Ore Geology Reviews 39 (2011) 91–100

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Paleoproterozoic, turbidite-hosted, gold deposits of the Ashanti gold belt (Ghana,

West Africa): Comparative analysis of turbidite-hosted gold deposits and an updated
genetic model
John Berge ⁎
JB MinQuest, Parkvägen 12B, 711 31 Lindesberg, Sweden

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Paleoproterozoic gold deposits of the Ashanti gold belt, Ghana, occur mainly as auriferous quartz veins in
Received 15 December 2009 graphitic shears proximal to contacts between deformed and metamorphosed turbidites and tholeiitic
Received in revised form 30 November 2010 volcanics (alternately block-faulted Tarkwaian sediments). They are suggested in this article to belong to that
Accepted 3 December 2010
class of gold deposits recognized as ‘turbidite-hosted’. Hence, evidence from previous investigations of
Available online 21 December 2010
turbidite-hosted and turbidite-associated gold deposits occurring in circumstances roughly similar to the
Keywords:
Ashanti deposits are used, where relevant, to produce an updated genetic model for the latter.
Turbidite-hosted gold deposits Given the relatively significant amounts of graphite associated with the major Ashanti deposits, the role of
Graphite–gold association non-carbonate carbon is assessed in the light of conclusions reached by work on other turbidite-hosted and
Interflow (chemical) sediments turbidite-associated gold belts. Conclusions as to the origins of mineralizing fluids and temporary repositories
Origin of mineralizing fluids and gold of gold (auriferous interflow sediments) reached by work on these other belts are also analysed.
A concept of the tectonic development of the Ashanti belt-Kumasi basin area, introduced in this article, is
deemed to be critical to the origin of the Ashanti gold deposits. It encompasses the role of non-carbonate
carbon, turbidites, and the primary sources and secondary repositories of Au and As in the genesis of the major
Ashanti gold deposits. It examines the significance of the intimate relationship between calc alkaline
volcanism and the basin sediments, the occurrences of felsic metasandstones in transition-zone sediments,
and TTG granitic material and fragments of chemical sediments in turbidites: all of which are incompatible
with one or the other of existing concepts of tectonic development in the area.
© 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Turbidite-hosted gold deposits have comprised a class of deposits
since at least 1986 (Turbidite-hosted Gold Deposits; Keppie et al.,
1986). This class has included, among others, deposits of the Archean
Slave Structural Province, NWT, Canada (e.g., Bleeker and Hall, 2007;
Padgham, 1986;); the Phanerozoic Meguma terrane, Nova Scotia (e.g.,
Ryan and Smith, 1998); the Lachlan Fold Belt (LFB), Victoria, SE
Australia (e.g., Cox et al., 1995; Ramsay et al., 1998); the Otago Schist
Belt, South Island, New Zealand (e.g., Craw, 2002; McKeag et al.,
1989); and the Armagh–Monaghan (Clontibret) Belt, Ireland (Steed
and Morris, 1986). A considerable body of literature has been
developed around these deposits, particularly those of the Slave
province, the Meguma terrane, the LFB, and the Otago Schist Belt. This
article also examines the previously suggested relationship between
⁎ Tel.: +46 581 171 35.
E-mail address: john.berge@jb.minquest.com.
the Archean Porcupine formation turbidites and the Hoyle Pond gold
deposit of the Abitibi greenstone belt.
Turbidite-hosted gold deposits are defined, in this article, as
orogenic gold deposits (Groves et al., 1998) occurring in shear zones
hosted by turbidites. They are predominantly “quartz-dominant” vein
deposits (Groves et al., 1998) which often contain significant graphite.
They contain minor sulphides, mainly pyrite and arsenopyrite.
Transporting hydrothermal fluids are commonly low salinity, high
CO2, and often CH4-bearing. (Giant and Con deposits — Shelton et al.,
2004; Abitibi belt — Smith et al., 1984; LFB — Bierlein et al., 2004; and
Otago Schist Belt — Craw, 1988), although saline fluids are identified
in Otago Schist fluid inclusions (Craw, 1988).
Although the major Ashanti belt gold deposits are hosted by shear
zones in turbidites (deposits of the Tarkwaian gold fields not
included), they are not previously recognized as belonging to this
turbidite-hosted class of gold deposits. Consequently, there is no
recognition of the Ashanti gold belt in the literature about turbidite-
hosted gold deposits and in the various comparisons made between
these deposits. Nor is there much recognition in the Ashanti gold belt
literature of turbidite-hosted gold deposits. This article aims to correct
that.

