05 Ultrasound 2022 2023 v1

Ultrasound
The aim or work: «Explore the methods of flow rate measurements, find the relationship
between pressure drop and flow rate, fluid velocity, and ultrasound signal frequency.»
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MF Fizikas katedra@RSU 2022
Davidovits, P. Physics in biology and
Relevant reading medicine. Amsterdam: Academic Press,
an imprint of Elsevier. p. 181-199.
Chapter 12
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Ultrasound, piezoelectricity, piezoelectric
crystal, sound reflection, acoustic
#keywords impedance, sound refraction, sound
scattering, attenuation, half-intensity
depth, ultrasonography, doppler effect,
positive doppler shift, negative doppler
shift, dopplerography.
3
Ultrasound (US) is a form of
mechanical energy that propagates
through a series of collisions between
adjacent molecules
• has compressions
• has rarefactions. Similarities with
It is a longitudinal wave the ordinary sound
• has wavelength
• has frequency.
Requires a medium to travel.
4
US is not audible.
• Needs special equipment to be
detected.
Shorter wavelength. Differences from

Higher frequency (beyond 20 kHz). the ordinary sound
• In medical diagnostic imaging
ranges from 1 MHz to 15 MHz.
5
Ultrasonography
• US produces images of a human body part.
• Ultrasound generator produces a pulse of US
waves.
• Produced waves penetrate body.
• Interfaces makes some of the waves reflect
from human tissues.
• Echoes are converted into electrical signals
that reconstruct in an image.
Image source:
David Plunkert, https://www.davidplunkert.com/
6
Production of ultrasonic waves
Transducer converts energy from one form into
another
• Electric energy into mechanical.
Piezoelectric crystals:
• Well defined arrangement.
• Dielectrics.
• It is possible to change them
• applying an alternative potential to the crystal
changes its molecular configuration =>
dimensions (shape) change.
• rapid periodic change in the crystal
dimensions produces ultrasound waves.
7
Production of ultrasonic waves
An alternating
The piezo crystal electrical signal
periodically source applies
changes its shape periodically changing
(oscillates) and voltage to the piezo
produces US crystal
waves around it
Image source:
MF Fizikas katedra@RSU 2022 https://www.tec-science.com/material-science/material-testing/ultrasonic-testing-ut/ 8
Detection of ultrasonic wave
1. Opposite of producing ultrasound waves
2. crystal vibrates when it is hit by the US echoes
3. vibrations change the arrangement of the
molecules => subsequent change in the crystal
polarity =>
4. alternating electrical pulses are produced.
9
Detection of ultrasonic wave
The crystal oscillations

US wave hits the cause electrical signal,
crystal and causes which can be detected
its oscillations. by voltmeter.
Image source:
MF Fizikas katedra@RSU 2022 https://www.tec-science.com/material-science/material-testing/ultrasonic-testing-ut/ 10
Ultrasound interaction Reflection creates echoes.
Determines image spatial resolution –
with the body o Measure of the smallest size of the interface at
which the wave can reflect is limited by the US
wavelength.
o The smaller is US wavelength, the smaller
structure can be resolved.
• The magnitude of the impedance determines the

attenuation of the image:
o Reflected fraction of the ultrasound waves is
determined the difference in acoustic
impedances Z of the tissue type on both sides
of the interface.
o Acoustic impedance is measured in
kg/m2*sec.
11
Ultrasound interaction
with the body
Acoustic impedance
I𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 (z1 − z2)²

𝑧 = 𝜌 × 𝑣𝑠 =
I𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (z1 + z2)²
𝑧 – acoustic impedance of medium

