Rocks and Minerals

Minerals:
Definition:

• Mineral, naturally occurring homogeneous solid with a definite chemical composition

and a highly ordered atomic arrangement; it is usually formed by inorganic processes.
(Britannica)
• A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic solid, with a definite chemical composition,
and an ordered atomic arrangement. This may seem a bit of a mouthful, but if you break
it down it becomes simpler. (The Learning Zone)
• Mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic solid with a definite chemical composition and
a crystalline structure. (Byjus)
The earth is composed of mineral elements, either alone or in a myriad of combinations called
compounds. A mineral is composed of a single element or compound. By definition, a mineral is
a naturally occurring inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition and ordered
atomic structure.

Mineral Resources:
A mineral is a naturally occurring substance, representable by a chemical formula, that is
usually solid and inorganic, and has a crystal structure.
Mineral resources are the key material basis for socio-economic development. Statistical results
show that more than 95% of energy used by mankind, 80% of industrial raw materials and 70%
of raw materials for agricultural production are from mineral resources.
A mineral is a pure inorganic substance that occurs naturally in the earth’s crust. More than
two-thousand minerals have been identified and most of these are inorganic, which are formed
by the various combination of elements. However, a small proportion of the earth’s crust
contains organic materials, consisting of single elements such as gold, silver, diamond, and
sulfur.

Characteristics:

• Minerals are naturally occurring: They are not made by humans

• Minerals are inorganic: They have never been alive and are not made up from plants or
animals
• Minerals are solids: They are not liquids (like water), or gases (like the air around you)

Sumaiya Binte Islam 66th

 • Minerals have a definite chemical composition: Each one is made of a particular mix of
chemical elements
• Minerals have an ordered atomic arrangement: The chemical elements that make up
each mineral are arranged in a particular way – this is why minerals ‘grow’ as crystals

Properties:

Most minerals can be characterized and classified by their unique physical properties: hardness,
luster, color, streak, specific gravity, cleavage, fracture, and tenacity.
Hardness:
The ability to resist being scratched—or hardness—is one of the most useful properties for
identifying minerals. Hardness is determined by the ability of one mineral to scratch another.
Federick Mohs, a German mineralogist, produced a hardness scale using a set of ten standard
minerals. The scale arranges the minerals in order of increasing hardness. Each higher-
numbered (harder) mineral will scratch any mineral with a lower number (softer).
A rough measure of mineral hardness can be made by assembling a kit of handy objects (table
6). A fingernail has a hardness ranging from 2 to 2.5, a penny is a little harder than 3, window
glass ranges from 5.5 to approximately 6 in hardness, and a knife blade is generally in the range
of 5 to 6.5.

Approximate Hardness Item

1 Blackboard Chalk
2.5 Fingernail
3 Copper
4 Common nail

5.5-6.5 Pocket knife

5.5 Window glass
6.5 Steel file or tempered steel.
Luster:

Luster is how a mineral reflects light. The terms metallic and nonmetallic describe the basic
types of luster. Table 7 lists the most common terms used to describe luster and an example of
a corresponding mineral. Some minerals that don’t exhibit luster are referred to as “earthy,”
“chalky,” or “dull.”

Sumaiya Binte Islam 66th

Color:
One of the most obvious properties of a mineral is color. Color should be considered when
identifying a mineral, but should never be used as the major identifying characteristic.

Streak:
Streak is the color of the powdered mineral, which is usually more useful for identification than
the color of the whole mineral sample. Rubbing the mineral on a streak plate will produce a
streak. A streak plate can be made from the unglazed back side of a white porcelain bathroom
or kitchen tile. Some minerals won’t streak because they are harder than the streak plate.
Specific Gravity:
Specific gravity is the ratio between the mass (weight) of a mineral and the mass (weight) of an
equal volume of water. A mineral’s specific gravity (SG) can be determined by dividing its
weight in air by the weight of an equal volume of water. For instance, quartz with a density of
2.65 is 2.65 times as heavy as the same volume of water. (SG = mineral mass/water mass)
Cleavage:
The way in which a mineral breaks along smooth flat planes is called cleavage. These breaks
occur along planes of weakness in the mineral’s structure. However, if a mineral breaks along
an irregular surface, it does not have cleavage.
Fracture:
When a mineral breaks irregularly, the breaks are called fractures. The breaks can be described
as grainy, hackly (jagged), conchoidal (curved), or splintery.

