STA111 | Fundamentals of Statistics

CHAPTER 2: DATA DESCRIPTION

2.1 Definition of Data

Data or data set is a collection of observations on one or more variables. In other words,
variables produce data. The information in Table 2.1 below is called the data or a data set.

Table 2.1: Weight of twelve students

Name Weight (kilogram)

Aina 47.8
Zahara 50.2
Faliq 78.6
Suthan 65.5
Ali 67.8
Ahmad 60.4
Izara 52.5
Aishah 60.5
Naufal 80.8
Afiqah 55.6
Samantha 45.6
Aswad 90.8

Element Variable Observation

2.2 Sources of Data

Data can be gathered either primarily or secondarily. Primary data is the first hand
information which is gathered by the researcher himself or herself using methods of data
collection such as personal interviews, questionnaires (mailed or administered) or
observations. Secondary data is a second hand information that is already being collected,
recorded or published by someone other than the person who collected it. This data can
usually be found in magazines, bulletins, journals, companies’ reports, newspapers, books
and internet.

2.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Primary Data and Secondary Data

In the Table 2.2 below shows the advantages and disadvantages between primary and
secondary data.
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Table 2.2: Advantages and disadvantages for primary and secondary data
Primary Data Secondary Data

Advantages

Data gathered are more accurate. Less time, money and efforts required since
the data are already available.

No reproduction errors since data are Data helps to decide what further research
gathered the first time. needs to be done.

Primary sources will explain how the facts are

gathered.

Disadvantages

Requires more time and effort to gather the Leads to reproduction error since data are
data. gathered the second time.

Most of primary data are expensive to gather. Some data are very difficult to be obtained
since some of them are confidential and not
to be disclosed.

Not all secondary data is readily available and

inexpensive.

Accuracy of data is sometime questionable.

2.3 Types of Variables/Data

Variables can be divided into two categories which are qualitative variable and quantitative
variable.

2.3.1 Qualitative Variables

A variable that cannot be measured and counted but can be classified into categories such as
gender (female and male), the color of a car (white, red, blue), academic qualifications
(Diploma, Bachelor, Master and PhD).

2.3.2 Quantitative Variables

A variable that can be measured numerically or counted. The volume of water consumed per
day by a person is a quantitative variable. The number of passengers in a bus is a quantitative
variable. Quantitative variables can be divided into two which are discrete quantitative and
continuous quantitative.
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2.3.2.1 Discrete Quantitative Variable

If the values of a quantitative variable are countable, the variable is a discrete quantitative.
The discrete variable can assume only certain values with no other sub-values in between
and often obtained by counting exactly (i.e countable and finite) such as number of vans
sold, number of cars pass through the Subang toll plaza in one hour, number of students in a
classroom.

2.3.2.2 Continuous Quantitative Variable

Continuous variables can assume any numerical value within interval of values. It is a
variable with unlimited number of values that may be measured to some possible degree of
accuracy (i.e approximate result and infinite number). Thus, a person’s weight is a
continuous variable as it can take any values such as 47.5kg, 87.6kg, 75.8kg etc. Other
examples are distance travelled by a car, height of a building, length of a bridge, monthly
spending on fuel in RM.

Figure 2: Two Types of Variables

Example:
For the following, determine whether each of the following variables is qualitative, discrete
quantitative, continuous quantitative.

(a) Number of passengers in a bus.

(b) Type of car.
(c) Distance travelled (in kilometers) per month.
(d) Number of blood donors during blood donation campaign.
(e) Monthly spending (in RM) on fuel.
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Answers:
(a) Discrete quantitative
(b) Qualitative
(c) Continuous quantitative
(d) Discrete quantitative
(e) Continuous quantitative

2.4 Scale of Measurements

All collected data are measured in some form. For example, we measure discrete
quantitative data such as the number of students in a class by the process of counting. Data
can be measured using four types of scales which are nominal scale, ordinal scale, interval
scale and ratio scale.