0169-1368/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.oregeorev.2010.12.001
92 J. Berge / Ore Geology Reviews 39 (2011) 91–100
2. Brief summary of significant aspects of the major Ashanti gold
belt deposits
2.1. Introduction
The Ashanti gold belt is located 200 km WNW of Accra, Ghana. It is
one of five NE striking, 15 to 40 km wide, up to 200 km long volcanic
rock belts scattered across southwest Ghana (Leube et al., 1990).
These belts are separated by substantially broader “basins” of tight to
isoclinally folded sedimentary rocks (Fig. 1) (Leube et al., 1990).
Gold occurrences in Ghana are mainly concentrated to the Ashanti
and Sefwi belt areas, but also occur proximal to the Nangodi belt of the
far northwest (Melcher and Stumpfl, 1994; Fig. 1). The best known
and largest of the Ashanti belt deposits, with a total gold metal
(mined + reserves + resources) exceeding 1800 tons Au, occur along
the contact between the Ashanti volcanic belt and the Kumasi basin
turbidites. The deposit at Obuasi, with estimated total gold metal
exceeding 1700 tons Au (calculated from Allibone et al., 2002a), is by
far the largest. Total gold metal in the Bogoso–Prestea mines is
estimated to more than 90 tons (calculated from Allibone et al.,
2002b). Other smaller deposits are Konongo and Mampon (Ashanti
belt/Kumasi basin contact); Bibiani and Chirano (Allibone et al., 2004)
(Sefwi belt/Kumasi basin contact); Sefwi and Yamfo (Sefwi belt/Sunyani
basin contact); and a cluster of small deposits along the Nangodi belt
(Fig. 1). Deposits in the Ashanti belt occur in turbidite-hosted shear zone
fissures at, or near, contacts between turbidites and mafic volcanics or
block-faulted Tarkwaian Group sediments (Allibone et al., 2002a,b;
Feybesse et al., 2006; Leube et al., 1990; Melcher and Stumpfl, 1994;
Mücke and Dzigbodi-Adjimah, 1994; Mumin and Fleet, 1995; Oberthür
et al., 1994, 1998).
2.2. Regional geology
2.2.1. Lithology
The following brief description is limited to Birimian rocks of
southwest Ghana. These consist of belt volcanics and plutons,
proximal (transition) zone clastic and chemical sediments, and distal
(basin) sediments and plutons.
2.2.1.1. Belt volcanic and plutonic rocks. The belts are formed by the
predominantly tholeiitic lavas, subordinate Mg-rich ultramafic rocks,
and intercalations of mainly dacitic and rhyodacitic lavas and
pyroclastics of mainly calc-alkaline affinity (Attoh et al., 2006;
Dampare et al., 2008; Leube et al., 1990). Minor andesitic lavas
occur in the Ashanti area (Leube et al., 1990). Belt plutonic rocks are
intruded into proximal epiclastics (Feybesse et al., 2006) as well as
belt volcanic rocks (Hirdes et al., 1992; Leube et al., 1990). Melcher
and Stumpfl (1994) and Sylvester and Attoh (1992) describe basalts
with pillow structures and more prominent andesites in the Nangodi
belt as being interlayered with, and overlain by, chemical sediments
(see later discussion) and pyroclastics. Sylvester and Attoh (1992) and
Dampare et al. (2008) describe minor manganese intercalations in
pillowed and massive basalt/basalt–andesites at the south end of the
Ashanti belt.
The unaltered tholeiitic lavas from the Nangodi belt (Melcher and
Stumpfl, 1994) and basalts, basalt/andesites, and andesites from the
south Ashanti belt (Dampare et al., 2008) are described as microcrys-
talline to cryptocrystalline assemblages of actinolitic hornblende, albite,
quartz, chlorite, sericite, epidote, and carbonate. The south Ashanti rocks
are aphyric to sparsely porphyritic with pyroxene variously replaced by
actinolite. The ultramafic rocks are described as serpentinized consisting
of olivine, orthopyroxene, actinolite, and chromite, with visible primary
magmatic textures (Attoh et al., 2006). The basalts in the Ashanti mine
area are unfoliated, but are metamorphosed to chlorite+ epidote+
quartz + carbonate (Oberthür et al., 1994).
Leube et al. (1990) cite spatial and chemical relationships between
mafic lavas and intermediate pyroclastics in the Ashanti mine area
and suggest an evolution of basaltic-shield volcanism to pyroclastic-
volcanism as shield volcanoes reached to within depths of approx-
imately 100 m below sea level. In the Nangodi area, Melcher and
Stumpfl (1994) outline a similar progression, but divide tholeiite
and calc-alkaline volcanism into separate stages, i.e., extensional
(tholeiitic) followed by collisional (calc-alkaline) (see Section 5
Proposed model).
Plutonic rocks (belt granitoids — Hirdes et al., 1992; Leube et al., 1990)
intruded into the tholeiitic lavas and early epiclastic sediments (Feybesse
et al., 2006) are described as diorite–granodiorite in composition, ranging
from minor granitic to dioritic (Hirdes et al., 1992). These are said to
chemically correspond to the lavas into which they are intruded (Leube et
al., 1990).
2.2.1.2. Transition zone rocks. Narrow, poorly constrained, “transition
zones” occur intermittently along, or proximal to, the contacts
between belt volcanics (alternately block-faulted Tarkwaian sediments)
and basin sediments (Hirdes and Leube, 1989; Leube et al., 1990;
Melcher and Stumpfl, 1994; Taylor et al., 1992; Fig. 1). They include
occurrences of chemical sediments (Galipp et al., 2003; Leube et al.,
1990; Melcher and Stumpfl, 1994; Taylor et al., 1992); felspathic
sandstones (Oberthür et al., 1994); volcaniclastics; and turbidites
(Leube et al., 1990; Melcher and Stumpfl, 1994; Sylvester and Attoh,
1992).
2.2.1.3. Chemical sediments. These occur intermittently over a strike
length of several hundred kilometers in an area of several kilometers
width in the transition zone adjacent to the Ashanti gold belt (Fig. 1).
They include Mn-rich sediments, (Dampare et al., 2008; Sylvester and
Attoh, 1992) e.g. the Nsuta Mn deposit (Kleinschrot et al., 1994);
sulphidic strata; cherts; Fe–Ca–Mg carbonates; and carbonaceous rocks
(Hirdes and Leube, 1989; Leube et al., 1990; Melcher and Stumpfl,
1994). Significantly, carbonaceous schists and cherts contain respec-
tively seven and 30 times normal gold background levels (Hirdes and
Leube, 1989; Leube et al., 1990). Similar rocks in the Nangodi belt occur
in several hundred metre-thick lenticular bodies and also contain some
zones of elevated gold values (Melcher and Stumpfl, 1994).
2.2.1.4. Felspathic sandstones. Felspathic sandstones consist of ill-
sorted assemblages of quartz, feldspars, and rock fragments in a
clayey to silty matrix (Oberthür et al., 1994). The most abundant of
rock fragments display granitic mineralogy which suggests that belt-
type granitoids were exposed at the surface during sedimentation of
these sandstones (Oberthür et al., 1994). Feybesse et al. (2006)
identify monzonitic granite and diorite emplaced during a period
corresponding to that of these metasandstones, and which are
disconformably overlain by basin sediments (see Section 5.3 Proposed
geochronology with aspects of tectonic evolution).
2.2.1.5. Volcaniclastic rocks. Volcaniclastic rocks consist of mainly
sand- to silt-sized grains of bipyramidal quartz, idiomorphic plagio-
clase and chloritized glass. They are suggested by Leube et al. (1990)
to be reworked pyroclastics. Whereas they are major components of
the basin sediments (Leube et al., 1990), and are quantitatively the
most important in proximal sediments (Melcher and Stumpfl, 1994),
they are said to be present only as minor constituents in the volcanic
belts (Leube et al., 1990).
2.2.1.6. Turbidites. Volcanogenic turbidites (Sylvester and Attoh, 1992)
are host rocks to Ashanti belt gold ores (Allibone et al., 2002a,b;
Mumin and Fleet, 1995). They are pyroclastic and epiclastic sediments
containing chemical sediments (graphitic chert, graphitic schist) as
major components and minor lava (Leube et al., 1990). Geochemical
studies of Birimian metagreywackes in the Konongo area suggest a
 J. Berge / Ore Geology Reviews 39 (2011) 91–100 93

Fig. 1. Compilation of Hirdes et al. (1992) and Leube et al. (1990) showing the geology of southern Ghana. Also indicated are major gold mines: B = Bogoso; Bib = Bibiani;
Ch = Chirano, K = Konongo; M = Mampon; O = Ashanti mine Obuasi; P = Prestea; S = Sefwi; and Y = Yamfo. Position of transition zone is approximate (Leube et al., 1990).

