.

Security
Like any major NOS, Windows NT provides security for any resource on the
network. A Windows NT network domain server maintains all the account records,
and manages permissions and user rights. In order to access any resource on the

. 46 | P a g e |
network, a user must have rights to complete a task and the permission to use
the resource
In a Windows NT network, any client or server can function as a print server. By
sharing a printer to the network, it becomes available to anyone on the network
(subject to the rules of sharing).
Network Services
Windows NT provides several services to help facilitate a smooth-running network.
The following list summarizes these services:
 Messenger Service Monitors the network and receives pop-up messages
for you.
 Alerter Service Sends notifications that are received by the messenger
service.
 Browser Service Provides a list of servers available on domains and
workgroups.
 Workstation Service Runs on a workstation and is responsible for
connections to servers. This is also referred to as the redirector.
 Server Service Provides network access to the resources on a computer.
Interoperability
The NWLink network protocol is designed to make Windows NT compatible with
NetWare. The following NetWare services are available:
 Gateway Services for NetWare (GSNW) All Windows NT clients within
a domain must contact a NetWare server through a single source. GSNW provides
the gateway connection between a Windows NT domain and a NetWare server. This
works well for low-volume situations but will cause a decrease in performance as
the number of requests increases.
 Client Services for NetWare (CSNW) This service enables a Windows NT
Workstation to access file and print services on a NetWare server. It is included as
part of GSNW.
 File and Print Service for NetWare (FPNW) This utility allows NetWare
clients to access Windows NT file and print services. This is not a part of the
Windows NT package and must be purchased separately.
 Directory Service Manager for NetWare (DSMN) This add-on utility
integrates NetWare and Windows NT user and group account information. This
is not a part of the Windows NT package and must be purchased separately.
 Migration Tool for NetWare This tool is used by administrators who are
converting from NetWare to Windows NT. It sends a NetWare server's account
information to a Windows NT domain controller.
Windows 2003 Server
Windows 2003 Server is one of the most popular server-based network operating
systems.
When you install and configure Windows 2003 Server it establishes a domain.
The domain contains information such as what users are allowed to use the network
and what computers are parts of the network.
Computers must be joined to the domain before they can start to access its resources
The server that is in charge of managing the domain is called the domain controller
• The domain controller provides a number of different services (i.e.
programs) that carry out different network management functions
. 47 | P a g e |
• Three of the most useful are the
– Active Directory,
– Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol,
– and the Domain Name Service.
• The Active Directory service performs a number of functions
• One of these is to keep a track of which users are allowed to log on to the
network, and what privileges and restrictions have been placed on these users
• it is usually desirable to restrict the network privileges of some or all users,
to prevent unauthorised access to sensitive information
• Different user accounts will have different sets of privileges and restrictions
• There is normally one special account, the administrator, which has access to
do everything on the network. Only the network administrator knows the password
for this account.
• Another function of the Active Directory is to manage which computers are
joined to the domain
• When computers joined with active directory controller with some sort of
cabling ,to access any information first it has to request permission to joined
• This permission is only granted if the user attempting to join it is using the
administrator account, or another account with sufficient privileges.
• Every computer on a network must have a unique address
• This address is attached to any packets of data that are intended for
transmission to the computer
• If the network is using the TCP/IP protocol, these addresses will be IP
addresses
• There are two ways of assigning IP addresses to computers
Static addressing
• In static addressing the network administrator manually
assigns a different IP address to each computer
• The computer will keep this IP address until the network
administrator changes the software settings.
• If two computers have the same IP address a conflict will occur.
• . If the conflict goes undetected then both computers will
compete to receive packets of data sent to their IP address
However, normally the NOS will detect when an IP conflict has occurred and warn
the administrator
Dynamic addressing
– In dynamic addressing a program run on the server is responsible for
assigning IP addresses to each computer.
– When a computer is first joined to the server’s domain, it requests an
IP address from this program, which then assigns an address chosen from a pool of
free addresses that it maintains.
– The address is typically leased to the computer, i.e. it is not
permanently assigned. Eventually the computer’s IP address lease will expire, and it
will need to request a new one. This is why the scheme is called dynamic addressing:
the IP address of a given computer can change over time, whereas in the static
addressing scheme it is fixed, or static.

. 48 | P a g e |
• In Windows 2003 Server the program that is responsible for leasing IP
addresses is called the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).
• DHCP maintains an address pool (a list of free IP addresses) and a list of
address leases (the addresses that have already been leased).  
• As well as having a unique IP address, each computer on a network has a
unique computer name.
• On a local network, this name can just be a single word, for example FBE-
SERVER or AWASA. On the Internet the name will consist of a sequence of words
separated by dots, for example www.yahoo.com or www.bbc.co.uk. There is a one-
to-one mapping between these computer names and IP addresses: every IP address
corresponds to a single computer name and vice versa.
• If this one-to-one mapping exists then clearly the NOS must maintain a list of
which IP address maps to which computer name, so that it can translate between
the two.
• In Windows 2003 Server the Domain Name Service (DNS) is responsible for
keeping the list of IP addresses and computer names and for providing a translation
service between the two for client computers.

. 49 | P a g e |
 Chapter Five
Introducing Network Standards
5.1 Open System Interconnection Reference Model (OSI Model)
The Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model describes how information
from a software application in one computer moves through a network medium to a
software application in another computer. The OSI reference model is a conceptual
model composed of seven layers, each specifying particular network functions. The
model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in
1984, and it is now considered the primary architectural model for intercomputer
communications. The OSI model divides the tasks involved with moving information
between networked computers into seven smaller, more manageable task groups. A
task or group of tasks is then assigned to each of the seven OSI layers. Each layer is
reasonably self-contained so that the tasks assigned to each layer can be
implemented independently. This enables the solutions offered by one layer to be
updated without adversely affecting the other layers. The following list details the
seven layers of the Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model:
 Layer 7—Application
 Layer 6—Presentation
 Layer 5—Session
 Layer 4—Transport
 Layer 3—Network
 Layer 2—Data link
 Layer 1—Physical
The following figure 1-2 illustrates the seven-layer OSI reference model.

Figure 1-2 The OSI Reference Model Contains Seven Independent Layers

. 50 | P a g e |
5.2 Characteristics of the OSI Layers
The seven layers of the OSI reference model can be divided into two categories:
upper layers and lower layers.
The upper layers of the OSI model deal with application issues and generally are
implemented only in software. The highest layer, the application layer, is closest to
the end user. Both users and application layer processes interact with software
applications that contain a communications component.
The term upper layer is sometimes used to refer to any layer above another layer in
the OSI model.
The lower layers of the OSI model handle data transport issues. The physical layer
and the data link layer are implemented in hardware and software. The lowest layer,
the physical layer, is closest to the physical network medium (the network cabling,
for example) and is responsible for actually placing information on the medium.