2.4.1 Nominal Scale

Nominal scale is known as categorical scale. It classifies data in the form of labels or
categories such as gender in which it is given as male or female, types of vehicles which are
bus, car, van or motorcycle. In general, nominal scale classifies a qualitative data. Usually,
each data will be assigned by a number to distinguish them from each other. However, since
this scale does not have any numeric value, any mathematical operations (addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division) cannot be conducted and are meaningless. For
example,

1. Color of car (1 = Red, 2 = Blue, 3 = White)

(If we add 1 to 2, we will get 3. However, the result is meaningless since red car plus blue
car does not equal to white car).

2. Gender (1 = Male, 2 = Female)

Note: In the context of the measurement scale theory, nominal scale can be classified as a
weakest tool of the variable measurement.
2.4.2 Ordinal Scale

The ordinal scale contains a data that can be placed in a rank or order system. We normally
use ranks to give ordering to the data. Sometimes, we can see that numbers are assigned to
the variable so that the comparisons of greater than and less than can be made, in addition
to equality and inequality. However, mathematical operations are still meaningless for this
type of scale. For example,

1. Students’ grades are ranked as A, B, C, D, E and F.

2. Academic qualifications are ranked as 1 = Diploma, 2 = Bachelor, 3 = Masters, 4 = PhD.

(We know that qualification 4 is higher than 3, 3 is higher than 2 and so on. However,
the value of 4-3 and 3-2 are meaningless.)
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Note: The ordinal scale is a level higher than nominal scale.

2.4.3 Interval Scale

Interval scale is an ordered scale in which the difference between measurements is

meaningful. In this case, we can measure a distance from one data to the other data. The
differences between data values are meaningful but cannot be manipulated with
multiplication and division. For example, the temperature in degrees Celsius is of interval
scale. We know that temperature of 30 degree Celsius is warmer than 20 degree Celsius but
30 degree Celsius is not 1.5 times warmer than 20 degree Celsius.

For interval scale, the zero value is an arbitrary zero point and not a true or a fixed point. This
means that the zero value has no meaning. Therefore, it allows the measurement scale on
either side of zero. In the context of mathematical operations, only addition and subtraction
can be performed. For example, we cannot say that there is no date for today and 0 degree
Celsius does not mean there is no temperature. Another example:

1. Intelligence Score (IQ)

Explanation: 0 IQ Score does not mean there is no IQ. Likewise, IQ 100 scores is 50 times
more than 50 scores but individual with IQ 100 scores is not two times more intelligent than
individual with IQ 50 scores.

2.4.4 Ratio Scale

Ratio scale is an ordered or ranked scale with meaningful difference between measurements
and zero is true, a fixed point and has a meaning. Since zero is meaningful in ratio scale, this
scale allows the researchers to determine the smallest or highest value as well as their ratio
differences. In the context of mathematical operations, all operations (addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division) are applicable and can be performed. For example,

1. Monthly income or salaries

Explanation: 0 salaries means that there are no salaries for that month.

2. Weight
Explanation: 0kg of weight means no weight and 60kg of weight means that it is 30 units
heavy than 30kg of weight and 60kg of weight is twice as heavy as 30kg of weight.

3. Anxiety scale among respondents on rating from 0 to 10.

Explanation: 0 scale means the respondents do not have anxiety at all, scale 4 means that
it is 2 units anxiety more than the 2 rating, and scale 8 means that it is twice more anxiety
than 4 scale of anxiety.
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Note: In the context of the measurement scale theory, ratio scale can be classified as a
strongest tool of the variable measurement.

Strongest

Weakest

Figure 3: Level of scale of measurements

Example:
Classify each of the following responses by type of data (qualitative, discrete quantitative
and continuous quantitative) and type of measurement scale (nominal, ordinal, interval,
ratio)

(a) Type of house purchased : Semi-D

Qualitatitve : Nominal Scale

(b) Built-up area : 2875 square feet

Continuous quantitative : Ratio Scale

(c) Temperature : 100 degree Celsius

Continuous quantitative : Interval Scale

(d) Army Ranks : Colonel, Major, Captain, Lieutenant

Qualitative : Ordinal Scale