1

TOPICS- PAPER 2
CARI SECTION A: THE EUROPEANS

BBE
Theme 2: Caribbean Economy and Slavery.
LESSON:
1. The sugar revolution and its impact on West Africa.

AN
(pages 2-3)

HIST
SECTION B: MOVEMENTS TOWARDS
EMANCIPATION/ADJUSTMENTS TO EMANCIPATION
Theme 4: Metropolitan Movements towards emancipation.

ORY
LESSONS:
1. Factors resulting in the abolition of the slave trade and
slavery. (page 4)

CXC
2. The abolition of slavery in the British, French & Spanish
Caribbean. (pages 5-6)
3. The provisions of Amelioration, Emancipation Act, and

STU
Apprenticeship proposals. (pages 7-9)

Theme 5: Adjustments to Emancipation

DY
LESSONS:
1. Problems affecting the sugar industry in the English
speaking Caribbean 1838-1854. (pages 10-11)

GUI
2. Attitudes towards labour in the English speaking
Caribbean after 1838. (page 12)
3. The impact of free villages in the British West Indies.

DE.
(page 16-18) (pages 13-15)

SECTION C: MOVEMENTS TOWARDS

INDEPENDENCE/REGIONAL INTEGRATION UP TO
1985.
Theme 9: Caribbean Society 1900-1985.
LESSONS:
1. The social and economic conditions existing in the Caribbean between 1900 and 1985.
(pages 16-18)
2. Social life and the emergence of religious groups in the Caribbean 1900-1985. (pages 19-
21)

This booklet contains information that has been taken from the following sources:

Mahase, Radica, and Kevin Baldeosingh. Caribbean History for CSEC. Oxford UP, USA, 2011.

Greenwood, Robert, et al. Amerindians to Africans. Macmillan Publishes Limited, 2003

Disclaimer: This work is only intended for revision purposes. Text books are to be used to supplement this material. This is not a publication and
may not follow the guidelines of publishing written material.

SECTION A: the coming of the Europeans

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Theme 2- Caribbean Economy and Slavery.

Lesson 1- The sugar revolution and its impact on West Africa.

 Life in West Africa in the 15th century

Africa was mainly inhabited by hunters and gatherers who survived using the Stone Age
technology. The Bantu tribe started to plant wet climate crops by 900 AD. They planted yams
and they used iron tools after wards. This tribe had genetic resistance to Malaria. The Bantu
conquered other tribes or got married to members of these tribes. Therefore the Bantu tribe
became the main one in the Sub-Saharan region (countries located south of the Sahara Desert).
Agricultural production in Africa did not flourish as desired because the soils were poor
and techniques such as crop rotation, irrigation and fertilization with manure was not practiced.
Ploughs were only used in Ethiopia and there were no vehicles with wheels, watermills or
windmills. The main farming tools were digging sticks, iron hoes, axes and machetes.

 The change from tobacco to sugar - The Sugar Revolution

 The sugar revolution is the change from the cultivation of tobacco to the cultivation of
sugar. This change was pioneered by the Dutch who provided capital to establish sugar
plantations. The Dutch taught the British and the French how to manufacture sugar and
provided a market for the sugar produced. Sugar cane originated in New Guinea
Australia.

 Europeans came to the Caribbean to make a fortune. At first tobacco was the most
profitable crop. Cotton, cocoa, and indigo were also profitable and sold/shipped to
Europe.

 Up to the 17th century the ships used to transport the goods were small, took months to
travel, and had no refrigeration. Therefore bulky goods which were perishable (spoil/rot)
such as unsalted meat and fruits could not be traded. They also did not trade timber or
cattle because they were bulky for the ships.

 The products shipped from the Caribbean to be sold in England had to be small and for a
luxury market. This means rich Europeans would be willing to pay high prices for the
goods.

 Tobacco was initially the ideal crop to produce and sell because :

1. It was not perishable once the leaves are cured.

2. Small quantities could be stored in small packages for transport.
3. It was easy to grow. The landowner, a few labourers and his family could cultivate it.
4. It did not need large investments in machinery, building or livestock.
5. Tobacco smoking was fashionable among rich Europeans.

 By the ( 1600s) 17th century sugar cane took over from tobacco as a more profitable crop to
produce in the Caribbean. This was because of the following reasons:

1. Tobacco in Virginia (USA) was cheaper and of a better quality than Caribbean tobacco.

2. Tea drinking was becoming popular in Europe and honey which was a regular sweetener
(for tea and coffee) became expensive.

3. Sugar had similar advantages to tobacco production except that it required larger lands
and labour force.

 Consequences of sugar revolution:

1. A change in the size of landholdings.
2. The introduction of enslaved Africans in the West Indies.

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 The change from logwood to mahogany

Logwood – A tree that is cultivated in warmer climates especially for the dye extracted from
its heartwood. Logwood is also used to treat diarrhea and excessive bleeding.

Mahogany –a tree whereby its wood was used, especially to make canoes, in the Caribbean
region, and in Central and South America in the prehistoric times. The uses of mahogany
timber are many. It is used in making yachts and boats, as also in making doors, furniture and
even musical instruments. One of its very popular uses is in flooring.

 There was a change from logwood to mahogany because dyes that were made from
logwood were somewhat profitable but cloth producers were the only buyers. Additionally
when the industrial revolution started in the late 18th century weaving became cheaper and
there was not a high demand for products such as cotton or dyes.

 Reasons for African enslavement

 The Portuguese were the first Europeans to capture enslaved Africans and transport them on
ships since 1444. Note that this was not the beginning of slavery itself.

 The factors that made Africa an attractive labour source are:

1. Geography – Africa was well placed for cheap trans-shipment of slaves by Europeans to
the West Indies. Therefore the triangular trade only took a few months and the Atlantic
passage (along the Atlantic Ocean) did not have winds or currents to make the journey
dangerous.