The following figure illustrates the division between the upper and lower OSI layers.

5.3 Protocols
The OSI model provides a conceptual framework for communication between
computers, but the model itself is not a method of communication. Actual
communication is made possible by using communication protocols. In the context
of data networking, a protocol is a formal set of rules and conventions that governs
how computers exchange information over a network medium. A protocol
implements the functions of one or more of the OSI layers.
A wide variety of communication protocols exist. Some of these protocols include
LAN protocols, WAN protocols, network protocols, and routing protocols. LAN

. 51 | P a g e |
protocols operate at the physical and data link layers of the OSI model and define
communication over the various LAN media. WAN protocols operate at the lowest
three layers of the OSI model and define communication over the various wide-area
media. Routing protocols are network layer protocols that are responsible for
exchanging information between routers so that the routers can select the proper
path for network traffic. Finally, network protocols are the various upper-layer
protocols that exist in a given protocol suite. Many protocols rely on others for
operation. For example, many routing protocols use network protocols to exchange
information between routers. This concept of building upon the layers already in
existence is the foundation of the OSI model.

5.4 OSI Model and Communication between Systems

Information being transferred from a software application in one computer system
to a software application in another must pass through the OSI layers. For example,
if a software application in System A has information to transmit to a software
application in System B, the application program in System A will pass its
information to the application layer (Layer 7) of System A. The application layer
then passes the information to the presentation layer (Layer 6), which relays the
data to the session layer (Layer 5), and so on down to the physical layer (Layer 1).
At the physical layer, the information is placed on the physical network medium and
is sent across the medium to System B. The physical layer of System B removes the
information from the physical medium, and then its physical layer passes the
information up to the data link layer (Layer 2), which passes it to the network layer
(Layer 3), and so on, until it reaches the application layer (Layer 7) of System B.
Finally, the application layer of System B passes the information to the recipient
application program to complete the communication process.

5.5 Interaction between OSI Model Layers

A given layer in the OSI model generally communicates with three other OSI layers:
the layer directly above it, the layer directly below it, and its peer layer in other
networked computer systems. The data link layer in System A, for example,
communicates with the network layer of System A, the physical layer of System A,
and the physical layer in System B. The following figure illustrates this example.

. 52 | P a g e |
5.6 OSI Layer Services
One OSI layer communicates with another layer to make use of the services
provided by the second layer. The services provided by adjacent layers help a given
OSI layer communicate with its peer layer in other computer systems. Three basic
elements are involved in layer services: the service user, the service provider, and
the service access point (SAP).
In this context, the service user is the OSI layer that requests services from an
adjacent OSI layer. The service provider is the OSI layer that provides services to
service users. OSI layers can provide services to multiple service users.
The SAP is a conceptual location at which one OSI layer can request the services of
another OSI layer.

5.7 OSI Model Layers and Information Exchange

The seven OSI layers use various forms of control information to communicate with
their peer layers in other computer systems.
This control information consists of specific requests and instructions that are
exchanged between peer OSI layers.
Control information typically takes one of two forms: headers and trailers. Headers
are prepended to data that has been passed down from upper layers. Trailers are
appended to data that has been passed down from upper layers. An OSI layer is not
required to attach a header or a trailer to data from upper layers.
Headers, trailers, and data are relative concepts, depending on the layer that
analyzes the information unit. At the network layer, for example, an information unit
consists of a Layer 3 header and data. At the data link layer, however, all the
information passed down by the network layer (the Layer 3 header and the data) is
treated as data.
In other words, the data portion of an information unit at a given OSI layer
potentially
can contain headers, trailers, and data from all the higher layers. This is known as
encapsulation. Information Exchange Process

. 53 | P a g e |
The information exchange process occurs between peer OSI layers. Each layer in the
source system adds control information to data, and each layer in the destination
system analyzes and removes the control information from that data.
If System A has data from software application to send to System B, the data is
passed to the application layer. The application layer in System A then
communicates any control information required by the application layer in System B
by prepending a header to the data. The resulting information unit (a header and the
data) is passed to the presentation layer, which prepends its own header containing
control information intended for the presentation layer in System B. The
information unit grows in size as each layer prepends its own header (and, in some
cases, a trailer) that contains control information to be used by its peer layer in
System B. At the physical layer, the entire information unit is placed onto the
network medium.
The physical layer in System B receives the information unit and passes it to the
data link layer. The data link layer in System B then reads the control information
contained in the header prepended by the data link layer in System A. The header is
then removed, and the remainder of the information unit is passed to the network
layer. Each layer performs the same actions: The layer reads the header from its
peer layer, strips it off, and passes the remaining information unit to the next
highest layer. After the application layer performs these actions, the data is passed
to the recipient software application in System B, in exactly the form in which it was
transmitted by the application in System A.

A. OSI Model Physical Layer

The physical layer defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional
specifications for activating, maintaining, and deactivating the physical link between
communicating network systems. Physical layer specifications define characteristics
such as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum
transmission distances, and physical connectors.. The physical layers disassemble
the frame which is received from the data link layer and reassembled in the form bit.
That means the protocol data unit which is found at physical layer is called bit.
B. OSI Model Data Link Layer
The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical network link.
Different data link layer specifications define different network and protocol
characteristics, including physical addressing, network topology, error notification,
sequencing of frames, and flow control. Physical addressing (as opposed to network
addressing) defines how devices are addressed at the data link layer. Network
topology consists of the data link layer specifications that often define how devices
are to be physically connected, such as in a bus or a ring topology. Error notification
alerts upper-layer protocols that a transmission error has occurred, and the
sequencing of data frames reorders frames that are transmitted out of sequence.

Finally, flow control moderates the transmission of data so that the receiving device
is not overwhelmed with more traffic than it can handle at one time.

. 54 | P a g e |
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has subdivided the data
link layer into two sublayers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access Control
(MAC). Figure 1-8 illustrates the IEEE sublayers of the data link layer.

The Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer of the data link layer manages
communications between devices over a single link of a network. LLC is defined in
the IEEE 802.2 specification and supports both connectionless and connection-
oriented services used by higher-layer protocols. IEEE 802.2 defines a number of
fields in data link layer frames that enable multiple higher-layer protocols to share a
single physical data link. The Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer of the data link
layer manages protocol access to the physical network medium. The IEEE MAC
specification defines MAC addresses, which enable multiple devices to uniquely
identify one another at the data link layer. The data link layer receives the incoming
data (packet) from the network layer and disassembled and reassembled in the
form of frame. That means the protocol data unit which is found in data link layer is
called frame
C. OSI Model Network Layer
The network layer defines the network address, which differs from the MAC
address. Some network layer implementations, such as the Internet Protocol (IP),
define network addresses in a way that route selection can be determined
systematically by comparing the source network address with the destination
network address and applying the subnet mask. Because this layer defines the
logical network layout, routers can use this layer to determine how to forward
packets.
Because of this, much of the design and configuration work for internetworks
happens at Layer 3, the network layer. This layer is responsible to disassembled the
data (segment) which is received from the transport layer and reassembled in the
form of packet. That means the protocol data unit which is found at this layer is
called packet.
D. OSI Model Transport Layer
The transport layer accepts data from the session layer and segments the data for
transport across the network. Generally, the transport layer is responsible for
making sure that the data is delivered error-free and in the proper sequence. Flow
control generally occurs at the transport layer.
Flow control manages data transmission between devices so that the transmitting
device does not send more data than the receiving device can process. Multiplexing
enables data from several applications to be transmitted onto a single physical link.
Virtual circuits are established, maintained, and terminated by the transport layer.
Error checking involves creating various mechanisms for detecting transmission

. 55 | P a g e |
errors, while error recovery involves acting, such as requesting that data be
retransmitted, to resolve any errors that occur.
The transport protocols used on the Internet are TCP and UDP( connection
oriented and on connection oriented communication).
E. OSI Model Session Layer
The session layer establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions.
Communication sessions consist of service requests and service responses that
occur between applications located in different network devices. These requests and
responses are coordinated by protocols implemented at the session layer. Some
examples of session-layer implementations include Zone Information Protocol (ZIP),
the AppleTalk protocol that coordinates the name binding process; and Session
Control Protocol (SCP), the DECnet Phase IV session layer protocol. This layer is
responsible to receive the incoming data from the presentation layer and send down
to the transport layer. The protocol data unit which is found at this layer is called
data.
F. OSI Model Presentation Layer
The presentation layer provides a variety of coding and conversion functions that
are applied to application layer data. These functions ensure that information sent
from the application layer of one system would be readable by the application layer
of another system. Some examples of presentation layer coding and conversion
schemes include common data representation formats, conversion of character
representation formats, common data compression schemes, and common data
encryption schemes.
Common data representation formats, or the use of standard image, sound, and
video formats, enable the interchange of application data between different types of
computer systems. Conversion schemes are used to exchange information with
systems by using different text and data representations, such as EBCDIC and ASCII.
Standard data compression schemes enable data that is compressed at the source
device to be properly decompressed at the destination. Standard data encryption
schemes enable data encrypted at the source device to be properly deciphered at
the destination.
Presentation layer implementations are not typically associated with a particular
protocol stack. Some well-known standards for video include QuickTime and Motion
Picture Experts Group (MPEG). QuickTime is an Apple Computer specification for
video and audio, and MPEG is a standard for video compression and coding.
Among the well-known graphic image formats are Graphics Interchange Format
(GIF), Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG), and Tagged Image File Format
(TIFF). GIF is a standard for compressing and coding graphic images. JPEG is
another compression and coding standard for graphic images, and TIFF is a
standard coding format for graphic images.
G. OSI Model Application Layer
The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means that both
the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application.
This layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating
component. Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model.

. 56 | P a g e |
Application layer functions typically include identifying communication partners,
determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication.
When identifying communication partners, the application layer determines the
identity and availability of communication partners for an application with data to
transmit.
When determining resource availability, the application layer must decide whether
sufficient network resources for the requested communication exist. In
synchronizing communication, all communication between applications requires
cooperation that is managed by the application layer.
Some examples of application layer implementations include Telnet, File Transfer
Protocol (FTP), and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).

Memorizing the OSI Reference Model

Memorizing the layers of the OSI reference model and their order is very important,
especially when preparing to take a computer networking exam. Table 5.1 provides
two ways to help you recall the seven layers of the OSI reference model.

Table 5.1 OSI Reference Model Layers

OSI Layer Down the Stack Up the Stack
Application All Away
Presentation People Pizza
Session Seem Sausage
Transport To Throw
Network Need Not
Data Link Data Do
Physical Processing Please

Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Network Services

In general, transport protocols can be characterized as being either connection-
oriented or connectionless. Connection-oriented services must first establish a
connection with the desired service before passing any data. A connectionless
service can send the data without any need to establish a connection first. In
general, connection-oriented services provide some level of delivery guarantee,
whereas connectionless services do not.

. 57 | P a g e |
Connection-oriented service involves three phases: connection establishment, data
transfer, and connection termination.
During connection establishment, the end nodes may reserve resources for the
connection. The end nodes also may negotiate and establish certain criteria for the
transfer, such as a window size used in TCP connections. This resource reservation
is one of the things exploited in some denial of service (DOS) attacks. An attacking
system will send many requests for establishing a connection but then will never
complete the connection. The attacked computer is then left with resources
allocated for many never-completed connections.
Then, when an end node tries to complete an actual connection, there are not
enough resources for the valid connection.
The data transfer phase occurs when the actual data is transmitted over the
connection. During data transfer, most connection-oriented services will monitor for
lost packets and handle resending them. The protocol is generally also responsible
for putting the packets in the right sequence before passing the data up the protocol
stack.
When the transfer of data is complete, the end nodes terminate the connection and
release resources reserved for the connection.
Connection-oriented network services have more overhead than connectionless
ones. Connection-oriented services must negotiate a connection, transfer data, and
tear down the connection, whereas a connectionless transfer can simply send the
data without the added overhead of creating and tearing down a connection. Each
has its place in internetworks.
5.8 Windows NT and the OSI Reference Model
Network manufacturers use the OSI reference model when designing their products.
When each follows the model, there is a greater likelihood that different systems can
communicate. One shortcoming of the model stems from the fact that many
manufacturers created their products before the model was accepted; these early
products might not follow the model exactly. To demonstrate how the OSI reference
model is adapted to a specific network operating system, we next examine Windows
NT and how it fits the model.
OSI Layers and Windows NT
To simplify the model, Windows NT compresses the seven layers into only three
layers: file system drivers, transport protocols, and NIC drivers. Figure 5.5 shows
how the groups relate to OSI.

Figure 5.5 Windows NT and OSI

. 58 | P a g e |
Windows NT uses drivers to provide for communication between the operating
system and the network. A driver is a device-specific control program that enables a
computer to work with a particular device, such as a printer or a disk drive. Every
time you install a new piece of hardware, such as a printer, sound card, or network
card, you need to install the software drivers that operate the card.
File System Drivers
File system drivers work in the application, presentation, and session layers of the
OSI reference model. When these drivers detect that an application is requesting
resources on a remote system, they redirect the request to the appropriate system.
Examples of these drivers include the Windows NT file system (NTFS) and file
allocation table (FAT) drivers, and the services applications installed on Windows
NT Server and Windows NT Workstation.
Transport Protocols
Transport protocols operate in the transport and network layers of the OSI model.
They are responsible for adding software address information to the data and for
ensuring the reliability of the transmission. The transport protocols are bound to or
combined with the NIC to provide communication. During installation and
configuration of Windows NT, you must always bind these protocols to a specific
network card.
Network Interface Card (NIC) Drivers
NIC drivers operate in the data-link and physical layers of the OSI reference model.
They are responsible for adding the hardware address information to the data
packet and for formatting the data for transmission through the NIC and cable. NIC
drivers are protocol-independent, allowing systems based on Windows NT to
transport data to a variety of network systems.