“Young Undifferentiated Volcanic Arc (YUA)” provenance (Asiedu 2.2.1.7. Basin sediments (Leube et al., 1990). Basin sediments consist of
et al., 2009). Likely source components are identified as mafic and carbonaceous silts and muds (argillites) interbedded with fine-
andesitic rocks and TTG granites (Asiedu et al., 2009). grained volcaniclastic rocks. The latter consist of “windblown ashes,
94 J. Berge / Ore Geology Reviews 39 (2011) 91–100
ash-sized tephra ....as well as particles of volcaniclastic turbidites ...
fragmental rocks (fall-out products of subaerial eruptions, pyroclastic
flows and surges, epiclastic sediments)”. Slump structures and
intraformational breccias in these sediments are common. The
chemical composition of both volcaniclastics and argillites are similar,
suggesting a common origin for the two.
2.2.1.8. Basin granitoids. Basin granitoids (Hirdes et al., 1992; Leube
et al., 1990) are intruded into the basin sediments. These are
granodioritic in composition, and range from granitic to tonalitic
(Hirdes et al., 1992).
2.2.2. Eburnean deformation and metamorphism
The entire package was submitted to a five-stage deformation during
the Eburnean orogeny (Allibone et al., 2002a). Its effects have, naturally,
been the most intensively studied in the areas of the Ashanti belt/Kumasi
basin contact where the major gold ore deposits occur. The early stages
were compressional (NW–SE) while the later stages were transpres-
sional (NE–SW). The early stages resulted in steeply inclined isoclinal
folding (Allibone et al., 2002a,b; Blenkinsop et al., 1994; Feybesse et al.,
2006; Leube et al., 1990) which, among other things, caused crustal
shortening of the basins estimated by Taylor et al. (1992) to 30% of their
original width. Isoclinal folds, large-scale faults and fissures, all results of
early stage deformation (D1,2,3; Allibone et al., 2002a), are bedding-
parallel, striking NNE and dipping steeply NW (Blenkinsop et al., 1994).
The faults and fissures are particularly prominent at the contact between
the Kumasi basin and Ashanti belt rocks: the site of most of the Ashanti
belt gold reserves. Late stage transpressional deformation (D4) resulted
in upright, steeply plunging sinistral folds (Mumin and Fleet, 1995),
which acted as dilatant zones during the emplacement of mineralization
(Allibone et al., 2002a,b). A fifth stage (D5) involved reactivation of D2
faults with mainly strike-slip movement (Allibone et al., 2002a).
Birimian rocks in proximity to gold mineralization are metamor-
phosed to greenschist facies (Allibone et al., 2002a; Eisenlohr and
Hirdes, 1992; Mumin and Fleet, 1995). Mafic volcanics are metamor-
phosed to chlorite + actinolite + clinozoisite/epidote + (albite +
quartz) (Eisenlohr and Hirdes, 1992). Turbidites are composed of
chlorite + epidote + carbonate + quartz + sericite + rutile (Mumin
and Fleet, 1995). Pelitic basin sediments are quartz + muscovite and
rare biotite assemblages (Eisenlohr and Hirdes, 1992).
Areas of epidote–amphibolite facies rocks are reported in the
southern Ashanti belt (John et al., 1999) and southwestern Sefwi belt
(Galipp et al., 2003). Both are ‘distal’ to gold mineralization. There,
minimum peak metamorphic conditions are estimated at 490 °C to
580 °C and 4 to 6 kbar (Galipp et al., 2003). Studies of alteration of
amphibole and plagioclase rims led these investigators to conclude
that the greenschist facies metamorphic conditions in these areas are
the result of retrograde metamorphism. Conversely, there is no
mention of epidote–amphibolite mineralogy or plagioclase–amphi-
bole zoning in rocks proximal to gold mineralization.
2.2.3. Gold mineralization
2.2.3.1. Summary description. Gold mineralization in the Obuasi and
Bogoso–Prestea areas occurs in, or is associated with, graphitic, mostly
bedding-parallel shears (Mücke and Dzigbodi-Adjimah, 1994). These are
hosted mostly by turbidites (Allibone et al., 2002a,b; Blenkinsop et al.,
1994;). Leube et al. (1990) and Oberthür et al. (1994) and others, note the
bimodal distribution of ore at Obuasi between auriferous quartz veins and
disseminated sulphide ore. In the former, gold is free-milling and occurs in
quartz lodes in brittle–ductile graphitic faults or shears (Allibone et al.,
2002a). Refractory gold occurs in arsenopyrite, arsenian pyrite, and pyrite
(Mumin et al., 1994) together with pyrrhotite in the disseminated
sulphide ores (Allibone et al., 2002a,b; Leube et al., 1990; Mücke and
Dzigbodi-Adjimah, 1994; Oberthür et al., 1994). Quartz lodes are
composed of mainly vein quartz with minor carbonate, sericite, and
small amounts of pyrite, arsenopyrite (locally in substantial amounts),
sphalerite, galena, and gold (Mücke and Dzigbodi-Adjimah, 1994). Gold
occurs together with arsenian pyrite and arsenopyrite at Prestea–Bogoso
(Allibone et al., 2002b; Mumin et al., 1994). Mineralization occurs mainly
in disseminated sulphide ores at Bogoso, while at Prestea, most gold
occurs in veins (Hammond and Shimazaki, 1994; Mumin and Fleet,
1995). Allibone et al. (2002b) also describe siliceous and carbonate ores at
Bogoso. Adjacent wall rock is variously affected by carbonatization,
chloritization, actinolitization, sericitization, graphitization, and tourma-
linization at the contacts with auriferous quartz veins (Klemd et al., 1996).
Structural controls of the Ashanti and Bogoso deposits are large
scale D5 faults at Obuasi, (Allibone et al., 2002a) and local scale
dilatant zones resulting from D4 transpressional deformation at
Bogoso, (Allibone et al., 2002b). Blenkinsop et al. (1994) and Oberthür
et al. (1994) suggest that mineralization was emplaced during all
stages of deformation. Allibone et al. (2002b) suggest timing of
mineralization to be a late phase of ductile–brittle deformation.
Feybesse et al. (2006) identify primary gold mineralization emplaced
during stage D2 while Mücke and Dzigbodi-Adjimah (1994) conclude
that mineralization was post-metamorphic.
2.2.3.2. Isotope and fluid inclusion investigations. Isotope investigations
demonstrate that fluid inclusions in auriferous quartz veins are CO2-
