THE

ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
 • The endocrine system is a major controlling
system of the body
• Its effects are mediated by hormones and are
more prolonged
• Through hormones, it stimulates such
long-term processes as growth and
AN development, metabolism, reproduction, and
body defense
OVERVIEW • Some endocrine organs are part of mixed
glands (both endocrine and exocrine in
function) e.g: pancreas and gonads (ovaries
and testes)
• Endocrine glands are ductless,
well-vascularized glands that release
hormones directly into the blood or lymph
 • Endocrine - interact with distinct target cell
• Exocrine glands produce nonhormonal substances, such as sweat and saliva, and have ducts
• Local hormones (prostaglandins) are not part of the endocrine system. Include:
1. Autocrine - act on the cell that released them
2. Paracrine - act on a different cell type nearby
Controlling activity of specific organ or tissue in
maintaining homeostasis by secreting hormones as in:

Regulator of growth and development

Regulating the concentration of body fluids (water and

Functions
electrolyte)

Metabolism of carbohydrate, protein and lipids

(nutrient)

Acts together with nervous system to help the body to

react to stress properly
 Chemical substances secreted by cells
into extracellular fluid (bloodstream)
that regulate the metabolic activity of
other cells in the body

HORMONES
All hormones are amino acid-based or
steroids
 Types of Hormones

Steroids (lipid soluble) -

synthesized from
Amino acid based (water
cholesterol of the
soluble) - most hormones
hormones, only gonadal
are amino acid-based
and adrenocortical
hormones are steroids
 Negative feedback

• Response that reduces the

Regulation of initiating stimulus (opposite
direction)
Hormones • Important in regulating
Secretion hormone levels in the blood

2. Positive feedback

• Reinforce the initial stimulus

 • Synthesis and release of most hormones are
regulated by negative feedback system
Control of • Endocrine glands are stimulated to
manufacture and release their hormones by
Hormone 3 major types of stimuli:
Release 1. Humoral stimuli
2. Neural stimuli
3. Hormonal stimuli
 (a) Humoral Stimulus
1 Capillary blood
contains
low concentration of Ca2+,
which stimulates…
Capillary (low
Ca2+ in
blood)
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid (posterior
glands view)

Parathyroid
glands
PTH

2 …secretion of
parathyroid hormone (PTH)
by parathyroid glands*

Figure 16.4a
 (b) Neural Stimulus
1 Preganglionic sympathetic
fibers stimulate adrenal
medulla cells…

CNS (spinal
cord)

Preganglioni
c
sympathetic
fibers
Medulla
of
adrenal
gland
Capillary

2 …to secrete
catechola-
mines (epinephrine and
norepinephrine)
Figure 16.4b
 (c) Hormonal Stimulus
1 The hypothalamus
secretes
hormones that…
Hypothalamus

2 …stimulate
the anterior
pituitary
gland Pituitar
to secrete y
hormones gland
that…

Thyroid Adrena Gonad

gland l (Testis
cortex )

3 …stimulate other
endocrine
glands to secrete hormones
Figure 16.4c
 • Pituitary gland
• Thyroid gland
• Parathyroid glands

MAJOR • Thymus gland

• Adrenal glands
ENDOCRINE • Pineal gland
ORGANS • Pancreas
• Gonads (ovaries, testes)
• Hypothalamus
Pineal
gland
Hypothalamu
s
Pituitary
gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid
glands
(on dorsal aspect
of thyroid gland)
Thymu
s
Adrenal
glands
Pancrea
s

Ovary
(female)
Testis
(male)

Figure 16.1
Hypothalamus (Neuroendocrine Organ)

• Located beneath thalamus in lower walls and

floor of third ventricle of the brain
 Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis)

Attached to hypothalamus by the infundibulum within the sphenoid bone

Divided into 2 lobes:

1. Posterior lobe (neurohypophysis)

Store hormones from hypothalamus Oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