Figure 5.6 shows how software and protocols relate to the OSI reference model and
the Windows NT model.

Windows NT Interfaces
Windows NT supports many different network redirectors, transport protocols, and
NICs. With so many possible combinations, it was necessary to develop a method of
handling the interactions between them. To resolve this problem, Microsoft
developed common interfaces—boundary layers—to act as translators between
each layer. Thus, as long as any network component was written to communicate
with the boundary interfaces, it could be used with the model. Figure 5.7 shows the
three boundary interfaces.
Windows NT Interfaces

. 59 | P a g e |
Windows NT supports many different network redirectors, transport protocols, and
NICs. With so many possible combinations, it was necessary to develop a method of
handling the interactions between them. To resolve this problem, Microsoft
developed common interfaces—boundary layers—to act as translators between
each layer. Thus, as long as any network component was written to communicate
with the boundary interfaces, it could be used with the model. Figure 5.7 shows the
three boundary interfaces.

Figure 5.7 Windows NT architecture with boundary interfaces

Application Programming Interfaces (APIs)
The application programming interfaces (APIs) are system routines that give
programmers access to the services provided by the operating system. Windows NT
networking APIs lie between user applications and the file system drivers and
redirectors. These APIs allow an application to control or be controlled by other
applications. They are responsible for setting up a session between the sender
and the receiver on the network. Windows NT supports a variety of APIs for
networking.
Transport Driver Interfaces (TDIs)
The transport driver interfaces (TDIs) work between the file system drives and the
transport protocols. These will allow any protocol written to TDI to communicate
with the file system drivers.
Network Driver Interface Specifications (NDISs)
The Network Driver Interface Specifications (NDISs) work between the transport
protocols and the NIC drivers. As long as a NIC driver is written to NDIS standards, it
will communicate with the transport protocols.

5.9 The IEEE 802.x Standard

The bottom two layers of the OSI reference model pertain to hardware: the NIC and
the network cabling. To further refine the requirements for hardware that operate
within these layers, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has
developed enhancements specific to different NICs and cabling. Collectively, these
refinements are known as the 802 project. This lesson describes these
enhancements and how they relate to OSI.
The 802 Project Model
When local area networks (LANs) first began to emerge as potential business tools
in the late 1970s, the IEEE realized that there was a need to define certain LAN

. 60 | P a g e |
standards. To accomplish this task, the IEEE launched what became known as
Project 802, named for the year and month it began (1980, February).
Although the published IEEE 802 standards actually predated the ISO standards,
both were in development at roughly the same time, and both shared information
that resulted in the creation of two compatible models.
Project 802 defined network standards for the physical components of a network
(the interface card and the cabling) that are accounted for in the physical and data-
link layers of the OSI reference model.
The 802 specifications set standards for:
 Network interface cards (NICs).
 Wide area network (WAN) components.
 Components used to create twisted-pair and coaxial cable networks.
The 802 specifications define the ways NICs access and transfer data over
physical media. These include connecting, maintaining, and disconnecting
network devices.
Enhancements to the OSI Reference Model
The bottom two OSI layers, the physical layer and the data-link layer, define how
multiple computers can use the network simultaneously without interfering with
each other.
The IEEE 802 project incorporated the specifications in those two layers to create
standards that have defined the dominant LAN environments. Figure 5.8 shows the
data-link layer and its two sublayers.
After deciding that more detail was needed at the data-link layer, the 802 standards
committee divided the data-link layer into two sublayers:
 Logical Link Control (LLC) Establishing and terminating links, controlling
frame traffic, sequencing frames, and acknowledging frames
 Media Access Control (MAC) Managing media access, delimiting frames,
checking frame errors, and recognizing frame addresses

Figure 5.8 Project 802 LLC and MAC sub layers

Logical Link Control (LLC) Sub layer
The LLC sub layer manages data-link communication and defines the use of logical
interface points called service access points (SAP). Other computers can refer to and
use SAPs to transfer information from the LLC sub layer to the upper OSI layers.
Category 802.2 defines these standards.

. 61 | P a g e |
Media Access Control (MAC) Sub layer
As Figure 5.9 indicates, the MAC sub layer is the lower of the two sub layers,
providing shared access to the physical layer for the computers' NICs. The MAC
layer communicates directly with the NIC and is responsible for delivering error-
free data between two computers on the network.
Categories 802.3, 802.4, 802.5, and 802.12 define standards for both this sub layer
and OSI layer 1, the physical layer.

Figure 5.9 Project 802 LLC and MAC standards

. 62 | P a g e |
 Chapter 6
Defining Network Protocols
6.1 Introduction to Protocols
Protocols are rules and procedures for communicating. The term "protocol" is used
in a variety of contexts. For example, diplomats from one country adhere to rules of
protocol designed to help them interact smoothly with diplomats from other
countries. Rules of protocol apply in the same way in the computer environment.
When several computers are networked, the rules and technical procedures
governing their communication and interaction are called protocols.
Keep three points in mind when you think about protocols in a network
environment:
 There are many protocols. While each protocol facilitates basic
communications, each has different purposes and accomplishes different tasks. Each
protocol has its own advantages and restrictions.
 Some protocols work only at particular OSI layers. The layer at which a
protocol works describes its function. For example, a protocol that works at the
physical layer ensures that the data packet passes through the network interface
card (NIC) and out onto the network cable.
 Protocols can also work together in a protocol stack, or suite. Just as a
network incorporates functions at every layer of the OSI reference model, different
protocols also work together at different levels in a single protocol stack. The levels
in the protocol stack "map," or correspond, to the layers of the OSI reference model.
For instance, the TCP/IP protocol's application layer maps to the OSI reference
model's presentation layer. Taken together, the protocols describe the entire stack's
functions and capabilities.
6.2 How Protocols Work
The entire technical operation by which data is transmitted over the network has to
be broken down into discrete, systematic steps. At each step, certain actions take
place that cannot take place at any other step. Each step includes its own rules and
procedures, or protocol.
The protocol steps must be carried out in a consistent order that is the same
on every computer in the network. In the sending computer, these steps must
be executed from the top down. In the receiving computer, these steps must be
carried out from the bottom up.

The Sending Computer

Protocols at the sending computer:
1. Break the data into smaller sections, called packets, that the protocol can
handle.
2. Add addressing information to the packets so that the destination computer
on the network can determine that the data belongs to it.