Tenacity:
How well a mineral resists breakage is known as tenacity. Tenacity is described using these
terms:

• Brittle – Mineral crushes to angular fragments (quartz).

Malleable – Mineral can be modified in shape without breaking and can be flattened to a thin
sheet (copper, gold).

• Sectile – Mineral can be cut with a knife into thin shavings (talc).
• Flexible – Mineral bends but doesn’t regain its shape once released (selenite, gypsum).
• Elastic – Mineral bends and regains its original shape when released (muscovite and
biotite mica).
Classification:
Mineral resources can be divided into two major categories.

Sumaiya Binte Islam 66th

 • Metallic Mineral Resources
• Non-metallic Mineral Resources

Metallic Minerals: There are metals that are hard and conduct electricity and heat with
characteristics of lustre or shine. Such metals are called metallic minerals. For example Silver,
Chromium, Tin, Nickel, Copper, Iron, Lead, Aluminum, Gold, and Zinc.
Characteristics of Metallic Minerals:

• Metallic Minerals show a metallic shine in their appearance.

• The potential source of the metal can be got through mining.
• Contains metals in their chemical composition.
• Metallic minerals contain metal in raw form.

Classification of metallic minerals:

• Ferrous metallic minerals: Minerals that contain iron are called ferrous minerals.
Example of ferrous minerals is Chromites, Iron ore, and manganese.
• Nonferrous metallic minerals: Minerals that do not contain iron are called non-ferrous
minerals. Examples of nonferrous minerals are lead, silver, gold, and copper.
Non Metallic Minerals: There is a group of chemical elements that when melted do not
generate a new product. Such special groups are called Non-metallic minerals. Example:
Dimension stone, halite, sand, gypsum, uranium metal, gravel.

Characteristics of Non metallic Mineral Resources:

• Minerals appear with a non-metallic shine or lustre

• Do not contain extractable metals in their chemical composition

Uses of Minerals
The use of minerals depends upon their deposits. Some countries are rich in mineral deposits,
while others have no deposits. The greatest use of minerals depends on their properties. For
instance, Aluminum is light, strong and durable in nature, so it is used for aircraft, shipping, and
car industries.
Minerals are used in almost all industries. Gold, silver, and platinum metal are used in the
jewellery industry. Copper is used in the coin industry and for making pipes and wires. Silicon
obtained from quartz is used in the computer industry.

Mineral elements give fireworks colour. Barium produces glossy greens; strontium yields dark
reds; copper yields blues; and zinc yields sodium. Mixing elements can make many colours:
strontium and sodium create bright orange; titanium, zirconium, and magnesium alloys create
silvery white; copper and strontium make lavender blue.

Sumaiya Binte Islam 66th

Examples of Minerals:
Minerals are compounds naturally produced on Earth. They have a clear structure and chemical
composition. There are more than 3000 known minerals. Some, like gold and diamond, are rare
and precious, while others, like quartz, are more ordinary.
Minerals are composed of atoms as are all compounds. There are just only a hundred
components around us, and they are the fundamental building blocks in everything of us. They
can be found in their pure form, or chemically combined with other compound-making
elements. A compound is composed of two or more chemically united elements.
Over 99 per cent of the minerals that make up the surface of the Earth consists of only eight
elements. Some of such elements are found as complexes in conjunction with other elements.
Minerals are naturally occurring elements or compounds in the Earth’s crust. Rocks are
minerally shaped mixtures. Much as the building blocks of rocks are elements, the rocks form
the rock building blocks.
The mineral biotite has basal cleavage which means that it has a complete cleavage. The
cleavage plane on top of this sample is visible on the smooth, reflective surface. The flat surface
at the bottom, in line with the top of the bowl, is similar to the rim and thus reflects the same
cleavage axis.

Conservation of Mineral Resources:

The total volume of consumable mineral resources is just 1% of all the minerals present in the
earth’s crust. However, the consumption rate is so high that these mineral resources which are
non-renewable will get exhausted very soon.
Here are some measures to conserve minerals:

• Use of minerals in a planned and sustainable manner.

• Recycling of metals
• Use of alternative renewable substitutes.
• Technology should be improved to use the low-grade ores profitably.

Any minerals usually occur as well-developed crystals and are treated in their crystal types.
A detailed nomenclature has emerged to classify crystal types and may be familiar with
some common names. Different properties aid in the detection of other minerals. For
certain minerals, these properties may not be distinguishable enough to aid in their
detection. And, they can only be found in some minerals.