rich, low-salinity and high-density (Oberthür et al., 1994; Schmidt
Mumm et al., 1997; Schwartz et al., 1992), i.e., typical of orogenic gold
deposit mineralizing fluids (Groves et al., 1998). They also show that
there is an abundance of gaseous inclusions (Mumin and Fleet, 1995;
Oberthür et al., 1994;).
Oberthür et al. (1994, 1996) suggest that hydrothermal fluids are of
metamorphic origin, and that Birimian sediment sulphur is the source
of sulphides in the Ashanti belt gold deposits (Oberthür et al., 1994).
They suggest moreover that the fluid source for Ashanti belt gold
mineralization is a large uniform reservoir in equilibrium with the
crust at depths of 10 to 15 km (Schmidt Mumm et al., 1997) derived
from devolatilization of Birimian sediments (Oberthür et al., 1996).
3. Synthesis of some critical aspects of other turbidite-hosted and
turbidite-associated gold deposits
3.1. Introduction
Critical aspects of four turbidite-hosted and turbidite-associated
gold districts and deposits are examined: the Archean Yellowknife
district — Great Slave Craton, NWT, Canada; the Archean, Hoyle Pond
deposit, Abitibi Greenstone Belt, Ontario, Canada; the Phanerozoic
Lachlan Fold Belt (LFB), Victoria, Australia; and the Phanerozoic Otago
Schist Belt, New Zealand. Given the strong association of non-carbonate
carbon (graphite) and gold mineralization (see previous discussion),
the origins and roles of different forms of non-carbonate carbon in the
genesis of economic gold mineralization in these deposits are analysed;
as are the origins of transporting and mineralizing fluids, primary
sources of gold, and its accumulation at secondary repository sites.
Fluids, gold, and non-carbonate carbon that existed at pre-
orogenic sites in these districts will hereafter be referred to as “pre-
orogenic”, e.g. “pre-orogenic” gold — gold that occurred in chemical
sediments. Fluids, gold, and non-carbonate carbon that have been
mobilized, transported and deposited by, and during orogenic activity
will be referred to as “orogenic”, e.g. “orogenic” gold — gold that was
deposited in the orogenic turbidite-hosted gold deposits.
3.2. Selected examples of turbidite-hosted and turbidite-associated gold
deposits
3.2.1. Yellowknife district, NWT, Canada
Small, mostly sub economic turbidite-hosted gold deposits occur
in the Yellowknife district (Padgham, 1986). However, it is features of
 J. Berge / Ore Geology Reviews 39 (2011) 91–100
the two world-class gold deposits — the Con and Giant (Shelton et al.,
2004; van Hees et al., 1999) that are of substantial significance to this
paper.
These deposits occur in N–S oriented shear zones in metamor-
phosed mafic, partly komatiitic, Kam group lavas. Host rocks exhibit
substantial wall rock alteration related to mineralization. Gold is
mostly disseminated in sulphides: vein-hosted, free milling gold is
minor (Shelton et al., 2004). As and Sb occur in anomalous
concentrations (Shelton et al., 2004; van Hees et al., 1999). Shelton
et al. (2004) suggest the source of CO2-rich, low salinity mineralizing
fluids to be the metasedimentary turbidites which occur a short
distance to the east of these deposits. The ore bodies are linked to the
metasediments by a gently-dipping alteration zone characterized by
Na depletion, and K, Ag, As, S, and Sb enrichment (van Hees et al.,
1999). The source of metals is also suggested to be the turbidites
originally derived primarily from the Kam Group lavas (Shelton et al.,
2004; van Hees et al., 1999).
3.2.2. Hoyle Pond Deposit, Abitibi Greenstone Belt, Ontario, Canada
The Hoyle Pond deposit is situated roughly 20 km ENE of Timmins,
Ontario along the same regional structure/horizon as the McIntyre/
Hollinger and Dome deposits. It occurs in shears in Tisdale mafic and
ultramafic meta-lavas which are surrounded on three sides by
Porcupine, partly turbiditic, metasediments. Investigations of “pre-
orogenic” and “orogenic” non-carbonate carbon, and conclusions
about the origin of mineralizing fluids and metals at Hoyle Pond are of
importance to this analysis.
“Pre-orogenic” non-carbonate carbonaceous material occurs in
carbonaceous argillites intercalated with hyaloclastic mafic flows
(Dinel et al., 2008; Wilson and Rucklidge, 1987), and Porcupine
assemblage turbidites (Ventura et al., 2007). Wilson and Rucklidge
(1987) find evidence in δ13C analyses of nearby Owl Creek
carbonaceous material that suggests a biogenic origin. Ventura et al.
(2007) find evidence of a widespread biosphere in metasediments in
the Timmins area.
“Orogenic” non-carbonate carbon (graphite) occurs together with
quartz, pyrite, and tourmaline in extension veins, and fault-fill
massive quartz veins: both contain free gold (Dinel et al., 2008).
Graphite also occurs in five to 20 m thick alteration (so-called grey)
zones accompanying, and therefore, coeval with, the auriferous quartz
veins (Dinel et al., 2008; Downes et al., 1984). The grey-zone
appearance is observed to be caused by the existence of graphite-
filled pores where C was deposited from the same reducing
hydrothermal fluids that deposited gold. Gas chromatograph analyses
(Downes et al., 1984); isotope analyses (Hodges, 1982); and
ultraviolet absorption investigations (Dinel et al., 2008) suggest that
much of the “orogenic” non-carbonate carbon originated as “pre-
orogenic” organic carbon.
A turbidite source for mineralizing fluids and gold is postulated for
the Hoyle Pond gold deposit (Dinel et al., 2008). This is based on the
occurrence of trace concentrations of organic matter preserved in
graphitic-shear and alteration zones, and the enrichment of As and B
in mineralized zones (Dinel et al., 2008). They suggest that the
sediment-hosted fluids were released and became reducing during
deep burial and devolatilization.
3.2.3. LFB, Victoria, SE Australia
The gold deposits of the LFB are scattered over a 700-km-wide area
of SE Australia dominated by turbidites. Two thousand five hundred
tons of gold have been produced, and a number of mines are currently
in operation.
The many investigations performed on these turbidite-hosted gold
deposits (e.g., Bierlein et al., 1998, 2001; Cox et al., 1995; Crawford