2. Ecology- This deals with the relationship between living things and their physical
environment. Africans were suitable for the slave labour because they were accustomed
to heat and resistant to yellow fever and malaria. In their environment they had
experience using plough and hoes. They were experienced farmers.

3. Technology- Between 1471 and 1500 the Portuguese traders exported about 17 tons of
gold from Africa. The superior weapons the Europeans had allowed them to get easy
access to conquer African tribes. The main advantage of European technology was that
Europe manufactured goods more cheaply than Africans. Some historians state that
African goldsmith skills to make knives, spears, axes and so on surpassed the European
technology before 19th century.

 The advanced technology of Europe meant that European goods were valuable to African
rulers while African slaves were not. European goods were less valuable to Europeans while
African slaves were more valuable.

4. Economics- It was easier and cheaper to ship Africans from their homeland than to ship
other groups such as Europeans or Asians. Africa not only provided a large amount of
people to choose from but the slaves were cheap. Europeans would trade their goods for
slaves as they wanted these goods and weapons badly.

SECTION B: MOVEMENTS TOWARDS EMANCIPATION

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Theme 4: Metropolitan Movements towards emancipation.

LESSON #1: Factors resulting in the abolition of the slave trade and slavery

 Metropolitan- relating to, or constituting a mother country as distinguished from a

colony.

 Emancipation- the fact or process of being set free from legal, social, or political
restrictions; liberation.

 The impact of 4 19th century revolts on the emancipation process:

1. The Haitian Revolution 1791-1804

2. The Easter Rebellion 1816
3. The Demerara Revolt 1823
4. Christmas Rebellion 1831

 Four (4) reasons for the abolition of the transatlantic slave trade:

1. Evidence of slave resistance to the institution of slavery.

2. Since the 18th century British citizens and leaders were taking action against the slave
trade because they saw it as morally wrong.

3. Britain had become technologically advanced and slavery was no longer needed for elites
to have a high standard of living.

4. Abolitionist such as Williams Wilberforce, Thomas Clarkson, and Granville Sharp

worked to stop the slave trade.

N.B Groups of warships were put into place to ensure no British captain traded near the African
coast. Laws were also passed in 1811 to exile those in breach to Australia for 14 years. In 1824 a
law was amended that caused those found slaving to be charged with robbery and piracy. These
persons would suffer the death penalty.

 Arguments Pro- slavery:

1. The trade was necessary to the success and wealth of Britain.

2. If Britain did not engage in the trade then others would.
3. Africa was already involved in slavery. 
4. Taking Africans from their homeland actually benefited them.
5. The enslaved people were not ill-treated unless rebellious.
6. Slavery was accepted in the bible.

 Arguments Anti-Slavery:
1. There were alternatives to the trade.
2. The slavery that existed in Africa was very different from the Transatlantic Slave Trade.
3. The African people were in no way inferior and should be treated as equals.
4. The trade was damaging to Africa.
5. The Africans suffered greatly from being removed from their homeland.
6. It was morally wrong and, as a Christian country, Britain should not be involved.

Lesson 2: The abolition of slavery in the British, French & Spanish Caribbean.
 Difference between the ending of the slave trade and the ending of slavery:

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The ending of the slave trade deals with the fact that the Trans-Atlantic slave trade ended
in 1807.The ending of slavery means that Africans were emancipated and were no longer
working without pay/against their will.

 Four 4 factors that contributed to the ending of the slavery in the Spanish
Caribbean.

1. Spain was at war with France: The French army led by Napoleon
defeated the Spanish soldiers and by 1811 the French controlled most of Spain. Spanish rebels
fighting France passed a new law was passed to give Spanish colonists more legal powers. The
Spanish passed this law because they wanted the Spanish colonies to help fight the French.

2. Spain’s first proposal to end slavery by Jose Guridi y Alcocer:

Jose who was a priest and a deputy in Spain presented a formal proposal for the abolition of
slavery. He argued that slavery was conflicting to natural law. Later another Deputy Agustin de
Argulles also proposed the condemnation of the slave trade. Agustin argued that Spain should
follow Britain (to abolish slavery) because they would become their ally/friend and help fight the
French.

3. The treaty of Madrid with Britain 1815: The Spanish agreed with the British to ban the
Spanish from supplying foreign countries with slaves. Spain agreed to complete abolition in
8 years. This treaty was signed in 1818.Therefore the Spanish were expected to stop the
slave trade by 1820. The British government gave the Spanish government 400,000 pounds
to compensate them. Cuba did not abide by the treaty.

4. In 1868 the pro-slavery Spanish monarch was replaced by a republican government:

The Republican (a state ruled by representatives of the citizen body) government had many
anti-slavery activists. They wanted to end slavery in Cuba and Puerto Rico. By 1880 the
government started its emancipation plan. The slaves in the colonies were to be freed in
stages. The Spanish had 200,000 slaves in the colonies and expected 90 % of this number to
be freed in 5 years (1885). By 1886 all slaves were to be freed.

 Four 4 factors that contributed to the ending of slavery in the French Caribbean.

1. The French Revolution in France: French Assembly condemned slave trade and
slavery in 1791.In 1794 slavery was abolished in France. The 1789 French revolution
was based on values of liberty, brotherhood and equality however; maintaining slavery
would contradict these values. Napoleon wanted to recapture Haiti in 1802 but 13 years
after (1815) he abolished the slave trade.

2. Petitions from the British to the French to end the slave trade: The British anti-
slavery movement sent 800 petitions/ written requests with 750,000 signatures to
persuade the French to end the slave trade. The French government was also receiving
petitions from merchants in Guadeloupe asking for the slave trade to be restored.