. 63 | P a g e |
3. Prepare the data for transmission through the NIC and out onto the network
cable.
The Receiving Computer
Protocols at the receiving computer carry out the same series of steps in reverse
order. They:
1. Take the data packets off the cable.
2. Bring the data packets into the computer through the NIC.
3. Strip the data packets of all the transmitting information that was added by
the sending computer.
4. Copy the data from the packets to a buffer for reassembly.
5. Pass the reassembled data to the application in a usable form.
Both sending and receiving computers need to perform each step in the same way
so that the data will have the same structure when it is received as it did when it
was sent.
For example, two different protocols might each break data into packets and add on
various sequencing, timing, and error-checking information, but each will do it
differently. Therefore, a computer using one of these protocols will not be able to
communicate successfully with a computer that is using the other protocol.
6.3 Protocols in a Layered Architecture
In a network, several protocols have to work together. By working together,
they ensure that the data is properly prepared, transferred to the right destination,
received, and acted upon.
The work of the various protocols must be coordinated so that no conflicts or
incomplete operations take place. The results of this coordination effort are known
as layering.
Protocol Stacks
A protocol stack is a combination of protocols. Each layer of the stack specifies
a different protocol for handling a function or subsystem of the communication
process. Each layer has its own set of rules. In Chapter 5, "Introducing Network
Standards," we discussed the OSI reference model. Figure 6.1 shows the OSI
reference model and the rules associated with each layer. The protocols define the
rules for each layer in the OSI reference

. 64 | P a g e |
Figure 6.1 The OSI reference model showing the layers of protocols

The lower layers in the OSI reference model specify how manufacturers can make
their equipment connect to equipment from other manufacturers, for example, by
using NICs from several manufacturers on the same LAN. As long as they operate
with the same protocols, they are able to send and receive data from each other. The
upper layers specify rules for conducting communications sessions (the time during
which two computers maintain a connection) and the interpretation of applications.
The higher they are in the stack, the more sophisticated the tasks and their
associated protocols become.

6.4 TCP/IP
6.4.1 Introduction to TCP/IP
TCP/IP has become the standard protocol used for interoperability among many
different types of computers. This interoperability is a primary advantage of TCP/IP.
Most networks support TCP/IP as a protocol. TCP/IP also supports routing and is
commonly used as an internetworking protocol.
Other protocols written specifically for the TCP/IP suite include:
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) E-mail.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol) For exchanging files among computers
running TCP/IP.
 SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) For network management.
Designed to be routable, robust, and functionally efficient, TCP/IP was developed by
the United States Department of Defense as a set of wide area network (WAN)
protocols. Its purpose was to maintain communication links between sites in the
event of nuclear war. The responsibility for TCP/IP development now resides with
the Internet community as a whole. TCP/IP requires significant knowledge and
experience on the user's part to install and configure. Using TCP/IP offers several
advantages; it:

. 65 | P a g e |
 Is an industry standard As an industry standard, it is an open protocol. This
means it is not controlled by a single company, and is less subject to compatibility
issues. It is the de facto protocol of the Internet.
 Contains a set of utilities for connecting dissimilar operating systems
Connectivity from one computer to another does not depend on the network
operating system used on either computer.
 Uses scalable, cross-platform client-server architecture TCP/IP can
expand (or shrink) to meet future needs and circumstances. It uses sockets to make
the computer operating systems transparent to one another.
6.4.2 TCP/IP and OSI
The TCP/IP protocol does not exactly match the OSI reference model. Instead of
seven layers, it uses only four layers. Commonly referred to as the Internet Protocol
Suite, TCP/IP is broken into the following four layers:
 Network interface layer (layer 4)
 Internet layer (layer 3)
 Transport layer (layer 2)
 Application layer (layer 1)
Each of these layers corresponds to one or more layers of the OSI reference model.

Network Interface Layer

The network interface layer, corresponding to the physical and data-link layers of
the OSI reference model, communicates directly with the network. It provides the
interface between the network architecture (such as token ring, Ethernet) and the
Internet layer.
Internet Layer
The Internet layer, corresponding to the network layer of the OSI reference model,
uses several protocols for routing and delivering packets. They function at this layer
of the model and are used to forward packets from one network or segment to
another. Several protocols work within the Internet layer.
Internet Protocol (IP)
Internet Protocol (IP) is a packet-switched protocol that performs addressing and
route selection. As a packet is transmitted, this protocol appends a header to the
packet so that it can be routed through the network using dynamic routing tables.
IP is a connectionless protocol and sends packets without expecting the receiving
host to acknowledge receipt. In addition, IP is responsible for packet assembly and
disassembly as required by the physical and data-link layers of the OSI reference
model. Each IP packet is made up of a source and a destination address, protocol
identifier, checksum (a calculated value), and a TTL (which stands for "time to live").
The TTL tells each router on the network between the source and the destination
how long the packet has to remain on the network. It works like a countdown
counter or clock. As the packet passes through the router, the router deducts the
larger of one unit (one second) or the time that the packet was queued for delivery.
For example, if a packet has a TTL of 128, it can stay on the network for 128 seconds
or 128 hops (each stop, or router, along the way), or any combination of the two.
The purpose of the TTL is to prevent lost or damaged data packets (such as missing

. 66 | P a g e |
e-mail messages) from endlessly wandering the network. When the TTL counts
down to zero, the packet is eliminated from the network.
Another method used by the IP to increase the speed of transmission is known as
"ANDing." The purpose of ANDing is to determine whether the address is a local or a
remote site. If the address is local, IP will ask the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP),
discussed in the next section, for the hardware address of the destination machine.
If the address is remote, the IP checks its local routing table for a route to the
destination. If a route exists, the packet is sent on its way. If no route exists, the
packet is sent to the local default gateway and then on its way.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
Before an IP packet can be forwarded to another host, the hardware address of the
receiving machine must be known. The ARP determines hardware address (MAC
addresses) that corresponds to an IP address. If ARP does not contain the address in
its own cache, it broadcasts a request for the address. All hosts on the network
process the request and, if they contain a map to that address, pass the address back
to the requestor. The packet is then sent on its way, and the new information
address is stored in the router's cache.