and Keays, 1987; Miller and Wilson, 2002; Phillips and Hughes, 1996;
Ramsay et al., 1998; Sandiford and Keays, 1986; among others) deal
with deposits which have characteristics broadly similar to those of
95
the Ashanti Gold Belt, i.e. auriferous quartz veins occurring in large-
scale, turbidite-hosted, subvertical shears often associated with fairly
abundant, partly graphitic, carbonaceous material; and mafic-ultra-
mafic volcanics frequently prominent in areas where gold deposits are
concentrated.
Bierlein et al. (2001) identify various forms of organically derived
“pre-orogenic” carbonaceous material often concentrated to the thin
marker beds in the LFB turbidites. They also describe carbonaceous
material occurring with gold: typically in fault-fill veins associated
with carbonaceous and micaceous laminae and stylolites; as fine-
grained disseminations in cataclased carbonaceous slate in faults; and
as high grade gold in veins mainly in intersections with carbonaceous
slates (Wattle Gully — Cox et al., 1995).
Whereas Bierlein et al. (2001) and Cox et al. (1995) cite instances
where gold deposition may have been facilitated by the presence of
carbonaceous matter, Bierlein et al. (2001) conclude that carbon-rich
sediments are not critical for ore genesis on a deposit scale.
Bierlein et al. (1998) describe “auriferous interflow sediments”
from the Heathcote greenstone belt of the LFB occurring proximal to
several major turbidite-hosted gold deposits. They are observed in
apparently laterally extensive layers and consist of massive sulphides,
sulphidic argillites, cherts and sedimentary carbonate rocks (Bierlein
et al., 1998). They occur in mafic volcanic rocks (tholeiites, boninites)
and are suggested to have accumulated during inactive periods
between mafic flows (Bierlein et al., 1998). Analyses of 22 samples of
these auriferous interflow sediments (Bierlein et al., 1998) average
67 ppb Au and contain elevated values of As, Cu, and Zn, which are
recognized to occur in hot brines discharged from spreading centres
(Weissberg et al., 1979).
3.2.4. Otago Schist Belt, South Island, New Zealand
The Otago Schist district hosting a single world-class gold deposit,
the Macraes deposit with reserves of 125 tons Au, is located in
southeastern South Island, New Zealand. Recent investigations
performed in this district (Bierlein and Craw, 2009; Craw, 2002;
Pitcairn et al., 2005, 2006) are important to this article.
The mostly small gold deposits are hosted by greenschist facies
rocks. The Macraes deposit is situated above a regional, gently
dipping, thrust separating a footwall garnet–biotite schist from the
hanging wall chlorite schist. The chlorite schist host is composed of
mainly recrystallized quartz and secondary muscovite separated by
graphitic micro shears. Gold is both free-milling and bound in
auriferous pyrite and is irregularly distributed together with scheelite.
Craw (2002) demonstrates the addition of “orogenic” non-
carbonate carbon and sulphur to the Macraes deposit during
mineralization, and that graphite of the mineralized zone is post-
metamorphic. Pitcairn et al. (2005) conclude from the results of
Fourier Transform IR analyses that “orogenic” graphite from the
Macraes deposit is structurally different from the metamorphosed
“pre-orogenic” carbonaceous material in the host metasediments, and
was deposited from hydrothermal fluids. Craw (2002) moreover
concludes that the high graphite content of the mineralized zone
created a reducing environment which was important for deposition
of gold. Pitcairn et al. (2005) show the source of the Macraes deposit
graphite to be the organic matter originally deposited in the
sediments of the Otago Schist.
That district also hosts a complete metamorphic profile ranging
from unmetamorphosed facies to garnet–amphibolite facies affecting
volcanogenic metaturbidites and metapelites with minor metavolca-
nic horizons (Pitcairn et al., 2006). They demonstrate that Au, Ag, As,
Sb, Hg, Cd, Mo, and W are significantly depleted in the high-grade
metamorphic facies relative to unmetamorphosed rocks. This is
suggested to be due to leaching by “regional-scale fluid flow” through
metasedimentary rocks (Pitcairn et al., 2006). They estimate that 1%
H2O has been removed from these schists at the greenschist/
amphibolite transition. Noting that the suite of metals leached from
96 J. Berge / Ore Geology Reviews 39 (2011) 91–100
the metasediments is the same as are enriched in the Macraes deposit.
Pitcairn et al. (2006) conclude that the source of metals is the Otago
Schists. Bierlein and Craw (2009) suggest that devolatilization of the
minor high-Fe tholeiitic metabasalts, some of which are demonstrably
enriched in gold, occurring in parts of the Otago schist belt may have
contributed gold to the Macraes deposit.
3.3. Summary of some critical aspects of other turbidite-hosted and
turbidite-associated gold deposits
“Pre-orogenic” non-carbonate carbon is clearly demonstrated to
be of organic origin (Bierlein et al., 2001; Dinel et al., 2008; Pitcairn
et al., 2005; Ventura et al., 2007; Wilson and Rucklidge, 1987).
Moreover, the association of “orogenic” non-carbonate carbon with
gold mineralization is suggested to be significant in the Hoyle Pond
(Dinel et al., 2008; Wilson and Rucklidge, 1987) and Macraes deposits
where C circulation in, and deposition from, hydrothermal fluids as
graphite, is manifestly demonstrated (Craw, 2002; Pitcairn et al.,
2005, 2006).
The source of fluids is said to be the turbidites in three of the four
areas examined. In two cases, the Con and Giant deposits (Shelton
et al., 2004; van Hees et al., 1999); and the Hoyle Pond deposit (Dinel
et al., 2008), the turbidite fluid sources are external to the volcanic
hosts of the gold deposits. In the third, the turbidite source hosts the
gold mineralization of the Macraes deposit (Pitcairn et al., 2006).
Gold ores are typically enriched in As, mainly as arsenopyrite.
Turbidites are said to be the source of both Au and As for the Giant and
Con deposits, (Shelton et al., 2004, van Hees et al., 1999); the Hoyle