3. The 1st treaty of Paris was signed in 1814: France agreed to cooperate with Britain to
stop the slave trade. The British were not happy about the treaty because the specific
terms were not included. France’s colonies that were taken during war by the British had
to be given back to them. British abolitionists were angry about the five year grace period
before total abolition. Later in 1815 Britain, France, Spain, Sweden, Austria, Prussia,
Russia and Portugal all signed a declaration was wrong and is against humanity and
morality.

4. The 2nd Treaty of Paris signed: Britain, France, Austria, Prussia and Russia signed the
treaty to pledge that the abolition of the slave trade should be condemned as supported by
laws of religion and nature. They all wished that no grace period be granted to end the
slave trade. Some French ship owners were already prepared to sail to Africa because
they thought they had 5 more years to buy Africans. The British navy seized 3 French
ships suspected of being slave ships. By 1816 thirty six French ships were allowed to buy
slaves in West Africa. Later in 1817 Duke of Richelieu announced that slave ships found

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in French colonies would be confiscated and the captain banned. This statement did not
ban bringing slaves to France/non-French territories.

 Other factors: The French government gave 100 francs for every slave freed. After 1830
a law was passed laws became more severe – traders would be seen as criminals & could
be jailed for 2-5 years if caught in French waters &10-20 years if caught on high seas. In
1844 workers in Paris sent a petition to the French government calling for immediate
abolition of slavery. The government removed taxes that had to be paid to free slaves &
made it illegal to brand a slave. In 1833- law passed allowing people of mixed race to
have same right as whites/every black person entering France would be automatically
free.

 Four 4 factors that contributed to the ending of slavery in the British Caribbean.

1. The Amelioration Act of 1833: Amelioration was intended to improve the

living/working conditions of the slaves until they could be completely free. Jamaica
passed the Consolidated Slave Law which stipulated that: slaves should not work on
Sundays, 1 fee day every two weeks to do own planting, 26 days off yearly, work from 5
am to 7 pm, and get 30 minutes breakfast & 2 hours lunch. Planters did not want to lose
the support of the MP’s (most people were already anti-slavery) if a law was passed to
make slavery illegal so they made an amelioration proposal themselves.

2. British formation of The Society for Gradual Abolition of slavery: Abolitionist

formed the organization in 1823. They wanted to campaign for the immediate
improvement of working conditions for slaves & then get slavery abolished. They sent
over 750 petitions to the government. By 1831 the society got the public on their side.
They hired lectures and effective speakers to go around the country to give talks on why
slavery should be abolished. In the 1832 elections the abolitions persuaded the political
candidates to support abolition.

3. The Sam Sharpe/Christmas Rebellion: A report was made that missionary groups were
causing unrest in the colonies & tricking enslaved people to give them money. The
British government ignored this report. The assumptions that caused the report started
with Planters refusing to allow enslaved to testify in court & to learn and become a part
of Christianity. Salves were not expected to give missionaries money for offering
although it was a biblical principle. Slaves caught preaching would also be flogged. This
report caused a rumor to start that slaves were actually freed by the British government
but the planters were hiding the document.

4. Anti-Slavery Merchants/ Factory Owners winning seats in 1830 election: Because of

the industrial revolution a new class of wealthy men emerged. These men opposed the
Planters/landowners because they wanted laws to benefit their businesses. For example
Planters wanted laws to trade with British markets but businessmen wanted free trade
with other countries. This means that they could get cheaper goods, and buy & sell more
to make profits. These businessmen could vote and would choose to vote against slavery.

 Social/Economic and Political Factors causing slavery to end:

Social Factors- Slavery was abolished because people wanted it to be abolished.

Abolitionist such as the Quakers worked to get their antislavery message across.

Economic Factors- Slavery was abolished because there were better ways to make
money. The industrial revolution caused the building of factories which created wealth. .
France was producing beet sugar and this made sugar from the colonies less profitable

Political Factors- Leaders in society gained more power by stopping slavery. Since
Britain ended the slave trade in 1807 they wanted to stop the trade for other
nations. If Britain’s prosperity was harmed because of the existence of slavery in
other nations then it could cause war. Additionally the East India sugar company
(ECI) was producing sugar in India since 1792 and sold sugar with packaging to
state that they do not sell sugar produced by slaves.
Lesson 3: The provisions of Amelioration, Emancipation Act, and Apprenticeship proposals.
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 The Amelioration proposals.

Amelioration- was an attempt to improve the conditions of the enslaved Africans as the
abolitionists worked towards freeing them completely.

 The planters resisted Amelioration at first in the British Caribbean.

 Due to the implementation of the Consolidated Slave Law and the formation of the Society
for Gradual abolition of Slavery Amelioration was possible.

British Amelioration Features / Proposals:

1. No slave woman should be whipped.

2. A male slave who was to be beaten should be given one day’s notice before the
punishment.
3. All flogging exceeding 3 strokes were to be recorded and submitted every three months
to the magistrate.
4. Slave families were not to be split up when being sold to different owners.
5. Slaves could not be sold to pay off debts.
6. Planters should allow missionaries to preach to slaves freely so slaves could become
Christians.
7. Slaves could give evidence in court once sponsored by a member of the clergy/church.

British Amelioration Results:

1. The planters lost political power.

2. The public was against slavery and voted against it.

3. There was a passing of a bill/law to abolish slavery in British territories. The debate
lasted over 3 months. The bill had these principles:

 All slaves were to be freed at the same time.

 Most former slaves were to become apprentices who would have to work for
former master for a fixed number of hours weekly for a specified number of
years.
 Slave owners were to be paid a monetary sum as compensation for their slaves.
 The compensation money was to come from raising taxes on sugar from the
colonies.

 French Amelioration Features:

1. The French amelioration were driven less by public opinion and more by political
concerns.

2. Slave revolts took place in Martinique (1822, 18224 & 1833). France feared that
Martinique would repeat what happened in Haiti (Haitian revolution).