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)

A RARP server maintains a database of machine numbers in the form of an ARP
table (or cache) which is created by the system administrator. In contrast to ARP,
the RARP protocol provides an IP number to a requesting hardware address. When
the RARP server receives a request for an IP number from a node on the network, it
responds by checking its routing table for the machine number of the requesting
node and sending the appropriate IP number back to the requesting node.
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
The ICMP is used by IP and higher-level protocols to send and receive status reports
about information being transmitted. Routers commonly use ICMP to control the
flow, or speed, of data between themselves. If the flow of data is too fast for a router,
it requests that other routers slow down.
The two basic categories of ICMP messages are reporting errors and sending
queries.
Transport Layer
The transport layer, corresponding to the transport layer of the OSI reference model,
is responsible for establishing and maintaining end-to-end communication between
two hosts. The transport layer provides acknowledgment of receipt, flow control,
and sequencing of packets. It also handles retransmissions of packets. The transport
layer can use either TCP or User Datagram Protocol (UDP) protocols depending on
the requirements of the transmission.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
The TCP is responsible for the reliable transmission of data from one node to
another. It is a connection-based protocol and establishes a connection (also known
as a session, virtual circuit, or link), between two machines before any data is
transferred. To establish a reliable connection, TCP uses what is known as a "three-
way handshake." This establishes the port number and beginning sequence
numbers from both sides of the transmission. The handshake contains three steps:

. 67 | P a g e |
1. The requestor sends a packet specifying the port number it plans to use
and its initial sequence number (ISN) to the server.
2. The server acknowledges with its ISN, which consists of the requestor's
ISN, plus 1.
3. The requestor acknowledges the acknowledgement with the server's ISN,
plus 1.
In order to maintain a reliable connection, each packet must contain:
 A source and destination TCP port number.
 A sequence number for messages that must be broken into smaller pieces.
 A checksum to ensure that information is sent without error.
 An acknowledgement number that tells the sending machine which pieces of
the message have arrived.
 TCP Sliding Windows.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

A connectionless protocol, the UDP, is responsible for end-to-end transmission of
data. Unlike TCP, however, UDP does not establish a connection. It attempts to send
the data and to verify that the destination host actually receives the data. UDP is best
used to send small amounts of data for which guaranteed delivery is not required.
While UDP uses ports, they are different from TCP ports; therefore, they can use the
same numbers without interference.
Application Layer
Corresponding to the session, presentation, and application layers of the OSI
reference model, the application layer connects applications to the network. Two
application programming interfaces (APIs) provide access to the TCP/IP transport
protocols—Windows Sockets and NetBIOS.
Windows Sockets Interface
Windows Sockets (WinSock) is a networking API designed to facilitate
communication among different TCP/IP applications and protocol stacks. It was
established so that applications using TCP/IP could write to a standard interface.
WinSock is derived from the original sockets that API created for the BSD Unix
operating system. WinSock provides a common interface for the applications and
protocols that exist near the top of the TCP/IP reference model. Any program or
application written using the WinSock API can communicate with any TCP/IP
protocol and vice versa.
6.5 IP addressing, Sub netting and masking
6.5.1 IP addresses
Each computer on a TCP/IP based network (including the Internet) has a unique,
numeric address called an IP address (IP stands for Internet Protocol), enabling data
packages to be addressed to this specific recipient.
What is an IP address?
An IP address consists of four so-called octets separated by dots. The octet is a
binary number of eight digits, which equals the decimal numbers from 0 to 255. To
make IP addresses easier to read and write, they are often expressed as four decimal
numbers, each separated by a dot. This format is called "dotted-decimal notation".

. 68 | P a g e |
An IP address in its binary and dotted-decimal notation

In a local area network based on TCP/IP, an IP address must be assigned to each

host (computer or device) in the network. The IP address must be unique to each
host. (If two hosts were given the same address, the data to these hosts would be
picked up randomly by one of them – be it the intended receiver or not – causing
network irregularities.)
In addition, a device that serves as router to another network contains two or more
network adaptors and belongs to two or more networks. In this case, each adaptor
must be assigned a unique IP address on each network.
Part of an IP address designates the network, while another part designates the
individual host. The network number field is also referred to as the ‘network prefix’.

The two parts of an IP address

Exactly where the network part ends and the host part begin is calculated by
routers, using a so-called subnet mask as a translating key.
All hosts on a given network share the same network number, but each of them
must have a unique host number:

The host portion of the IP address is unique to each host

The network portion of an IP address is inherited down through a network

hierarchy, as illustrated below.

Each cloud symbolizes a network segment

. 69 | P a g e |
Classes of IP addresses
In order to provide the flexibility required to support differently sized networks, IP
addresses come in three classes, A, B, and C. Every class fixes the boundary between
the network portion and the host portion of the IP address at a different point. This
makes them appropriate for different size networks.

Class C addresses allow 254 hosts per network and are typically used by smaller and
middle-sized companies. Class B networks allow a maximum of 16,384 hosts, while
Class A networks allow more than 16 million hosts. As a consequence, Class A
networks are only used by really large organizations.
Calculating the number of possible hosts requires a closer look at the IP classes in
their binary form. (The binary system is a base-2 number system, just like the base-
10 number system is known as the decimal number system). It is done as follows:
 In a Class C network only the last octet is used to designate the hosts. The
maximum decimal number that you can write using eight bits is 256 (2 8). The host
calculation now requires that 2 is subtracted, because two host addresses must be
reserved for a network address and a broadcast address. The maximum number of
hosts on a Class C network is 256-2=254.
 A class B network allows a maximum of 16,384 hosts (2 16-2) per network
(two octets designate the hosts).
 A class A network allows up to 16,777,214 (224-2) hosts per network (three
octets are used to designate the hosts).
The table below shows the range of dotted-decimal values that can be assigned to
each of the three address classes. An x represents the host number field of the
address which is assigned by the network administrator.

Class A networks are also referred to as ‘/8’s (pronounced slash eight’s or just
eight’s) since they have an 8-bit network prefix (one octet is used to designate the

. 70 | P a g e |
network). Following the same convention, Class B networks are called ‘/16s’ and
Class C networks ‘/24s’.
Globally routable and private network IP addresses
There are two types of IP addresses – those which are globally routable (included in
the routing tables on the Internet), and those which have been set aside for private
networks. It is generally recommended that organizations use IP addresses from the
blocks of private network addresses for hosts that require IP connectivity within
their company network, but do not require external connections to the global
Internet.
The system with non-routable IP addresses was introduced to help prevent a future
shortage of IP addresses due to the explosive growth of the Internet. Because
addresses belonging to these address blocks are not routed through the Internet
routing system, the same numbers can be used at the same time by many different
organizations.
The three blocks of IP addresses which have been reserved for private networks
are:

There are no official rules for when to use which of the three private network IP
address blocks, but generally the one of the most suitable size is used. For obvious
reasons there is no need to use 10.x.x.x if it is unthinkable that your LAN will ever
grow to more than 254 hosts. However, when using private addresses the network
administrator can be liberal on the usage of the addresses when assigning them to
the different parts of a network, as the strict rules that govern public IP address
assignment do not apply.
Hosts with private network IP addresses cannot communicate directly with the
Internet, because the Internet refuses to receive and transmit data with such origin
or destination address. For a host with a private network IP address to be allowed to
communicate with the Internet, it must have its data stream to the Internet handled
by an intermediary host, which can act as an ‘Internet representative’ for the private
host.
The intermediary host must have ways to relay data between the global Internet
and the host on the private network. Therefore it must have a globally routable IP
address that it uses when communicating with the Internet and a private network IP
address that is uses for communication with the private host.
There are a number of different types of intermediary hosts that fit this description.
The most common types of intermediary hosts are proxy servers, firewalls and
firewalls with NAT (Network Address Translation).