Pond deposit, (Dinel et al., 2008); and the Macraes deposit (Pitcairn
et al., 2006). Sulphide-rich interflow sediments are suggested to be
the source of Au and As of LFB gold deposits (Bierlein et al., 1998). The
spatial association of these anomalously auriferous interflow sedi-
ments in the LFB Heathcote greenstone belts with Mg-rich mafic/
ultramafic volcanic rocks suggests that these magmas are the primary
source of Au and As.
Keays (1987), and Keays and Scott (1976) have investigated the
likelihood that mafic magmas were primary sources of gold. Keays
and Scott (1976) have described how the mobilization of gold from
pillow basalts functions. Keays (1987) has demonstrated that the
ultimate control over the availability of gold that would be available to
submarine hydrothermal leaching would be the emplacement of
high-Mg, high temperature magmas. More recently, Bierlein and
Pisarevsky (2008) and Bierlein et al. (2006) summarize those
circumstances producing such high temperature, fertile, magmas
(e.g., mantle plumes and thin lithosphere-primitive oceanic crust).
High-temperature, Mg-rich komatiites and komatiitic basalts are
common in the prolific gold producing camps of the Archean Abitibi
and Western Australian greenstone belts, and are often linked to gold
mineralization. In the LFB, boninites (high-Mg, high-temperature
magmatic rocks) underlie the tholeiitic basalts which host the
auriferous interflow sediments of the Heathcote greenstone belt.
These are suggested to be the primary source of gold in these
sediments (Bierlein et al., 1998). Bierlein and Craw (2009) describe
elevated gold values in plume-related metavolcanics in the Otago
Schist belt which they suggest may have contributed to the gold
concentrated in the Macraes deposit (see 3.2.4.).
4. Analysis of these aspects as applied to the turbidite-hosted gold
deposits of the Ashanti belt
4.1. Introduction
Some issues, critical to a model of the genesis of gold minerali-
zation in the Ashanti deposits, have not previously been adequately
dealt with. Examples are the nature of remobilisation of orogenic non-
carbonate carbon into graphitic shear zones and the significance of
non-carbonate carbon to gold deposition in these zones (Section 4.2);
the significance of chemical sediments — secondary repositories of Au
and As (Section 4.4.1), and their existence both as sediments
interlayered with mafic magmatic rocks and as components in
turbidites in the transition zones; and the primary origins of Au and
As. These issues are analysed in this section: new proposals are made.
The conflicting views of tectonic evolution are presented and
discussed in Section 5.1. and a new model is proposed in Section 5.2.
Conclusions are drawn as to the significance of the occurrences of
felsic metasandstone in the transition zone sediments, TTG material
and chemical sediment components in turbidites in Section 5.3, and
the apparently close relationship between calc alkaline volcanism and
basin sedimentation in Section 5.1.
4.2. Non-carbonate carbon
“Pre-orogenic” non-carbonate carbon occurs in graphitic schists
and argillites (Leube et al., 1990; Oberthür et al., 1994; and several
others). Graphitic argillites occur near the centres of basins where
δ13C values are said to be a characteristic of Precambrian-age organic
carbon (Leube et al., 1990). Graphite schists occurring in the transition
zone exhibit δ13C values that suggest admixing of volcanogenic with
organic carbon (Leube et al., 1990). These are all previously suggested
to be syngenetic.
The nature of remobilisation of carbonaceous material into sites of
what is here called “orogenic” non-carbonate carbon (graphite) is
controversial. Springer (1985, 1986) concludes that graphite results
from recrystallisation of carbon in interflow black shales in the Abitibi
greenstone belt gold deposits. Bierlein et al. (2001) suggest that
graphitization of organic carbon results from shearing together with
fluid flow along foliation planes during greenschist metamorphism.
These conclusions would seem to preclude the possibility that carbon
may be dissolved during devolatilization of carbonaceous metasedi-
ments and subsequently deposited as graphite in suitable structural
sites, together with gold, from hydrothermal fluids.
“Orogenic” non-carbonate carbon occurs in both structurally-
parallel and oblique graphitic faults, shears, mylonites, and gouge in
the major Ashanti gold deposits (Allibone et al., 2002a,b). They
demonstrate with detailed maps and profiles that graphitic shears
occur both in direct contact with schistose turbidites, and enclosed
within mineralized vein systems. They furthermore identify second-
generation, graphite-rich shears, which cut both quartz veins and
earlier foliation (Allibone et al., 2002b). Raman determinations of
graphite crystallinity on samples from the Obuasi deposit indicate that
several types of graphite have been deposited from hydrothermal
mineralizing fluids (Oberthür et al., 1994). It is argued that the
distribution of graphitic material within vein systems and results of
the Raman analyses, as well as evidence from the Hoyle Pond and
Macraes deposits, suggests that significant amounts of the graphite
hosting auriferous quartz veins of the Ashanti belt gold deposits may
have been remobilised in, and deposited from, reducing hydrothermal
fluids.
Oberthür et al. (1994) observe the apparent antipathy between
gold and graphite in the Obuasi mine. Nevertheless, it is argued that
the environment associated with, or caused by, the presence of
significant graphite positively influences deposition of gold, as is
concluded in the case of the Macraes deposit (Craw, 2002) and even
the Ashanti deposit (Leube et al., 1990).
4.3. Origins of mineralizing fluids
Oberthür et al. (1994, 1996) suggest that the origin of sulphides in
the Ashanti belt gold deposits is Birimian sediment sulphur (see
previous discussion). Oberthür et al. (1996) propose that the volatile-
rich (90 vol.% CO2 + CH4 + N2), low-salinity aqueous fluids are mostly
generated by devolatilization of Birimian sediments during Eburnean
 J. Berge / Ore Geology Reviews 39 (2011) 91–100 97