3. The tax on Manumission was repealed/ cancelled in 1832 and the process became simpler
for blacks to buy their freedom.

4. A law was passed in 1833 making it compulsory to register slaves and banned branding
and mutilation /cutting off slave’s body parts.

5. French abolition group Societe francaise pour l’ abolition de I’ escalvage was formed in
1834. In 1840 they introduced a law to abolish slavery. (was not passed as law).

Results:
1. By 1848 (8years later) after the society proposed the law the French Emancipation Act
was passed.
British Emancipation Act/ Act of Abolition clauses:
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1. Ensure that former slaves were protected.

2. Ensure a transition period between slavery & full freedom.

3. Placate/Satisfy planters whose business would be disrupted by these changes. (20 million
pounds to be divided between 19 colonies).

4. Before the new law against slavery takes full effect there will be a short period for
adjustment.

5. There will be an apprenticeship period where former slave owners will have the now free
people to work for them (as if slavery was still in force)

6. Former masters must still supply former slaves with food, clothing, shelter and medicine. If
food was not supplied the apprentices were to be given land near their quarters to plant their
own food.

7. Sunday should be a rest day for the apprentices and they should not be forced to work on this
day.

8. All laws banning the Non- Conformist & Quakers were repealed/cancelled.

The Apprenticeship system

Aims:
1. Prepare the ex-slaves for final freedom.

2. Give them time to learn “habits of industry”.

3. Allow time for legal changes- from slave laws to new laws.

4. Provide time for the establishment of colonial banking institutions to meet the needs of a
free society.
5. Give planters time to introduce new equipment, technology & labour management.

Features:
1. Non field slaves were to be apprentices for 4 years and field slaves for 6 years.

2. All children under 13 years were freed.

3. Needy mothers could allow free children to work as indentured labourers until these children
reached 21 years.

4. Stipendiary magistrates (government officials from/paid by England) sent to oversee/protect

freed Africans against overwork, maltreatment & abuse. 100 magistrates were appointed in
the Crown colonies.

5. Apprentices were to work 40 ½ hours per week.

6. Food allowances should continue as during slavery.

7. Apprentices could work for longer than time stipulated or purchase their freedom.

Nb: The apprenticeship system did not apply to Antigua as they opted for complete
emancipation.

 Problems with Apprenticeship system:

1. Rumors that slavery ended but the planters were keeping them as slaves for 6 more years.
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2. Planters changed apprentices from non praedial (not working of the field) to praedial (field
slaves) so they would work for 6 years instead of 4.

3. Slaves were not properly registered for stipendiary magistrates to act upon. Magistrates were
also paid low salaries (300 -400 pounds per year) therefore they were easily bribed. There
were 150 of them, 60 based in Jamaica. Some died from diseases.

4. Women and children were overworked.

5. The 40 ½ hours apprentices were expected to work moved to 45 and 50 hours. Word day
extended from 9 to 11 hours.

6. Food clothes and other requirements were withheld.

Failure of the Apprenticeship system:

 Apprenticeship ended prematurely because:

1. Planters tried to oppress their former slaves and free blacks refused to allow this.

2. Stipendiary Magistrates were taking bribes to suit Planters.

3. Free Blacks were still being treated as slaves in Jamaica, Grenada, Guyana and St Lucia.

4. There was a fear that the field slaves would start a riot when non field slaves were freed in
1838 and they would have to wait for 2 years.

5. Some colonies passed their own emancipation acts to end apprenticeship (Firstly Jamaica) as
they wanted to be free from expenses of proving food, shelter & medical care. The British
colonies followed suit after Jamaica passed their emancipation act.

SECTION B: MOVEMENTS TOWARDS EMANCIPATION-

Theme 5: Adjustments to Emancipation
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Lesson 1: Problems affecting the sugar industry in the English speaking Caribbean 1838-1854.

Five (5) factors affecting the sugar industry after 1838.

1. Competition from beet sugar- Beet sugar is made from a plant, commonly known as
beet (beet root). Andreas Maggraf who is a German chemist showed that beet could be
used in the place of sugar cane. By 1813 France set up 334 factories producing 4000 tons
of beet sugar. Overall, beet sugar was not more profitable than cane sugar until the 1870s.

2. British policy of mercantilism- mercantilism involved the belief that the Mother
Country’s wealth was determined by the gold and silver they had stored up. The country
was expected to export more and import less (import raw material & export finished
products). Britain would import cheap raw materials; make manufactured goods from
them and the sell it to the colonies/other countries/within national borders. Higher taxes
were charged on refined sugar coming from English colonies into England.

3. Increasing Cost of production- Some plantations were mismanaged by estate managers.

Absentee planters were in England and had no idea how these managers used profits.
Additionally slavery had ended 1838 and ex-slaves were to be paid wages.

4. Increasing Debts- Planters borrowed excessively from British merchants and were
unable to repay their loans because of low profits. Planters tried to bowwow loans from
The Bank of British Guiana, The Planters’ Bank of Jamaica, & The Colonial Bank of
the West Indies. These banks did not wish to use estates as security anymore. The
colonial bank did not offer large sums to planters anymore.

5. Shortage of cheap/regular labour force - Since slavery ended ex-slaves were leaving
the plantation. Those who left established themselves as peasant farmers. They planted
small-scale market crops & they kept livestock. Skilled black men moved to towns where
they were employed as blacksmith (make/repair iron things with their hand) and
carpenters.

Four (4) reasons for the decline in sugar production

1. The trade policies of the British government-

The British used several legislations under mercantilism. They include:
 Navigation Act 1651- goods leaving England to the colonies and vice versa had to be
transported in English/colonial ships. The intention was to prevent trade with the
Dutch.

 Second Navigation Act 1660- it became illegal for other countries to export goods
(tobacco, sugar, cotton) to England/British territories.