. 71 | P a g e |
A NAT router translating private network IP addresses to globally routable IP addresses
An advantage of using private network addresses is that it makes it easier for
organizations to change their Internet service provider without having to renumber
their IP addresses. If private network addresses are not used, renumbering when
changing ISP is necessary because globally routable IP addresses are "owned" by the
Internet service provider that the company has "leased" the IP addresses from. It is
possible to buy and own IP addresses, but this only applies to very large
organizations that need in the magnitude of 40,000 globally routable IP addresses.
Using private network IP addresses also gives a company a measure of security.
Globally routable IP addresses are advertised in the routing tables on the Internet,
making the system vulnerable to hackers. When private IP network addresses are
used, however, the intermediary host (such as a firewall with NAT) will work as a
barrier against unwanted visits from the Internet.
The current version of IP, IP version 4, defines a 32-bit address, which means that
there are only 232 (4,294,967,296) addresses available globally. Over the past few
years, the number of available IP addresses on the Internet has started to run out, as
the number of companies and people wishing to go on-line has exploded. As a
consequence, a new generation of IP addresses (IPv6) is currently in the works. The
current IP system will not become obsolete overnight; however, as the two systems
will coexist for some time after the new version has been implemented.
6.5.2 Sub netting
What is sub netting?
A subnet is a segment of a network. Sub netting is a technique that allows a network
administrator to divide one physical network into smaller logical networks and,
thus, control the flow of traffic for security or efficiency reasons.
Dividing a network into several subnets can serve a number of purposes: to reduce
network traffic by decreasing the number of broadcasts (if used in combination with
a switch), to exceed the limitations in a local area network, for instance the
maximum number of allowed hosts, or to enable employees to be able to dial in to
the network from home, without opening the entire network up to unwanted visits
from the Internet.

Subnets are created by using a so-called subnet mask to divide a single Class A, B, or
C network number into smaller pieces, thus allowing an organization to add subnets
without having to obtain a new network number through an Internet service
provider. Subnets can again be sub netted into sub-subnets.

. 72 | P a g e |
Subnets were originally invented to help solve the lack of IP addresses on the
Internet.
Please note: There is a fast track to getting the advantages of sub netting on local
area networks without having to go through the process of calculating a subnet
mask, etc.
How does sub netting work?
An IP address consists of a network portion and a host portion. A subnet is created
by borrowing bits from the part of the IP address which normally designates the
host and using them to designate one or smaller, secondary networks (subnets)
within the original network. The network prefix and subnet number in combination
are called the extended network prefix (in every day talk often, somewhat
confusingly, referred to as the network number!).

Subnet masks
A 32-bit subnet mask is used as a deciphering key to determine how an IP address is
to be divided into extended network prefix and host part. It is used by routers and
network devices to determine where traffic should be routed to.
Like IP addresses, subnet masks consist of four numbers of 8 bits, separated by dots.
They are usually written in the corresponding decimal notation.
The typical subnet masks used for Class A, B and C addresses are as follows:

All the 0’s in the subnet mask specify that this part in a corresponding IP address is
the host portion, while the 1’s indicate that the corresponding bits in the IP address
constitute the network portion.
The three subnet masks above set the change from network to host portion at the
end of a whole octet – Class A after one octet, Class B after two octets, and Class C
after three. However, a subnet masks does not have to follow the address classes,
but can specify a host portion that is not a whole octet.
The subnet mask 255.255.255.240 (11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000) for
instance, marks the breaking point four bits into the last octet.
The purpose of having subnet masks defining networks is that the technical devices
that the network is build from will be able to determine if traffic should be routed

. 73 | P a g e |
out of the network or kept within it. Using a mask saves the routers from having to
handle the entire 32-bit address, because they can simply look at the bits selected by
the mask (and thus not worry about the host portion of the address).
Internet routers use only the network number of the destination address to route
traffic to a sub netted environment. Sub netting, thus, also has the advantage that it
keeps the size of the routing tables on the Internet down because Internet routers
only need to know the one common network address for all the individual
computers and devices on the different subnets. The route from the Internet to any
subnet of a network is the same, no matter which subnet the destination host is on,
namely that of the mother network. From there, the local network router(s) divides
the communication out into individual subnets and to the individual hosts on these
subnets.

Sub netting keeps the size of the routing tables on the Internet down, as the Internet
routers only use the network number of a sub netted environment to route traffic to
any of the subnets
A router within a sub netted environment uses the extended network prefix to route
traffic between the individual subnets. The extended network prefix is composed of
the network prefix and the subnet number.

Calculating a network number using a subnet mask

The network number is the part of the IP address that all hosts on a network share.
Network numbers are entered in routing tables and used by routers to direct traffic
between networks. The network number, or extended network prefix, of an IP
address is found by using the subnet mask to mask off the host portion of the IP
address.
An example:
You choose the IP address 192.168.1.1 and the subnet mask 255.255.255.0. The
above IP address and subnet mask written in their binary notation looks as follows:

. 74 | P a g e |
Every bit in the IP address is compared to the corresponding bit in the subnet mask:
a ‘1’ in the subnet mask indicates that the corresponding bit in the IP address is part
of the network portion, while a ‘0’ in the subnet mask illustrates that the
corresponding bit in the IP address is part of the host portion.

In the above example, the host portion is thus all the bits in the first three octets,
which in decimal numbers is written 192.168.1.0.
Subnet masks written in binary notation always consist of a continuous string of 1’s
followed by a continuous string of 0’s, e.g.