metamorphism as in the cases of the Con and Giant; Hoyle Pond; and
Macraes deposits. Feybesse et al. (2006), using paleostress modelling,
demonstrate the movement of fluids from the Kumasi basin towards
the basin/belt contact shear zones.

4.4. Origins of gold

4.4.1. Chemical sediments

Hirdes and Leube (1989), Leube et al. (1990), and Melcher and
Stumpfl (1994) suggest the source of gold to be the transition zone
“pre-orogenic” chemical sediments. These sediments are both
intercalated with, and overly, mafic to ultramafic volcanics in the
Ashanti and Nangodi belts (Attoh et al., 2006; Dampare et al., 2008;
Leube et al., 1990; Melcher and Stumpfl, 1994; Sylvester and Attoh,
1992). These sediments also occur in turbidites in the Ashanti belt
(Leube et al., 1990). They note the spatial coincidence of these
chemical sediments with mineralized areas in the gold belt, and even
suggest the occurrence of chemical sediments as an exploration guide.
Similarities noted between the Ashanti belt transition zone
chemical sediments and the Heathcote greenstone interflow sedi-
ments of the LFB are close spatial association with mafic to ultramafic
magmas, occurrence of cherty and sedimentary carbonate rocks, and Fig. 2. Jensen (1976) plot. High-Fe tholeiites — tholeiite analyses from Leube et al. (1990)
occurrence of sulphidic strata with elevated As and Au. As in the case taken from the analyses furnished by W. Hirdes. High-Mg tholeiites include analyses
of the LFB interflow sediments, it seems likely that the Ashanti belt furnished by W. Hirdes; Attoh et al. (2006), and Dampare et al. (2008). Komatiites include
analyses furnished by W. Hirdes; Attoh et al. (2006), and Dampare et al. (2008).
chemical sediments were deposited during periods of reduced
volcanic activity. Melcher and Stumpfl (1994) propose exhalation of
fluids from ridge crests as the source of Birimian chemical sediments,
5. Proposed model
but suggest that they were accumulated proximal to fracture zones.
Bierlein et al. (1998) propose that the LFB interflow sediments
5.1. Tectonic puzzle
originate as magmatic exhalites discharged from distal, deep-seated,
mid-ocean-ridge spreading centres, mixed with clastic sediments, and
Allibone et al. (2002a), Feybesse et al. (2006), and Oberthür et al.
deposited during periods of magmatic inactivity. Indeed, Hutchinson
(1994) argue that volcanism and basin deposition are not coincidental
(1993) identifies widespread CO2-rich sea water reaction with cooling
(non-coincidental hypothesis), whereas Hirdes and Leube (1989),
oceanic crust tholeiite–komatiite lavas which released gold and other
Hirdes et al. (1992), Leube et al. (1990), and Taylor et al. (1992) find
components to auriferous exhalites, as the initial phase of gold deposit
volcanism and basin deposition to be coincidental (coincidental
genesis in the Abitibi greenstone belt.
hypothesis). Reconciliation of these hypotheses is complicated by the
common implicit assumption that both tholeiitic and calc alkaline
4.4.2. Primary origin(s) of Au and As volcanism are parts of a single volcanic event. The non-coincidental
Both plume-related (Abouchami et al., 1990; Boher et al., 1992), hypothesis is based on temporal separation of the latest date of
and subduction-related (Attoh et al., 2006; Dampare et al., 2008; emplacement of belt granitoids into mafic volcanics (2172 Ma.), and
Sylvester and Attoh, 1992) geotectonic environments are said to exist the commencement of basin sedimentation, said to range from
in southwest Ghana. Most of the chemical analyses of mafic magmas 2150 Ma (Feybesse et al., 2006; Oberthür et al., 1994) to 2135 Ma.
cited in Leube et al. (1990) fall in the tholeiite fields of a Jensen (1976) (Davis et al., 1994). However, given the overwhelming geological
plot (Fig. 2), and NMORB fields of various discrimination diagrams. evidence of explosive spreading of volcanic material throughout the
However, four of the 65 mafic volcanic rock analyses from a list of 99 basins during sedimentation (see Section 2.2.1.7 Basin sediments),
analyses (received through personal communication with W. Hirdes) and the existence of substantial amounts of volcaniclastic material in
contain MgO exceeding 10% and plot in the komatiite basalt– the basins and transition zones in contrast to the minor amounts of
komatiite fields of the Jensen (1976) plot together with ultramafic pyroclastics observed in the belts (Leube et al., 1990), it seems
ophiolites and high-Mg basalts described from the south end of the difficult to envision basin sedimentation not being accompanied by
Ashanti volcanic belt (Fig. 2). The latter are suggested by Dampare phreatic volcanic activity. It is therefore argued that such volcanic
et al. (2008) to represent a cross-section of a Paleoproterozoic ocean activity occurred after the period separating tholeiitic volcanic activity
crust. A roughly similar progression in the Katiola–Marabadiassa from basin deposition.
greenstone belt in the central Ivory Coast is also suggested to be an
oceanic crust profile (Pouclet et al., 2006). Béziat et al. (2000)
conclude that a suite of mafic–ultramafic rocks from the Loraboué 5.2. Proposed model
prospect in western Burkina Faso occur in an arc magmatic
environment and possibly represent a crystallized magma chamber This model provides a realistic solution to the tectonic puzzle
in the lower crust of an island arc. outlined above. It is a modification of Melcher and Stumpfl's (1994)
Given the existence of both NMORB, possibly plume-related proposed evolution of the Nangodi belt from an extensional stage
magmas, and subduction-related magmas, Sylvester and Attoh's characterized by eruption of MORB-type tholeiitic basalts to a
(1992) proposal of immature island arcs built on an oceanic crust collisional stage characterized by extrusion of calc-alkaline lavas
appears realistic. It is therefore argued that elevated, “leaching- and pyroclastics in an ocean arc setting. It is argued that the existence
available” gold content in this partly high-Mg oceanic crust (Hutchinson, of felsic meta-sandstone in the Ashanti belt transition zone (Oberthür
1993) would be a logical primary source of gold for the Ashanti belt et al., 1994) suggests that uplift occurred during a pause between
chemical sediments. these two stages.
98 J. Berge / Ore Geology Reviews 39 (2011) 91–100