 The staple Act 1663- goods from other European countries had to be shipped to
England before it could be exported to Caribbean in British ships only.

 Plantation duties Act 1673- certain goods were taxed and taxes had to be paid before
shipment of goods.

2. Competition from Spanish and French sugar producers- Some counties such as Cuba
produced high quality sugar on a large scale. Their industry boomed when others were
declining.

3. A glut on the sugar market- Many sugar producers existed.

4. Shortage of labour. - Slaves were leaving plantation to set up farms and become peasant
farmers. They were also established in free village settlements and did not need to go on
the plantations to work. Some ex-slaves worked part time on plantations to supplement

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their income but planters were not satisfied. Planters turned to contact labour (indentured
labour )

Five (5) strategies used to deal with the decline in the sugar industry.

1. Alternative labour sources- Indian indentured laborers were used.

2. Mechanization of production- Steam mills replaced animal mills. New equipment was
installed such as the vacuum pans (allowed more cane syrup to turn into sugar crystals)
and centrifuge (device used to spin the sugar cane juice).

3. Introduction of new varieties of cane – Attempts were made to improve variety of cane
that would have higher sugar content.

4. New farming techniques- New techniques on the fields included:

 Plough and harrow

 Different types of fertilizers
 Irrigation systems
 Proper drainage systems.

5. Planters establish newer markets- Some planters turned to the USA to export their
sugar. U.S.A is near to the region and they had cheaper transport than exporting to
Britain.

Other strategies:
 Planters sought technical advice from skilled engineers to give information on
manufacturing techniques to save cost. Department of agriculture was established to give
assistance/financial advice/ conduct research on new crops.

 Also estates were joined together to form larger ones. This made factory use efficient,
labour was readily available and markets shared. More land was available therefore the
more fertile areas were cultivated. Large estates got loans easier than small ones. Planters
could then divide the loan amount to benefit all owners.

Lesson 2: Attitudes towards labour in the English speaking Caribbean after 1838.

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The attitudes towards labour in the English speaking Caribbean after 1838.

 Landowners, employers and free persons all had a different attitude towards labour in the
English speaking Caribbean after 1838.

 White Planters wanted to ensure that they had labour for their sugar plantations. The
government and the Planters tried to stop the emancipated Africans from acquiring land by
making it too expensive for them to buy. Planters were now paying wages and they felt as
though they could make more profits if they could pay lower wages. This caused them to
introduce immigrant workers from locations such as India, China, Africa and Europe.

 Former slaves (ex-slaves) wanted to get a good wage for any work they did. In some cases
the ex-slaves stayed on the plantation. On the other hand some ex slaves were able to
purchase abandoned estates. Some black ex-slaves became shop-keepers, petty traders,
hucksters (selling on the streets/ hustling) and small landowners. Most Ex- slaves were not
satisfied with the new arrangements after 1838. They now had to pay for their provision
grounds, doctor fees and proving for their own basic needs. While health care, housing, and
food were free during slavery this was not the case after 1838. They had to pay rent for their
provision grounds.

 The different schemes of migration as a solution to the problem of labour.

The Indian immigrant workers were the most successful in terms of providing labour for
the plantations. This scheme became full-fledged since 1845. The Indians were hard working
and accustomed to agricultural labour. It was also easy to transfer Indian workers from India
which was a British territory to other British territories. Other groups that were used to solve
the labour problem included the Chinese, Africans, and some Europeans.

 The effects of immigration on the sugar industry.

 Sugar production declined up to 1842 in most of the British colonies.

 Barbados did not have immigrants (there were enough willing persons to work on the
plantations) but by the 1850s sugar production increased there.

 Although immigrants went to Jamaica sugar export declined. Jamaica did not invest
heavily in indentured labourers.

 Immigrant labour helped some colonies such as Antigua but made no difference in
others like Jamaica.
 The impact of immigration on the migrant groups.

 Indian settled largely in British Guiana (Guyana) and Trinidad.

 In islands where Indians were few they were absorbed into the wider society.

 They sometimes kept to themselves in areas outside of British Guiana and

Trinidad that they had no social impact.

 Sometimes Indians migrated to areas where they would socialize with a larger
Indian settlement.

 The Chinese and Portuguese who came started retail businesses or became
merchants/traders.

 All the immigrant groups helped to change the Caribbean islands into a plural
society. This means the members of each country became citizens of these
countries however they were from different, racial, ethnic, religious and ancestral
cultural backgrounds.

Lesson 3: The impact of free villages in the British West Indies.

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Subtopic: Crown Colony Government in the English speaking Caribbean.

 Define the terms peasant, free peasants and agrarian society.

 Peasant- A poor small landholder or agricultural labourer of low social status.

 Free peasants- In the Caribbean the term free peasants is used to distinguish between
those people who cultivated land when they were still enslaved or who were never
enslaved and the blacks who became landholders after emancipation in 1838.

 Agrarian society- This is a society based on farming or agriculture.

 The impact of free village settlements in the English speaking Caribbean.

 The free village movement – After slavery was abolished in the British West Indies some
ex-slaves moved from off the plantations and settled in communities they formed called free
villages.

 Although some blacks were small landholders the white Planters were still oppressing them.
They were stronger financially if they worked as groups; this is why the free village
settlement was important.

 Christianity was an important aspect of the formation of the free villages as the black persons
and well as missionaries who assisted to purchase these lands all believed in Christianity.
The church joined them together in purchasing land, holding political protests against unfair
laws and injustice and learning how to read and write.

 Free villages were established before emancipation in 1838 by runaway slaves in British
Guiana and Jamaica. Planters were fearful that newly freed slaves would join these
settlements or set up new villages after emancipation.