As a consequence, the host range that a subnet mask defines will always be either 2
(21 – corresponding to a situation where only the last bit defines hosts), 4(2 2 –
corresponding to a situation where the last two bits define hosts), 8 (2 3), 16(24),
32(25), 64(26), 128(27) or 256(28).
In reality, 2 must be subtracted from all the numbers of hosts above to get the actual
number of IP addresses available to use for hosts, because two addresses, namely
the address which has all-0’s in the host bits (this network) and the address which
has all 1’s in the host bits (broadcast), can not be assigned to hosts. As a
consequence, it is not possible to make a network that consists of fewer than four IP
addresses (2 hosts + the broadcast and network addresses).
In the above example, based on the IP address 192.168.1.1 and the subnet mask
255.255.255.0, the network address (all host bits set to 0) was 192.168.1.0. The
broadcast address for this network would be 192.168.1.255 as illustrated below.
Calculating a broadcast address using a subnet mask
The broadcast address is the address where all the bits in the host portion are set to
1. The broadcast address is used when you want to communicate data to all the
hosts on a network. Here follows an example of how it can be calculated:
In our example above, the last 8 bits were hosts. As a consequence, the broadcast
address for the network 192.168.1.0 with the subnet mask 255.255.255.0 is
11000000.10101000.00000001.111111111 (host bits set to 1) or in decimal
notation: 192.168.1.255
Note: If you know the IP address segment your network consists off, the lowest IP
address is the network number, while the highest IP address is the broadcast
address.
Prefix length notation (CIDR notation)/ Slash format
For the sake of convenience, prefix length notations (CIDR notation, Classless Inter-
Domain Routing notation) is often used instead of writing the subnet mask. This
means that the IP address above (192.168.1.1) with the subnet mask 255.255.255.0
can also be expressed as 192.168.1.1/24. The /24 indicates the network prefix
length, which is equal to the number of continuous one-bits in the subnet mask.

Calculating a subnet mask

. 75 | P a g e |
When sub netting a network, you first need to determine two things:
 How many subnets do you need to create?
 How many host addresses do you need on each subnet (you should always
add some extra host addresses to be used for future growth).
Once you have determined the required number of subnets and hosts, the next step
is to calculate a corresponding subnet mask, which will support the desired network
structure.
In the following you will find two examples of how the sub netting of a Class C
network can be planned and the required subnet mask calculated.
Example A:
Imagine that you are setting up a network on the network number 192.168.1.0/24.
You need a local area network which is going to connect a number of workstations,
servers and others devices, totaling more than 80.
To allow some slack, you set the number of required hosts to be 90. Now, the
calculation of the subnet mask can begin. The calculation is best understood if the
numbers are looked at in their binary form (see example below).
The first step is to determine the lowest number of bits required to identify 90
hosts. Since IP addresses of hosts can only be created along binary boundaries, the
number of hosts must be created in blocks of powers of two – 2 (2 1), 4 (22), 8 (23), 16
(24) and so on. In other words, we must first determine what the lowest power is
that we can lift 2 to and get a number equal to or greater than 90. Since 2 7 equals
128 and 26 equals 64, we need 7 bits to designate 90 hosts. This means that the host
portion of the IP address must be the last 7 bits. An IP address consists of 32 bits all
in all. The network portion must thus consist of 32-7=25 bits.

As every ‘1’ in a subnet mask indicates that the corresponding bit in the IP address
belongs to the network portion and every ‘0’ indicates that the corresponding bit in
the IP address is part of the host portion, the corresponding subnet mask must
consist of a series of 25 1’s, followed by 7 0’s (as illustrated below). Written in
decimal notation, the subnet mask is 255.255.255.128.

The number of subnets that can be created using this subnet mask is calculated as
follows: The original network prefix was 24 bit long (192.168.1.0/24), and the
extended network prefix (network prefix + subnet prefix) masked off by the subnet
mask is 25 bits long. As a consequence, one bit is available to designate subnets. In
other words, it is possible to create 2 (21) subnets of this given size using this subnet
mask, should we wish to do so.

. 76 | P a g e |
Example B:
Now pretend that through an estimation of the number of subnets and hosts that the
subnet you are setting up will have to support, you have come to the conclusion that
you need to define ten subnets. The largest subnet is required to support 10 hosts.
You have again chosen to create the subnet on the network number 192.168.1.0/24.
Now, the calculation of the subnet mask can begin.
The first step is to determine the number of bits required to define the ten subnets.
Since a network address can be sub netted only along binary boundaries, subnets
must be created in blocks of powers of two 2 – 2, 4, 8, 16 and so on. Thus, it is
impossible to define an IP address block so that it contains exactly ten subnets. In
this case, the network administrator must define a block of 16 (2 4) and have six
unused subnet addresses for future growth.
Since we need to raise 2 to the power of four (2 4) to get 16, four bits are required to
designate the sixteen subnets in the block. In this example, you are sub netting a
Class C network (/24) so it will need four more bits (/28) as the extended network
prefix. A 28-bit extended network prefix can be expressed in dotted-decimal
notation as 255.255.255.240.
This is illustrated below:

A 28-bit extended network prefix leaves 4 bits to define host addresses on each
subnet. This means that each subnet with a 28-bit prefix represents a continuous
block of 24 (16) individual IP addresses. However, since the all-0’s (‘this network’)
and the all-1’s host addresses (‘broadcast’) must not be allocated, there are 14 (2 4-2)
assignable host addresses on each subnet. We needed a maximum of 10 hosts on
each subnet, so the result is satisfactory.
Defining subnet numbers
In example B above, with the ten subnets, the subnets will be numbered 0 through
to 9. The 4-bit binary representation of the decimal values 0 though 9 are: 0 (0000),
1 (0001), 2 (0010), 3 (0011), 4 (0100), 5 (0101), 6 (0110), 7 (0111), 8 (1000), 9
(1001), 10 (1010).
To find the subnet number of each subnet, place the binary representation of the
subnet number, e.g. 0001, into the bits in the base network address that is used to
designate the subnet (see illustration below). For example, to define subnet number
8, the network administrator places the binary representation of 8 (1000) into the
4-bits in the base network address that are used to designate the subnet.
The ten subnet numbers for the example are given below. The italicized portion of
each address identifies the extended network prefix, while the bold digits identify
the 4 bits representing the bits in the address that are used to designate the subnet:

. 77 | P a g e |
An easy way to ensure that the subnets are calculated correctly is to ensure that
they are all multiples of the subnet number 1 address. In this case, all subnets are
multiples of 16.

The fast track to the advantages of sub netting

There is a fast track to getting the advantages of sub netting on local area networks without
having to go through the process of calculating a subnet mask, etc. The fast track involves
using a standard class subnet mask in combination with addresses from the IP address
blocks set aside for private networks. For instance by using 192.168.0.0 to designate your
local network 1, 192.168.1.0 to designate your local area network 2 and 192.168.2.0 to
designate your local area network 3. The standard subnet mask to use on networks with up
to 254 hosts is 255.255.255.0.
The three blocks of IP addresses which have been reserved for private networks and the
corresponding standard subnet masks are:

If you do not want to use this method, a list of recalculated subnet masks together
with the number of hosts available on the networks they create can be found below
for easy reference.
List of subnet masks
The list below can be used as a fast track when sub netting. It describes the
relationship between the number of host IP addresses required and the
corresponding subnet mask. The example above, for instance, required subnets with
10 host addresses on each. The nearest number that is equal to or greater than 10 is
16. The subnet mask corresponding to 16 hosts is listed in the table below. It is
255.255.255.240.

. 78 | P a g e |