5.3. Proposed geochronology with aspects of tectonic evolution

The interpretation shown in Fig. 3 is based on a careful review of

age determinations, the geological settings of the analysed samples,
and the relationships between various units as discussed throughout
this report. It is limited to tectonic and orogenic events observed in
southwest Ghana.
Ages of extensional stage tholeiitic volcanics, provided by age
determinations mainly on plutonic rocks, are constrained to between
2250 (Feybesse et al., 2006) and 2172 ± 2 Ma (Hirdes et al., 1992).
Simultaneous deposition of volcanic rocks and basin sediments (Leube
et al., 1990), suggests that some basin sedimentation had already
commenced late during this extensional stage. Whereas there are no age Fig. 3. Sketch chart of geochronology of the Birimian Supergroup SW Ghana.
determinations on chemical sediments, interlayering of these with
tholeiitic lavas in the Nangodi area (Melcher and Stumpfl, 1994)
suggests that they were deposited during the late stages of tholeiitic intrusives (Oberthür et al., 1994), and monzogranitic plutonism in the
volcanism and ocean-floor magmatism. Sefwi belt and Côte d'Ivoire (Feybesse et al., 2006). This occurred
The pause in volcanic activity commenced sometime after the during a pause of perhaps 10–15 Ma between extensional and
youngest belt intrusive (Fig. 3). Age determinations on detrital zircons collisional stages of volcanic activity.
from that sandstone give a lower limit of 2155 Ma. (Oberthür et al.,
1998). Feybesse et al. (2006) describe emplacement of monzogranites 6.3. Stage 3 Collisional volcanism
between 2160 and 2150 Ma which roughly coincide with this uplift.
It is proposed that following that pause, opening of the basins Oceanic arc explosive volcanic activity, occurring adjacent to
(Feybesse et al., 2006) around 2150 Ma coincided with recommencement subducting slabs (Melcher and Stumpfl, 1994), resulted in deposition
of explosive volcanic pyroclastic activity. This produced large volumes of of turbidites in the unstable proximal transition zones and interca-
intermediate to felsic pyroclastics and volcaniclastics which were spread lated volcaniclastic/argillaceous sediments in the adjoining basins.
over the proximal transition zones and distal basins between the volcanic Subducting slabs are suggested to have consisted of mainly (presum-
belts (Leube et al., 1990; Melcher and Stumpfl, 1994). ably hydrous) oceanic crust (Allibone et al., 2002a), and turbidites,
Melcher and Stumpfl (1994) suggest an oceanic island arc which in places contained chemical sediment components and
subduction zone tectonic setting for this phase of volcanic activity: a material eroded from uplift. This activity was progressively terminat-
setting in which, among other things, volcanogenic turbidites would ed by the advent of the Eburnean orogeny.
be expected to be deposited in subduction trench(s) proximal to the
arc. That would also explain the occurrence of extensional stage
6.4. Stage 4 Eburean orogeny
chemical sediment components (Leube et al., 1990); the inclusion of
felsic metasandstone in transition zone sediments and TTG granitic as
During Eburnean deformation and metamorphism (see previous
well as mafic and andesitic material (Asiedu et al., 2009) in the
discussion), devolatilization of the subducted slabs and isoclinally folded
turbidites. This collisional stage is suggested to be constrained to
basin sediments occurring at the amphibolite/greenschist boundary
between approximately 2150 Ma and at least 2135 Ma and possibly
should have provided a large fluid reservoir (Oberthür et al., 1996). Au, C,
2100 Ma as suggested by Feybesse et al. (2006).
S, and As dissolved from chemical sediments and C from basin sediments
Feybesse et al. (2006) constrain the Eburnean to between 2130 and
would have thence been transported in upwards circulating mineralizing
2100 Ma. Davis et al. (1994); Hirdes et al. (1992); and Oberthür et al.
fluids to suitable structural sites — the fracture/shear systems which were
(1994) constrain the Eburnean orogeny to between 2116 ± 2 Ma and
concentrated to the boundary area between transition zone turbidites
2088 ± 1 Ma. Oberthür et al. (1994) suggest that gold mineralization
and belt volcanic rocks. There, they were deposited together with quartz,
occurred over a considerable period during the latter, and may have
as graphite, (Craw, 2002), sulphides and gold.
extended beyond its termination.
Both the extensional and collisional stages contributed portions of
the main components of the Ashanti belt gold deposits. The extensional
6. Summary and conclusions — proposed evolution of the Ashanti
stage contributed most of the anomalous Au, As, S, and volcanogenic
belt gold deposits
carbon. The collisional stage contributed the bulk of the mineralizing
fluids and organic carbon derived from the hydrous sediments.
6.1. Stage 1 Extensional volcanism

Submarine MORB-related, mainly tholeiitic basaltic extrusive, and Acknowledgements

associated intrusive activity commenced around 2250 Ma (Feybesse
et al., 2006) and continued, presumably intermittently, for more than
75 Ma. During the latter part of this phase, calc-alkaline lavas,
pyroclastics, and chemical sediments became interlayered with, or
overlay the tholeiitic lavas (Melcher and Stumpfl, 1994). The chemical
sediments contained elevated values of Au, As, and S suggested to be
provided by leaching of high-Mg oceanic crust, and C emanating from
volcanic eruptions (Melcher and Stumpfl, 1994). Some basin sediment
deposition commenced towards the end of that stage (Leube et al., 1990).
Thanks are due to W. Hirdes and T. Oberthür of the Federal
Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR Hannover) for
contributing research material which would otherwise have been
inaccessible to the writer, the Swedish Geological Survey's library in
Uppsala, Sweden for their continuous assistance in obtaining research
material over a period of many years, Professor R. Hellingwerf for a
critical reading of the text, and the reviewers of Ore Geology Reviews
for their helpful criticisms.

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