Sumaiya Binte Islam 66th

Rocks:
Definition:

• Rock, in geology, naturally occurring and coherent aggregate of one or more

minerals. Such aggregates constitute the basic unit of which the solid Earth is
composed and typically form recognizable and mappable volumes. (Britannica)
• The solid mineral material forming part of the surface of the earth and other
similar planets, exposed on the surface or underlying the soil.( Lexico)
• A naturally formed aggregate of mineral matter constituting a significant part of
the earth's crust. (Your Dictionary)
Rocks are formed naturally when the tiny grains of different minerals get compressed due to
the pressure exerted on them. The rock formation process is different for different types of
rocks. Sedimentary rocks are formed by the accumulation or deposition of mineral or organic
particles at the Earth’s surface while metamorphic rocks are formed when watery hot fluids are
subjected to high heat and pressure, lastly, igneous rocks are formed when lava cools and
solidifies.

Rock Types:

1. Igneous Rock:
Igneous rocks are defined as types of rocks that are formed when molten rock (rock
liquefied by intense heat and pressure) cools to a solid state.
Lava is molten rock flowing out of fissures or vents at volcanic centres (when cooled, they
form rocks such as basalt, rhyolite, or obsidian). Pyroclastic deposits are accumulations of
fragmented material (e.g. ash, bombs, tuffs, and volcanic breccias) ejected during volcanic
eruptions. As igneous rocks are formed from magma and begin the rock cycle, they are
called primary rocks.
Igneous rocks are those that solidify from magma, a molten mixture of rock-forming
minerals and usually volatiles such as gases and steam. Since their constituent minerals are
crystallized from molten material, igneous rocks are formed at high temperatures. They
originate from processes deep within the Earth—typically at depths of about 50 to 200
kilometres (30 to 120 miles)—in the mid- to lower-crust or in the upper mantle. Igneous
rocks are subdivided into two categories: intrusive (emplaced in the crust), and extrusive
(extruded onto the surface of the land or ocean bottom), in which case the cooling molten
material is called lava.
A sample from an 2.7 billion years old banded iron-formation (BIF Rock) in the Temagami
greenstone belt in Ontario, Canada.

Sumaiya Binte Islam 66th

 Igneous rocks can be easily identified with their texture, density, colour, and mineral
composition. Its texture depends on the shape, size, time period to cool down and solidify,
and the arrangement of crystals in the rock.

Characteristics of Igneous Rocks:

• The igneous form of rocks does not include any fossil deposits. If there are any
chances of fossil deep inside the crust, it erupts out of the Earth’s surface and gets
destroyed due to the sheer heat these rocks produce.
• Most igneous forms include more than one mineral deposit.
• They can be either glassy or coarse.
• These usually do not react with acids.
• The mineral deposits are available in the form of patches with different sizes.
Types of Igneous Rocks:

Igneous rocks can look different based on the cooling conditions and they can have
different compositions based on the lava they cool from. The main two categories of
igneous rocks are known as extrusive and intrusive rocks.

• Intrusive Igneous Rock:

Intrusive igneous rocks are rocks that crystallize below the earth’s surface resulting in large
crystals as the cooling takes place slowly. Diorite, granite, and pegmatite are examples of
intrusive igneous rocks.

• Extrusive Igneous Rock:

Extrusive igneous rocks are rocks that erupt onto the surface resulting in small crystals as
the cooling takes place quickly. The cooling rate for a few rocks is so quick that they form an
amorphous glass. Basalt, tuff, pumice are examples of extrusive igneous rock.
Igneous Rocks Examples:
There are various examples of igneous rocks and their uses.

Granite
Granite is a hard igneous rock made of clearly visible crystals of various minerals. Granites are
used for buildings and houses, especially in the kitchen and bathroom.
Basalt

Basalt is a dark-coloured, fine-grained igneous rock. Basalt is one of the main rocks that are
prevalent in the oceanic crust. As basalt is rich in iron, it is used as an ingredient in concrete.
Basalt is the most common type of igneous rock.
Pumice

Sumaiya Binte Islam 66th

Pumice is a light igneous rock with thousands of tiny bubbles in them. They are used to remove
dead skin from the bottom of our feet. It is used in abrasive cleaning products.
Structure of Igneous Rock:

The structure of an igneous rock is normally taken to comprise the mutual relationships of
mineral or mineral-glass aggregates that have contrasting t, along with layering, fractures, and
other larger-scale features that transect or bound such aggregates. Structure often can be
described only in relation to masses of rock larger than a hand specimen, and most of its
individual expressions can be closely correlated with physical conditions that existed when the
rock was formed.
Small-scale structural features:
Among the most widespread structural features of volcanic rocks are the porelike openings left
by the escape of gas from the congealing lava. Such openings are called vesicles, and the rocks
in which they occur are said to be vesicular. Where the openings lie close together and form a
large part of the containing rock, they impart to it a slaglike, or scoriaceous, structure. Their
relative abundance is even greater in the type of sialic glassy rock known as pumice, which is
essentially a congealed volcanic froth. Most vesicles can be likened to peas or nuts in their
ranges of size and shape; those that were formed when the lava was still moving tend to be
flattened and drawn out in the direction of flow. Others are cylindrical, pearlike, or more
irregular in shape, depending in part on the manner of escape of the gas from the cooling lava;
most of the elongate ones occur in subparallel arrangements.

Uses of Igneous Rock:

• People use granite for countertops, buildings, monuments and statues. Pumice is also
an igneous rock. Perhaps you have used a pumice stone to smooth your skin. Pumice
stones are put into giant washing machines with new jeans and tumbled around.
• Diorite was used extensively by ancient civilizations for vases and other decorative
artwork and is still used for art today.
• Granite is used both in building construction and for statues. It is also a popular choice
for kitchen countertops. Peridotite is sometimes mined for peridot, a type of olivine that
is used in jewelry.
• Pumice is commonly used as an abrasive. Pumice is used to smooth skin or scrape up
grime around the house. When pumice is placed into giant washing machines with
newly manufactured jeans and tumbled, the result is “stone-washed” jeans. Ground up
pumice stone is sometimes added to toothpaste to act as an abrasive material to scrub
teeth.
Importance of Igneous Rock:

Sumaiya Binte Islam 66th

Igneous rocks are very important because their mineral and chemical makeup can be used to
learn about the composition, temperature and pressure that exists within the Earth’s mantle.
They can also tell us much about the tectonic environment, given that they are closely linked to
the convection of tectonic plates.

2. Sedimentary Rock:
Sedimentary rocks are those that are deposited and lithified (compacted and cemented
together) at the Earth’s surface, with the assistance of running water, wind, ice, or living
organisms. Most are deposited from the land surface to the bottoms of lakes, rivers, and
oceans. Sedimentary rocks are generally stratified—i.e., they have layering. Layers may be
distinguished by differences in colour, particle size, type of cement, or internal
arrangement.
How it’s formed:
Sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition and subsequent cementation on the
material at the Earth’s surface within the bodies of water. These rocks are formed in four
ways:

• Deposition of weathered remains of other rocks

• Accumulation and the consolidation of sediments
• Deposition of the results of biogenic activity
• Precipitation from solution.

What is Sedimentation?
Sedimentation is the combined name for all the processes that cause organic and mineral
particles to get settle. The particle that helps in forming the sedimentary rock is called
sediment. This sediment is formed with the help of erosion and weathering from the source
area and which is then transported to the deposition place by the wind, water, ice and
glaciers which are agents of denudation.
The best way to examine the rock type is to check the sediment grain size and variation. Its
texture refers to the features and arrangements of the grain in such sediments. Its structure
is present in rock beds and under surfaces which help in recording the palaeocurrents and
has deposited in the rocks. It covers the continent of the earth’s crust, but the total
contribution of these rocks is estimated to be by 8% of the total volume of the crust.

Examples:
Some common sedimentary rocks are:

• Limestone
• Chalk
• Clay

Sumaiya Binte Islam 66th

 • Sandstone
• Shale

These rocks cover 75% of the total earth’s surface.