 1 Hypothalamic
neurons
synthesize oxytocin
Paraventricula Hypothalamu and ADH.
r s
nucleus
Supraopti 2 Oxytocin and ADH are
c transported along the
nucleus
Optic hypothalamic-hypophyseal
chiasma
Infundibulum tract to the posterior
(connecting pituitary.
Inferior
stalk)
Hypothalamic hypophyseal
- artery 3 Oxytocin and ADH
hypophyseal
are
tract
Axon stored in axon terminals
terminal in the posterior pituitary.
s 4 Oxytocin and ADH are
Posterio
r released into the blood
Oxytoci when hypothalamic
lobe of n
pituitary neurons fire.
ADH pituitary and the hypothalamus
(a) Relationship between the posterior
Figure 16.5a
2. Anterior lobe (adenohypophysis)
• Influenced by hypothalamic hormone
• Growth hormone (GH), prolactin (PRL),adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH),
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone ( LH)
• ACTH, TSH, FSH and LH are tropic hormones (regulate other
endocrine gland)
 Hypothalamus 1 When appropriately
stimulated,
hypothalamic neurons
Hypothalamic neuron secrete releasing and
cell bodies inhibiting hormones
into the primary
Superior capillary plexus.
hypophyseal artery
Hypophyseal
portal system 2 Hypothalamic hormones
• Primary capillary travel through the portal
plexus veins to the anterior pituitary
• Hypophyseal where they stimulate or
portal veins inhibit release of hormones
• Secondary from the anterior pituitary.
capillary
plexus
Anterior lobe 3 Anterior pituitary
of pituitary hormones are secreted
TSH, FSH, into the secondary
LH, ACTH, capillary plexus.
GH, PRL
(b) Relationship between the anterior pituitary and the hypothalamus

Figure 16.5b
 1. Growth hormone (GH)
• An anabolic and protein-conversing
hormone that promotes total body growth
Anterior • It is important effect is on skeletal muscles
Pituitary and bones
Hormones • Untreated hyposecretion during childhood
results dwarfism, and hypersecretion
produces gigantism (childhood) and
acromegaly (adult)
 2. Prolactin (PRL)
• Stimulates production of breast milk (lactation)

Anterior 3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Pituitary • Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release its
hormones (mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids
Hormones and gonadocorticoids)

4. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

• Stimulates the thyroid gland to release thyroid
hormones (throxine and triiodothyronine)
 5. Gonadotropic hormones
a. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Beginning at puberty, stimulates follicle
development and estrogen production by
female ovaries, promotes sperm production
Anterior in male
Pituitary b. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Hormones • Beginning at puberty, stimulates ovulation
and stimulates ovarian to produce estrogen
and progesterone, stimulates the male’s
testes to produce testosterone
 1. Oxytoxin

Posterior • Stimulates powerful uterine

contractions (trigger labor and
delivery of infant) and causes milk
Pituitary ejection in the nursing woman
• Also promote sexual arousal
Hormones
2. Antidiuretic hormone
(ADH) or vasopressin
• Causes kidney tubule cells to
reabsorb and conserve body water
and increased blood pressure by
constricting blood vessels
 Thyroid Gland

Located on the trachea, just inferior to the larynx (in the anterior throat)

Thyroid hormone (TH) includes thyroxine (T4) and triiodotyronine (T3), which increase the rate of
cellular metabolism. Consequently, O2 use and heat production (Its hormone has calorigenic effect)

Lack of iodine leads to goiter. Hypersecretion of thyroxine results Graves’ disease.

Calcitonin produced by parafollicular (C) cells in response to high blood calcium levels. It causes
calcium to be deposited in bones
Figure 16.8
Figure 16.10
Parathyroid Glands

4 small glands located posterior/dorsal aspect of the thyroid gland

Low blood levels of calcium stimulate the release parathyroid hormone

(PTH)

It causes bone calcium to be liberated into the blood, the intestine to

increase calcium absorption from food and the kidneys to increase
calcium reabsorption
Pharynx
(posterio
Chief
r
cells
aspect)
Thyroid (secrete
gland parathyroi
Parathyroid d
glands Oxyphi
hormone)
l
Esophagu
cells
s
Trache
a Capillar
y
(a) (b)

Figure 16.11
 Hypocalcemia (low blood Ca2+) stimulates
parathyroid glands to release PTH.

Rising Ca2+ in
blood inhibits
PTH release.

Bone

1 PTH activates
osteoclasts: Ca2+
and PO43S released
into blood.
2 PTH increases Kidney
2+
Ca reabsorption
in kidney
tubules.
3 PTH promotes
kidney’s activation of vitamin D,
which increases Ca2+ absorption
from food.