 Free villages developed rapidly in Jamaica. The first free village in Jamaica was Sligoville in
St Catherine (about 100 families left the estates to live there after the declaration of
emancipation). This village was set up by a Baptist Minister in 1835.

 In 1838 another free village named Sturge Town was built on land purchased by the
Anglican Church. A church and a school were built which hosted 70 families.

 By 1842 there were over 200 free villages in Jamaica with a population of about 20,000
individuals overall.

 Free villages occupied about 100,000 acres which cost the ex-slaves about 70,000 pounds to
purchase.

 Many free villages were named after leaders of the anti-slavery movement such as
Wilberforce, Clarkson, Sturge and Sligo. Free villages were also set up in Antigua, St
Vincent and Grenada.

 Some free villages in Jamaica initially included:

 Hanover- Sandy Bay & Mount Herob

 Manchester- Maidstone/Nazreth & Vale Lionel renamed Porus

 St. Ann- Buxton and Harmony

 St. Catherine- Sligoville & Kitson Town

 Trelawny- Kettering, Albert Town & Time and Patience

 St. James- Goodwill, Bethel Town, & Maldon

 The contribution of free peasants in the English speaking Caribbean.

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 The peasant class emerged in the British West Indies after 1838. The free peasants group
grew quickly. Ex-slaves began to own land in Jamaica and Barbados. The number of small
farmers increased in Barbados and landholding increased in Jamaica, Trinidad and Haiti
(French). Planters were generally reluctant to selling land to their former slaves. Laws were
passed which made buying the land in small portions expensive (1 pound per acre); in some
cases the land was sold in large pieces so that the ex-slaves could not purchase it (40 acres
per sale). Some ex-slaves were seen as squatters, this was illegal.

 Free blacks were still able to purchase land individually or in groups by pooling their
resources together.

 Economic contribution of the peasantry:

The peasants produced crops for sale and for general consumption. They produced honey,
ginger, bananas and arrowroot. Other products included spices, logwood, cotton, cocoa,
coffee and rum. Trade also increased because the ex-slaves now had to buy their own
food, clothing and equipment. By 1850, 10 percent of the goods exported were by free
peasants. By 1890, 39% of export in Jamaica was produced by peasants (mainly ground
provisions).

 Challenges in establishing a peasantry:

 Belize- Land that could be cultivated for agriculture was located far from the markets where
timber (mahogany) and farm produce could be sold. This limited the ability for ex-slaves to
be employed.

 St Kitts and Antigua- These colonies had fewer free peasants because of the limited
availability of land to buy or squat on.

 The reasons for the adoption of Crown Colony in the English speaking Caribbean.

 The colonies had some form of government. The government is a group of people who ran
the affairs of the colony/country. At first most countries were led under military rule from
1656- 1661. Civil government took over from 1661-1664. The old representative system
started in 1664 and ended in 1865. On the other hand the Crown colony government started
in 1854 and ended in 1938.

 The old representative system of government consisted of a governor, an assembly and a

council. Under this system the governor had power but no authority and the assembly had
authority but no power.

 The Crown Colony government involved some control of legislation, usually administered
by an appointed governor. The crown had direct rule of the colony. This system was
prevalent in the colonies until they became independent in the 20th century.

 Why was there a change from Old representative system to Crown Colony?

1. In the old representative system the governor passed all laws but the assembly controlled
the annual budget.

2. There were concerns about the government not being able to buy supplies or pay salaries.

3. After emancipation the British government was more concerned about former slaves
therefore the Mother Country had several disagreements about how the colonies were
run.

4. There was mismanagement of government funds. Many planters were returning to

England and the plantations were making less profit due to mismanagement by attorneys
and overseers. More government employees were retrenched/ laid off.

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5. Persons from the government were being laid off because money was unavailable to pay
them. This issue occurred twice in 1853 in British Guiana and Jamaica. The British
government decided that the monies in the colonies had to be used differently.

6. Sir Henry Barkly was sent by the British government to Jamaica with an offer to remove
most of the debt if the assembly and the council passed a law to give the governor more
powers. This was done after several months.

 Generally, the Crown Colony government allowed the structure of the assembly to remain
the same but private members could no longer propose budgets. An executive committee
was put into place, consisting of one council member and a maximum of 3 assembly
members who would communicate with the governor to make their budgets/money bills.
The council could now introduce bills however these bills could not deal with money bills.
 The crown colony started in 1854 in Jamaica and Tobago.
 The crown colony started in 1859 in St Kitts, Nevis and St. Vincent.
 By 1875 all these islands including Dominican and Grenada had a unicameral
legislature.
 A unicameral government at that time was made up of the governor and a council
with a majority of the nominated members. There was no elected assembly.
 A bicameral legislature involves a government system with 2 law making bodies
(council & assembly). Most independent Caribbean countries have this structure.

 Free blacks benefited from Crown colony as they could put their money in
government banks, buy land and build cottages.

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SECTION C: MOVEMENTS TOWARDS INDEPENDECE AND

REGIONAL INTEGRATION UP TO 1985
Theme 9: Caribbean Society 1900-1985.

Lesson 1: The social and economic conditions existing in the Caribbean between 1900 and
1985.

 Social and economic conditions existing in the Caribbean between 1900 and 1985.

The social and economic conditions in the Caribbean from 1900-1935 related to the following
aspects of human life:

1. Housing-
 The earliest houses were called wattle huts. This was built with West African techniques. The
walls on this house were made from braided twigs. Houses in Haiti for example were built
from royal palm trees (palms made the roof & trunks made the walls). As time passed houses
were made box –like and brightly painted in blue, yellow and red.

 Houses/Buildings were supposed to be made for effective use (form follows function). Even
if they designed them attractively they were expected to be purposeful.

 Wood-shingled houses popularized in the 18th century. The walls of these houses were made
spider like two by four planks pressed against a rectangular roof. Bigger houses had four
poster beds with mosquito nets, rocking chairs with wicker seats and side table made from
mahogany.