Characteristics of Sedimentary Rock:
1. Sedimentary rocks are formed of sediments derived from the older rocks, plant and
animal remains and thus these rocks contain fossils of plants and animals. The age of
the formation of a given sedimen-tary rock may be determined on the basis of the
analysis of the fossils to be found in that rock.
2. Sedimentary rocks are found over the largest surface area of the globe. It is believed
that about 75 per cent of the surface area of the globe is covered by sedimentary
rocks whereas igneous and metamorphic rocks cover the remaining 25 per cent
area. Inspite of their largest coverage the sedimentary rocks constitute only 5 per
cent of the composition of the crust whereas 95 per cent of the crust is composed of
igneous and metamorphic rocks. Thus, it is obvious that the sedi-mentary rocks are
important for extent, not for depth in the earth’s crust.
3. The deposition of sediments of various types and sizes to form sedimentary rocks
takes place in certain sequence and system. The size of sediments decreases from
the littoral margins to the centre of the water bodies or sedimentation basins.
Different sediments are consolidated and compacted by differ-ent types of
cementing elements e.g., silica, iron com-pounds, calcite, clay etc.
4. Sedimentary rocks contain several layers or strata but these are seldom crystalline
rocks.
Like igneous rocks sedimentary rocks are not found in massive forms such as
batholiths, laccoliths, dykes etc.
5. Layers of sedimentary rocks are seldom found in original and horizontal manner.
Sedimentary layers are generally deformed due to lateral compressive and tensile
forces. The beds are folded and found in anticlinal and synclinal forms. Tensile and
compressive forces also create faults due to dislocation of beds.
6. Sedimentary rocks may be well consoli-dated, poorly consolidated and even
unconsolidated. The composition of the rocks depends upon the nature of
cementing elements and rock forming minerals.
7. Sedimentary rocks are characterized by dif-ferent sizes of joints. These are generally
perpendicu-lar to the bedding planes.
8. The connecting plane between two consecu-tive beds or layers of sedimentary rocks
is called bedding plane. The uniformity of two beds along a bedding plane is called
conformity (i.e., when beds are similar in all respect). When two consecutive beds
are not uniform or conformal, the structure is called unconformity. In fact, ‘an
unconformity is a break in a stratigraphic sequence resulting from a change in
con­ditions that caused deposition to cease for a consider­able time’.

Sumaiya Binte Islam 66th

 9. Sedimentation units in the sedimentary rocks having a thickness of greater than one
centimetre are called beds. The upper and lower surfaces of a bed are called
bedding planes or bounding planes. Sometimes the lower surface of a bed is called
sole while the upper surface is known as upper bedding surface. There are further
sedimentary units within a bed.
10. The units having a thickness of more than one centimetre are called as layers or
strata whereas the units below one centimetre thickness are known as laminae.
Thus, several strata and laminae make up a bed. When the beds are deposited at an
angle to the depositional surface, they are called cross beds and the general
phenomena of inclined layers are called cross lamination or cross bedding.
11. Soft muds and alluvia deposited by the rivers during flood period develop cracks
when baked in the sun. These cracks are generally of polygonal shapes. Such cracks
are called as mud cracks or sun cracks.
12. Most of the sedimentary rocks are perme-able and porous but a few of them are
also non-porous and impermeable. The porosity of the rocks depends upon the ratio
between the voids and the volume of a given rocks mass.

Types of Sedimentary Rocks

The sedimentary rocks are classified into three different types: Organic, Clastic and
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks.

• Organic Sedimentary Rocks:

This rock type mainly comprises coal and limestones which is formed due to accumulation
and deposition of dead plants and animals in rock layers.

• Clastic Sedimentary Rocks:

This type of rock is formed when rock layers are formed due to the mechanical weathering
of different rock types.

• Chemical Sedimentary Rocks:

This rock type is formed when there is a chemical reaction between minerals, present in
rock forms cools down as precipitate and converts to rock form over a period of time.
Structure of Sedimentary Rock:
Sediments and sedimentary rocks are confined to Earth’s crust, which is the thin, light outer
solid skin of Earth ranging in thickness from 40–100 kilometres (25 to 62 miles) in the
continental blocks to 4–10 kilometres in the ocean basins. Igneous and metamorphic rocks
constitute the bulk of the crust. The total volume of sediment and sedimentary rocks can be
either directly measured using exposed rock sequences, drill-hole data, and seismic profiles
or indirectly estimated by comparing the chemistry of major sedimentary rock types to the

Sumaiya Binte Islam 66th

 overall chemistry of the crust from which they are weathered. Both methods indicate that
Earth’s sediment-sedimentary rock shell forms only about 5 percent by volume of the
terrestrial crust, which in turn accounts for less than 1 percent of Earth’s total volume. On
the other hand, the area of outcrop and exposure of sediment and sedimentary rock
comprises 75 percent of the land surface and well over 90 percent of the ocean basins and
continental margins. In other words, 80–90 percent of the surface area of Earth is mantled
with sediment or sedimentary rocks rather than with igneous or metamorphic varieties. The
sediment-sedimentary rock shell forms only a thin superficial layer. The mean shell
thickness in continental areas is 1.8 kilometres; the sediment shell in the ocean basins is
roughly 0.3 kilometre. Rearranging this shell as a globally encircling layer, the shell thickness
would be roughly 1–3 kilometres.