Intestine

Ca2+ ions
PTH Molecules Bloodstream

Figure 16.12
 • Lies on top of kidneys
• Divided into:
1. Adrenal cortex
Adrenal 2. Adrenal medulla
(Suprarenal)
Glands
 Capsule
Zona
glomerulosa

Zona
fasciculata
Adrenal gland

Cortex
• Medulla
• Cortex

Zona
Kidney reticularis

Medulla Adrenal
medulla

(a) Drawing of the histology of the

adrenal cortex and a portion of
the adrenal medulla

Figure 16.13a
 1. Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)
• Regulate sodium ion (Na+) & potassium ion (K+)
reabsorption by the kidneys
• Their release is stimulated by low Na+ and/or high K+
levels in blood

Adrenal 2. Glucocorticoids (cortisol)

cortex • Enable the body to resist long-term stress by increasing
blood glucose levels and depressing the inflammatory
response

3. Gonadocorticoids/Sex hormones
(androgens)
• Responsible for sex drive in female
 Adrenal medulla hormones produce
catecholamines (epinephrine and
norepinephrine) in response to sympathetic
Adrenal nervous system stimulation. Its hormones
medulla enhance and prolong the effects of the
‘fight-or-flight’ response to short-term stress.
 Short-term stress More prolonged stress
Stress

Nerve impulses Hypothalamus

CRH (corticotropin-
releasing hormone)

Spinal cord

Corticotroph cells
of anterior pituitary
Preganglionic
To target in blood
sympathetic
fibers
Adrenal cortex
Adrenal medulla (secretes steroid
(secretes amino acid- hormones)
based hormones) ACTH

Catecholamines Mineralocorticoids Glucocorticoids

(epinephrine and
norepinephrine)
Short-term stress response Long-term stress response
1. Increased heart rate 1. Retention of sodium 1. Proteins and fats converted
2. Increased blood pressure and water by kidneys to glucose or broken down
3. Liver converts glycogen to glucose and releases 2. Increased blood volume for energy
glucose to blood and blood pressure 2. Increased blood glucose
4. Dilation of bronchioles 3. Suppression of immune
5. Changes in blood flow patterns leading to decreased system
digestive system activity and reduced urine output
6. Increased metabolic rate

Figure 16.16
Pancreas

• Located behind stomach

• Composed of both endocrine and exocrine gland cells
• Hormones produced from pancreatic islets (islets of
Langerhans) containing alpha (α) cells (glucagon) and
beta (β) cells (insulin)
• Insulin is released when the blood levels of glucose
are high. It increases the rate of glucose uptake and
metabolism by body cells, and stimulates glycogen
formation
• Glucagon, released when blood levels of glucose are
low, stimulates the liver to release glucose to the
blood
 Stimulates glucose uptake by cells

Insulin Tissue cells

Stimulates
glycogen
Pancreas formation Glucos Glycoge
e n Blood
Liver glucose
falls to
normal
range.

Stimulus
Blood
glucose level

Stimulus
Blood
glucose level
Blood
glucose
rises to
normal
range. Pancreas
Liver
Glucos Glycoge
e n
Stimulates
glycogen Glucagon
breakdown

Figure 16.18
Pineal Gland

Releases melatonin; which

acts as biological clock,
Located in the diencephalon/
reproductive behavior, affects
third ventricle of the brain
daily biological rhythms such
(epithalamus)
as body temperature, sleep
and appetite
Thymus Gland

• Located deep to sternum

• Large and conspicuous in infant and
children
• Diminishes in size throughout adulthood
• Its hormones, thymosins, thymic factor, and
thymopoietins, are important to the normal
development of the immune responses
(thymosin promotes maturation of T
lymphocytes, important in body defense)
 Ovaries
• Located in abdominopelvic cavity
• Ovaries release:
Gonads
1. Estrogens
• Release of estrogens by ovarian follicles begins at puberty
(FSH)
• Estrogens stimulate maturation of female reproductive
organs and female secondary sex characteristics
• With progesterone, they cause the menstrual cycle
 2. Progesterone
Gonads • Release in response to LH, works
with estrogens establishing the
menstrual cycle
 Testes
• Located in the scrotum
• Testes begin to produce testosterone at
puberty in response to LH stimulation
Gonads • Testosterone promotes maturation of the
male reproductive system, male secondary
sex characteristics, and production of sperm
by the testes
 • Heart – atrial natriuretic peptide
(ANP)
Other • Adipose tissue – leptin and resistin
Hormone-Pr • Skin – cholecalciferol (active
vitamin D3)
oducing • Kidney - erytropoietin
Tissues and • Placenta – estrogens and
progesterone
Organs • Duodenum – cholecystokinin (CCK)
and secretin
• Stomach – gastrin and serotonin