𝜌 – medium density
• Acoustic impedance Z is the resistance
𝑣𝑠 – speed of sound waves in medium experienced by the US beam as it passes
I𝑎𝑡𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑡ā – reflected US wave intensity through the tissues.
I𝑘𝑜𝑝ē𝑗ā – total US wave intensity
12
13
Why there is gel Air-tissue interfaces reflect all incidental
ultrasound waves (does not allow the
involved?
ultrasound waves to penetrate the skin).
Air between the probe and the skin is

displaced using gel => reduces reflection
from air-skin interface => better contrast.
14
Ultrasound interaction Refraction changes US wave direction.
From one medium to another with different
with the body impedances Z.
• From lower to higher impedance (waves
propagate closer to the normal line
(perpendicular to the interface))
• From higher to lower impedance (waves
propagate away from the normal line).
In both cases intensity of the echoes and

resolution are reduced.
Image source:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rays_of_light_through_a_different_medium_
15
MF Fizikas katedra@RSU 2022 (labelled).svg
Ultrasound interaction Scattering is reflection of waves in random
with the body direction at rough interfaces.
• Loss of the intensity of ultrasound beam and
echoes.
• Smaller wavelength => more scattering.
o Smaller the part of the interface that can
be resolved.
o Small parts of an interface are
considered to be a rough surface.
Image source:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rays_of_light_through_a_different_medium_
16
MF Fizikas katedra@RSU 2022 (labelled).svg
Loss of intensity with distance caused by
• reflection
• refraction
• scattering
• tissue absorption.
Loss of ultrasound beam mechanical energy in

Attenuation
the form of friction heat because of interaction
with the molecules of the medium.
• Spreading of the beam.
Inverse square law.
17
Half-intensity depth L1/2
The depth at which half of the original
intensity will be absorbed. 𝐶
𝐿1/2 =
𝑓
High frequency ultrasound waves are
attenuated more than low-frequency
waves.
Low frequency waves are not able to

resolve small parts of the body.
C – constant, which depends
only ion the medium in which the
ultrasound wave is traveling,
𝑓 – US frequency.
18
Measuring the depth
Ultrasound machine:
• Detects the intensity of echoes
• Determine the depth in the body of the interfaces
at which the ultrasound waves are reflected
• Average speed of ultrasound waves in the
body is known
• Machine has a timer which measures the time
elapsed between generation of pulse and
detection of the echo
• Total traveled distance x and depth d can be
calculated:
𝑣3 × 𝑡
𝑥 = 𝑣3 × 𝑡 𝑑=
2
𝑣𝑠 – speed of US waves in medium
𝑡 – the time interval in which the wave travels the distance 𝑥.
19
Image reconstruction
A-scan:
• Does not give a clear picture of
spatial structure.
• Simple plot of echo intensity
versus depth along one line
path.
20
Image reconstruction
B-scan:
• Combination of many A-scans.
• For each interface a dot is displayed
on the screen with a brightness
proportional to the intensity and at a
position corresponding to its depth in
the body.
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Types of ultrasound images
2D ultrasound:
• Greyscale image.
• Cross-section through the body.
• In the realtime – 30 fps.
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Types of ultrasound images
3D ultrasound:
• Combination of 2D images.
3D + time = 4D ultrasound:
• Combination of 2D images.
• Dynamic review in time.
Image source:
https://www.mothernurtureultrasound.com/whats-the-difference-between-a-3d-and-
4d-ultrasound/ 23
Doppler effect
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZPJyYaXhuv4 (Doppler Effect,2415.03.2009)

Positive doppler shift
Consider a car produces a sound and is Because
moving toward an observer. The sound
waves will reach at the observer with
apparently higher velocity:
then, the apparent frequency 𝑓 ′ is:
𝑣 – the apparent speed;

vs is the speed of sound waves;
vc is the speed of the car.
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Negative Doppler shift
If the car, on the other hand, is moving
away from the observer, the sound waves
will reach at the observer with apparently
lower velocity, given as:
The apparent frequency f`, then, is
given as:
𝑣 – the apparent speed;

vs is the speed of sound waves;
vc is the speed of the car.
26
Measuring the speed of blood
In Doppler measurements – the probe is
positioned in such a way that the arterial
blood is approaching and the venous blood
is receding.
The wave reaching the probe is second