Importance of Sedimentary Rock:

Despite the relatively insignificant volume of the sedimentary rock shell, not only are most
rocks exposed at the terrestrial surface of the sedimentary variety, but many of the
significant events in Earth history are most accurately dated and documented by analyzing
and interpreting the sedimentary rock record instead of the more voluminous igneous and
metamorphic rock record. When properly understood and interpreted, sedimentary rocks
provide information on ancient geography, termed paleogeography. A map of the
distribution of sediments that formed in shallow oceans along alluvial fans bordering rising
mountains or in deep, subsiding ocean trenches will indicate past relationships between
seas and landmasses. An accurate interpretion of paleogeography and depositional settings
allows conclusions to be made about the evolution of mountain systems, continental
blocks, and ocean basins, as well as about the origin and evolution of the atmosphere and
hydrosphere. Sedimentary rocks contain the fossil record of ancient life-forms that enables
the documentation of the evolutionary advancement from simple to complex organisms in
the plant and animal kingdoms. Also, the study of the various folds or bends and breaks or
faults in the strata of sedimentary rocks permits the structural geology or history of
deformation to be ascertained.
It is appropriate to underscore the economic importance of sedimentary rocks. For
example, they contain essentially the world’s entire store of oil and natural gas, coal,
phosphates, salt deposits, groundwater, and other natural resources.

Metamorphic Rock
Metamorphic rocks start as one type of rock and—with pressure, heat, and time—
gradually change into a new type of rock.

Metamorphic rocks are those formed by changes in pre-existing rocks under the influence
of high temperature, pressure, and chemically active solutions. The changes can be

Sumaiya Binte Islam 66th

 chemical (compositional) and physical (textural) in character. Metamorphic rocks are often
formed by processes deep within the Earth that produce new minerals, textures, and crystal
structures. The recrystallization that takes place does so essentially in the solid state, rather
than by complete remelting, and can be aided by ductile deformation and the presence of
interstitial fluids such as water. Metamorphism often produces apparent layering, or
banding, because of the segregation of minerals into separate bands. Metamorphic
processes can also occur at the Earth’s surface due to meteorite impact events and
pyrometamorphism taking place near burning coal seams ignited by lightning strikes.
Metamorphic rocks started out as some other type of rock, but have been substantially
changed from their original igneous, sedimentary, or earlier metamorphic form.
Metamorphic rocks form when rocks are subjected to high heat, high pressure, hot mineral-
rich fluids or, more commonly, some combination of these factors. Conditions like these are
found deep within the Earth or where tectonic plates meet.

Process of Metamorphism:
The process of metamorphism does not melt the rocks, but instead transforms them into
denser, more compact rocks. New minerals are created either by rearrangement of mineral
components or by reactions with fluids that enter the rocks. Pressure or temperature can
even change previously metamorphosed rocks into new types. Metamorphic rocks are often
squished, smeared out, and folded. Despite these uncomfortable conditions, metamorphic
rocks do not get hot enough to melt, or they would become igneous rocks!
The term “metamorphosis” is most often used in reference to the process of a caterpillar
changing into a butterfly. However, the word “metamorphosis” is a broad term that
indicates a change from one thing to another. Even rocks, a seemingly constant substance,
can change into a new type of rock. Rocks that undergo a change to form a new rock are
referred to as metamorphic rocks.
Due to thermal metamorphism, the materials of rocks are chemically modified and
recrystallized. The thermal metamorphism is classified into:

1. Contact metamorphism
2. Regional metamorphism
Contact metamorphism:
When rocks come in contact with hot intruding magma and lava, the rock recrystallize
under high temperatures.

Regional metamorphism:

Sumaiya Binte Islam 66th

 Recrystallization of rocks takes place because of deformation created by tectonic shearing
together with high temperature or pressure or both.
Characteristics of Metamorphic Rock:

• Cataclastic metamorphism occurs along with the tectonic plate faults where the
rocks get rubbed with each other which results in the grain size reduction.
• Transformation of these rocks are classified as one which could not form non
foliated rock and is of low grade.
• Circulation of rock results in huge number of mineral water chemical reactions which
results in different kinds of precious metals and stones.
Types of Metamorphic rocks:
In the rock cycle, there are three different types of rocks: sedimentary, igneous, and
metamorphic. Sedimentary and igneous rocks began as something other than rock.
Sedimentary rocks were originally sediments, which were compacted under high pressure.
Igneous rocks formed when liquid magma or lava—magma that has emerged onto the
surface of the Earth—cooled and hardened. A metamorphic rock, on the other hand, began
as a rock—either a sedimentary, igneous, or even a different sort of metamorphic rock.
Then, due to various conditions within the Earth, the existing rock was changed into a new
kind of metamorphic rock.
1. Common Metamorphic Rocks:
Common metamorphic rocks include phyllite, schist, gneiss, quartzite and marble.
2. Foliated Metamorphic Rocks:

Some kinds of metamorphic rocks – granite gneiss and biotite schist are two examples – are
strongly banded or foliated. (Foliated means the parallel arrangement of certain mineral
grains that gives the rock a striped appearance.) Foliation forms when pressure squeezes
the flat or elongate minerals within a rock so they become aligned. These rocks develop a
platy or sheet-like structure that reflects the direction that pressure was applied.

Foliated metamorphic rocks are named for their style of foliation. However, a more
complete name of each particular type of foliated metamorphic rock includes the main
minerals that the rock comprises, such as biotite-garnet schist rather than just schist.
3. Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks:

Non-foliated metamorphic rocks do not have a platy or sheet-like structure. There are
several ways that non-foliated rocks can be produced. Some rocks, such as limestone are
made of minerals that are not flat or elongate. No matter how much pressure you apply,
the grains will not align! Another type of metamorphism, contact metamorphism, occurs
when hot igneous rock intrudes into some pre-existing rock. The pre-existing rock is

Sumaiya Binte Islam 66th

 essentially baked by the heat, changing the mineral structure of the rock without addition
of pressure.
Non-foliated metamorphic rocks lack a planar (oriented) fabric, either because the minerals
did not grow under differential stress, or because the minerals that grew during
metamorphism are not minerals that have elongate or flat shapes. Because they lack
foliation, these rocks are named entirely on the basis of their mineralogy.
Uses of Metamorphic rocks:

• Quartzite and marble are commonly used for building materials and artwork.
• Marble is beautiful for statues and decorative items such as vases.
• Ground up marble is also a component of toothpaste, plastics, and paper.
• Quartzite is very hard and is often crushed and used in building railroad tracks.
• Schist and slate are sometimes used as building and landscape materials.
• Graphite, the “lead” in pencils, is a mineral commonly found in metamorphic rocks.
Structure of Metamorphic Rock:

Large tectonic movements and magma intrusions create earth movements and
subsequently cause the pre-existing rocks to move and shift. In turn, the movements
subject other rocks buried deep below the earth’s surface to extreme pressure and heat
which contributes to changes and assemblage of the rocks texture, mineralogy, and
chemical composition.
The changes typically modify the rock’s crystal type and sizes and may also subject the rocks
to further radical changes. Metamorphic processes come about at heats between 150° and
795° Celsius with the capability of producing high energy that can break and reform the
chemical compositions of the rocks. Pressure from the overlying rocks also increases the
process of transformation.
Metamorphic rocks are often intimately related to large-scale (kilometres of tens of
kilometres) structural features of Earth. Such features include folds, nappes, and faults with
a wide variety of geometries. In many cases, the correlation of metamorphic isograds and
their position in the structure implies a genetic relationship between the two. For example,
one of the major structural features in the Himalayan mountain belt is the Main Central
Thrust, a thrust fault that runs for hundreds of kilometres from east to west and was
responsible for the transportation of rocks belonging to the Eurasian Plate southward over
those of the Indian Plate. Along much of the length of this fault, the metamorphic rocks in
the hanging wall (located above the fault) display a pattern of inverted isograds; i.e., the
rocks that reached the highest temperatures of metamorphism overlie rocks that record
lower temperatures, implying that metamorphic temperatures decreased with depth to the
fault. Several explanations have been proposed to account for this anomalous distribution
of temperature with depth. One model suggests the fault transported hot Asian rocks over

Sumaiya Binte Islam 66th

 cooler Indian rocks, which caused cooling of the Asian rocks in the vicinity of the fault.
Another model proposes that fluids circulating along the fault zone caused retrograde
metamorphism and thus reset the rocks located nearest to the fault to lower temperatures.
Although neither of these models provides an adequate explanation for the entire length of
the Main Central Thrust, they both emphasize the significant control that structural features
can exert on the development of metamorphic rocks.
Example:

There are hundreds of metamorphic rocks across the face of the earth with different
compositions and textures. The best way of learning their various types is by handling and
seeing them in reality. Here is a list of the most known types of metamorphic rocks.
1. Hornfels