 The planter chair (unique furniture) - It had wicker seats, a round back, and long arms that
swung out. The planter would allow a servant to remove his leather boots in this chair.

 By the 19th century cast iron was used to make houses but this house generated too much
heat. Colonial architecture can be noticed in Barbados (St. Nicholas Abbey, an old building
with columns, verandah, curved arches & 4 chimneys. This was unsuitable for the Caribbean.

 At the start of the 20th century more people started to move from rural areas to urban areas
(urbanization). House painting became more popular between the two world wars.
Urbanization started immediately after emancipation because city jobs were more available
& paid better wages.

 Urbanization created slums as people entering urban areas constructed wattle huts with
woven tree branches & leaves. They also used clay or wood to build houses in the 20th
century. Poor blacks/coloured in countries such as Suriname, Guyana and Barbados were
badly in need of housing. Guyana and Suriname had too many swamps and posed a problem
for establishing houses.

 Throughout the 20th century urbanization was highest in countries such as: Puerto Rico,
Bahamas, Martinique (90% of population lived in cities).(Mostly concrete)

 Countries with more rural settlements in the 20th century included: Haiti, Grenada,
Montserrat, St Kitts and Nevis & St. Lucia. (mostly wooden structures)

 Towns in the Caribbean had a similar appearance as they were founded based on Spanish
customs (the 1st Europeans to explore and establish settlements in the Caribbean). Towns
were usually near the coast, had a central plaza and a grid pattern of streets. Important
buildings surrounded the town (example: government offices & churches).Areas surrounding
the towns were called shanty towns (underdeveloped towns).

 Features of houses:
 British Caribbean features- houses had porches but the woodwork and eaves (the part of
the roof that hangs off) were made with Caribbean architectural style (frills and lacework).

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 French Caribbean features- houses had dormer windows that allowed the wind to cool the
house more efficiently.

 Middle Class- lived in concrete houses designed along U.S.A/British styles. These were
enclosed houses unsuitable for tropical climate.

 Upper Class- lived in similar houses to the middle class however they more likely had
houses designed for the Caribbean climate & landscape. These proper houses had high
ceilings, large windows & a porch to allow breeze to pass through. (Houses made of wood,
stone, wooden louvers)

2. Cost of living-
 The rising cost of living caused protests in the 1930s. Persons were experiencing food and
housing shortage. The government tried to spend more on public services, education and
health to lessen the problems.

 The budget in 1900s for these services per person increased from $7 usd per person to $69
usd in 1960. However this was not a significant increase as the prices for goods increased
over the years (inflation).

 Every year people paid 3 or 5 percent more for food, clothing, transport and other amenities.
The rise in prices affected the poor more than it affected the rich (greater part of their income
was spent on food).

 Most successful economies including tourism, mining and agriculture (banana/sugar) were
owned by foreigners. The banana industry was the only industry owned locally.
Entrepreneurship was rare.

3. Working conditions-
 The workers conditions in the 1900s were poor. Marcus Garvey assisted as a political activist
in pressuring the British government to provide better opportunities for the people.
 Garvey was born in St Ann’s Bay Jamaica. At age 14 he left school to work at a printing firm
where he led a strike for higher wages. In 1914 he founded the United Negro Improvement
Association (UNIA). UNIA failed in 1953.

 Under the UNIA Garvey went to the British government about issues such as wages, civil
liberties-the right to strike, universal adult suffrage (1944), and land ownership for blacks in
the Caribbean.

 Since the 1980s laws have been passed by some countries to prevent child labour.
Additionally labour laws are established. Maternity leave had also been extended to women
in the 1900s.

 Maternity leave laws-

 Barbados- The Employment of Women (Maternity Leave) Act (1976). Allowed pregnant
women employed for at least a year to get maternity leave with pay (no more than 3
pregnancies)

 Jamaica- Jamaica Maternity Leave Act (1979). Allows a pregnant woman employed for one
year to be absent from work (2 months with pay due to pregnancy and return to job.

 Trinidad and Tobago- The Maternity Protection Act (1998). Allows pregnant women to be
absent from work and receive pay and return to job.

4. Unemployment-

 Up to the 1980s unemployment was a major issue in the English speaking Caribbean.
Unemployment was noticed in countries such as Barbados, Jamaica and Trinidad and
Tobago. Female participation in the work force was usually high however both men and
women could not get jobs.
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5. Health-
 At the start of the 1900s/ 20th century the average life expectancy was 50 years old in the
Caribbean.

 Infectious diseases such as yellow fever, malaria, and tuberculosis shortened life
expectancy.

 By the 1960s life expectancy increased to 60 years because of improvement in medical

science and availability of health care. In recent years the life expectancy rate has
increased to 68 years for men and 73 years for women.

 Efforts made to improve the social conditions:

The following organizations or groups were involved in improving the living conditions of
Caribbean people from 1900 to 1985:

1. Trade Unions-
 Trade unions emerged from 1937 onwards. Trade unions fought for better working
conditions for workers, higher wages and job security.

 Trade unions included: the Progressive lead in Barbados, the Workingmen’s Association in
St Vincent, The People’s National Party in Jamaica, the All Trinidad Sugar Estate and
Factory Workers Union in Trinidad.

2. Government (policies)-
 Labour laws were developed to protect the rights of the workers. Laws were debated to get
shorter working hours, workers compensation, better working conditions, restrictions on
child labour, & social insurance. These laws were passed.
 Universal adult suffrage was introduced in 1944 giving individuals over the age of 18 the
right to vote.

 Primary and secondary schools were built giving children a better opportunity to get an
education up to a secondary level.

 Larger /richer territories (Jamaica, Barbados &Trinidad) built hospitals, roads, highways,
housing developments and sports facilities.