time Doppler shifted, having an apparently
further higher frequency.
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Probe position against the direction of flow
If the probe is positioned at an angle with
respect to the blood vessel, the equation is
modified as follows:
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Doppler ultrasound
Used to measure the speed of
• flowing fluids (blood)
• Moving objects (heart valves)
Doppler effect
• When sound wave reflects at an interface
which
o Approaches or
o Recesses
Echo is detected with the apparent change in
its frequency
Doppler shift- magnitude of change in
frequency Image source:
https://www.imv-imaging.co.uk/veterinary-learning/small-animal-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9nzkF0hmy04 learning/general-imaging-techniques/ultrasound-doppler-explained-for-vets/
(Ultrasound Physics - Explaining Doppler, 23.11.2011)
Video source:
How Ultrasound Works, June 5, 2015
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I1Bdp2tMFsY 29
Doppler ultrasound
Doppler effect is not only in acoustics!
It works with light as well. Especially
with laser light.
Time-varying blood flow map in human

retina > > >
Video source:
Introduction to Doppler Ultrasound
MF Fizikas katedra@RSU 2022 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tQn8jKtwk6o August 21, 2014 30
Pressure in the fluid
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Bernoulli principle and Venturi effect
• A fast-flowing fluid reduces the pressure
created by the fluid.
• Slow-flowing fluid increases the pressure
created by the fluid.
ρ – fluid density;
g – free fall acceleration
P1 – fluid pressure at point 1
v1 – fluid flow velocity at point 1
h1 – vertical level height 1
P2 – fluid pressure at point 2
v2 – fluid flow velocity at point 2
h2 – vertical level height 2.
Image source:
https://www.pngegg.com/en/png-nqnod 32
Obstetrical uses
• to monitor the progress of a pregnancy
• visualize the fetus within the womb
• other forms of prenatal testing for birth defects.
Cardiovascular studies
• explore the structure of the heart
Applications
• explore the circulatory system.
Gynecological cases
• structure of the ovaries
of ultrasound
• uterus
• surrounding regions
• detect cysts and tumors.
Prostate examinations
• tumors.
Breast
• lumps are cancerous or cysts.
33
Abdominal examinations (structure of organs)
• bladder
• pancreas
• spleen
• stomach
• bowel
• liver.
Renal studies (Kidney image).
Thyroid examinations
Applications
of ultrasound
• tumors
• cysts.
Ophthalmologic examinations (visualizing the structures

behind the retina, seeing past opaque obstacles)
• eye tumors
• retinal detachments
• foreign bodies
• hemorrhages.
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Interventional ultrasonography
(guidance during a surgical procedure)
• tumor biopsies
• draining of cysts
• treatments for infertility. Applications
Therapeutic uses
• extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy
(crushing mineralized deposits in the
of ultrasound
body).
35
36
• What are the similarities and differences

between ultrasound and audible sound.
• How ultrasound can be generated and how to
detect it.
• How ultrasound interacts with the human body.
What is reflection, refraction, scattering and
attenuation.
Wrap up • What is the meaning of acoustic impedance

and how to determine the depth of ultrasonic
measurement in different environments.
• How different types of ultrasound images are
formed.
• What is Dopplerography and Doppler shift and
how flow rate is measured.
• What is the Bernoulli principle and the Venturi
effect.
• And finally, how widely can ultrasound be used
in medical diagnostics and therapy.
Tasks
and workflow
Labwork steps
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=egKvXuqBeaI+%2A
Šķidruma plūsmas ātruma mērīšana/Measurement of fluid flow rate,
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Probe applied on a flow
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Measuring the speed of flow
Doppler frequency shift f-mean

The speed of flow
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Ultrasound

Requires a medium to travel.

Shorter wavelength. Differences from

The crystal oscillations

• The magnitude of the impedance determines the

I𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 (z1 − z2)²

𝑧 – acoustic impedance of medium

Air between the probe and the skin is

In both cases intensity of the echoes and

Loss of ultrasound beam mechanical energy in

• Spreading of the beam.

Inverse square law.

Low frequency waves are not able to

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZPJyYaXhuv4 (Doppler Effect,2415.03.2009)

𝑣 – the apparent speed;

𝑣 – the apparent speed;

The wave reaching the probe is second

Time-varying blood flow map in human

Renal studies (Kidney image).

Ophthalmologic examinations (visualizing the structures

• What are the similarities and differences

Wrap up • What is the meaning of acoustic impedance

Doppler frequency shift f-mean

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