Hornfels is a fine-grained metamorphic rock formed by the action of heat on clay rocks,
known as contact metamorphism. It has a non-foliated metamorphic rock that has no
specific composition. Hornfels are heated when near a heat source such as a sill, dike, or
magma chamber.
2. Amphibolite

Amphibolite is non-foliated metamorphic rock that is composed chiefly of plagioclase and

amphibole (hornblende), frequently with very little quartz. Amphibolite forms under
conditions of directed pressure and high viscosity through the process of recrystallization.
3. Gneiss

Gneiss is a foliated metamorphic rock made up of granular mineral grains. It contains a lot
of feldspar minerals and bands of quartz and sometimes mica. It normally has a banded
appearance and is sort of laminated. It appears similar to granite.
4. Novaculite
Novaculite is a hard, fine-grained, dense, siliceous rock. It is non-foliated metamorphic rocks
known to break with a conchoidal fracture. It forms in marine environments from sediment
deposits where organisms like diatoms plentiful in water – the single-celled algae that
secret hard shells made up of silicon dioxide.

5. Marble
Marble is among the non-foliated metamorphic rocks produced from the metamorphism of
dolostone or limestone. It takes high polish and is often used for sculpture and as building
material. Marble is mainly composed of calcium carbonate.
6. Phyllite

Sumaiya Binte Islam 66th

 Phylite is mostly made up of very fine-grained mica and sometimes chlorite. It is a foliated
metamorphic rock and its surface is generally lustrous and in certain cases wrinkled.
Geologists say it represents the intermediate state between slate and schist.

7. Lapis Lazuli
Lapis Lazuli is one of the rarest metamorphic rocks, especially because of its blue color.
Thus, Lapis Lazuli is famously known for its blue gem material and they are used for
decoration and to make beads in the form of round small stones.

8. Quartzite
Quartzite is a hard metamorphic rock consisting essentially of interlocking quartz crystals. It
is a non-foliated metamorphic rock formed during the metamorphism of sandstone.
9. Slate

Slate is a low-grade and fine-grained metamorphic rock that can be separated into thin
pieces. It is a type of foliated metamorphic rock that is produced by the metamorphism of
shale. Slates are predominantly realigned clay minerals.
10. Schist
Schist is a foliated metamorphic rock that is well developed and contains substantial
amounts of mica. Because of the high concentrations of mica, schist can readily split into
thin layers.
Geologists say it represents the intermediate metamorphic grade between gneiss and
phyllite. Sometimes schist might contain high amounts of chlorite.

11. Soapstone
Soapstone is a metamorphic rock primarily made up of talc with a soapy feel and varying
amounts of other minerals such as chlorite, pyroxenes, micas, carbonates, and amphiboles.
It is also a highly dense, soft, and heat resistant rock with high heat capacity. Because of its
properties after metamorphism, it is considered highly used in a wide range of artistic and
architectural works.

Rock Cycle:
The rock cycle is a series of processes that create and transform the types of
rocks in Earth’s crust.
The rock cycle is a process in which rocks are continuously transformed
between the three rock types igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.

Sumaiya Binte Islam 66th

 Rocks of any type can be converted into any other type, or into another rock of
the same type, as this diagram illustrates:

Conversion to metamorphic rocks requires conditions of increased

temperature and/or increased pressure, conversion to sedimentary rocks
occurs via the intermediate stage of sediments, and conversion to igneous
rocks occurs via the intermediate stage of magma:

Sumaiya Binte Islam 66th

Increased temperature and pressure occurs in subduction zones and in areas
where two plates of continental lithosphere collide to produce a mountain range,
while increased pressure without increased temperature is produced when
sedimentary rocks are deeply buried under more sediments. Sediments are
produced when rocks are uplifted, weathered and eroded, and the resulting
detrital material deposited in marine or terrestrial basins. If the sediments are
buried under further layers of sediment, they can become lithified to produce a
sedimentary rock. Magma is produced when rocks are melted. This melting can
occur when a lithospheric plate descends into the Earth’s crust at a subduction
zone, or when a mid-ocean ridge opens up and produces decompression melting
in the athenosphere under the ridge. When the magma solidifies, it becomes an
igneous rock.
The rock cycle has many alternative pathways. The following diagram illustrates
one of these and gives an indication of the plate tectonic setting where it occurs:

Sumaiya Binte Islam 66th

Sumaiya Binte Islam 66th