 In Barbados welfare schemes were put into place that provided free education and school
meals.

 Government provided public assistance, soup kitchens and homes for the homeless.

3. Women’s organization-
The international women’s movement of the 1960’s and the 1970’s allowed women to
organize and fight for their rights by speaking out.

4. United Negro Improvement Association (U.N.I.A)-

 The U.N.I.A (led by Marcus Garvey) was instrumental in the creation of black
consciousness. Black men and women were encouraged to pursue self-employment. Some
people went to Liberty Hall (est.1923) which is found in Kingston Jamaica to learn skills and
get training. Garvey had a job agency at Liberty Hall.

Lesson 2: Social life and the emergence of religious groups in the Caribbean 1900-1985.

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 Aspects of social life in the Caribbean from 1900 to 1985.

1. Ethnic & Race relations-

 Racial prejudice exists in the Caribbean. In Puerto Rico they do not like Dominicans. In
Haiti the mixed race is privileged. Whites were always given the higher status during slavery
and this attitude is still persistent in the Caribbean. In some communities light skin
complexion is given higher status and preference for employment in customer service.

 Racial tension is evident in Guyana and Trinidad because of the presence of Indians in these
countries. Africans and Indians accounted for about 40% of the population. When slavery
had ended and indentured labour ended the Africans and Indians competed for economic and
political power. The tension has not turned into violence and the groups interact in public
places. However in Guyana the Africans and Indian remained separate from each other, this
was not the case in Trinidad.

 Race relations have impacted politics in Guyana and Trinidad.

 Throughout the Caribbean minorities (Chinese in Trinidad, Jamaica, Martinique, Guyana.

Syrians in Trinidad and Tobago and Dominican Republic and Jews in Curacao and Jamaica)
who were economically successful were not liked by the other ethnic groups.

2. Festivals and celebrations-

 Carnival- this takes place in Trinidad in February of March depending on when Ash
Wednesday falls. For Trinidad carnival lasts for 2 days but carnival fete begins from January.
Carnival takes places in other Caribbean countries (St Vincent in May & Jamaica in August).

 Crop over- this takes place in Barbados and lasts for 5 weeks from July to August. The use
one day for the masquerade. This Barbadian festival is abundant with music and dancing and
if traced back to slavery.

 Hindu festival Divali- Indians brought their religion as indentured workers to the Caribbean.
Therefore the Divali or Festival of Lights which involved lighting wicks (string in center of
candle) in small clay pots, and they served Indian food. They cleaned their houses as they
believed the goddess Lakshmi would give them wealth and prosperity. (Popular in Trinidad
and Guyana).

 Muslim festival Eid-ul-fitr- this festival marked the ending of the month of Ramadan. The
Muslims gave alms (money and food) to poor people. In Ramadan Muslims fast from sunrise
to sunset, practice self-control and engage in reflection. They have meeting in mosques after
Ramadan, dress in new clothes, decorate their homes and invite their friends for meals.

3. Recreation/ Art forms-

 Caribbean people engage in activities such as sailing which is popular among tourists.
Additionally they participate in regattas (boat race competitions), for example in Antigua and
Grenada.

 There are music festivals such as reggae Sum fest in Jamaica held in July. Reggae developed
in the 1960s in Jamaica and Bob Marley is often associated with this genre.

 Caribbean people watch or play sports. Two popular sports in the Caribbean are cricket &
football. The West Indies cricket team which originated in the 1890s represents 15 Caribbean
countries. They have played international matches with other countries outside the region
since 1928.

4. Transportation/ Communication-
 Communication- People now use land line telephones and mobile cell networks to
communicate.

 Transportation-Caribbean people used oxen (castrated bull/cow) and horses. Carts were
drawn by animals (horses, bulls, and bison/buffalo).

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 Vehicles included Lorries (large truck to carry goods), trucks and cars and tram cars.
Bicycles, scooters and motorcycles were also popular.

 Airplanes, ferries (boat/ship for transport of goods/people over short distances) and boats
were also used in the 1980s.

 In the present day transportation includes vehicles such as cars and trucks, scooters and
motorcycles, ships and airplanes. Airlines in the Caribbean include Caribbean Airlines, Air
Jamaica, Suriname Airways, Air Guyana, Winair & St. Lucia Airline.

 Social life and the emergence of religious groups in the Caribbean 1900-1985.

1. Christian Churches-
 Different groups of Christian churches exist in the Caribbean (Roman Catholics, Anglicans,
Methodists and Pentecostal).

 Other religions in the Caribbean are classified as :

Africanist (Vodun, Santeria, Orisha, Shango) – strongly influenced by African traits.

Revivalist (Pentecostal, Baptist, Spirit Baptists) –based on protestant movements (U.S.A)
Magical (Myalism, Espertismo, Native Baptists) - fortune telling, herbal healing, rituals.
Redemptionist (Rastafarianism, Nation of Islam) – based on slavery/overcoming oppression.

2. Hinduism-
 Hindus started arriving in the Caribbean since emancipation in 1838 as a result of labour
shortage. Hinduism had different branches and it was difficult to maintain certain traditions
because of their small numbers on the plantation, everyone did the same type of work and
there was shortage of women to marry.

 In India they had a caste system (social hierarchy that determined occupation and who they
could marry). Caste system contained Brahmins (noblemen, religious leaders, philosophers),
Kshatriyas (soldiers/administrators), Vaishyas (merchants/farmers) and Sudras ( labourers)
respectively.

 Hindus preserved their culture as only a minority of them was convinced to be Christians. In
the 1890s in Trinidad the East Indian Association was formed to protect the rights of Indians.
A few Hindu groups were in Jamaica and St Vincent.

3. Muslim-
 The 1st Islamic people to enter the Caribbean came as enslaved Africans. After emancipation
the first set of indentured labourers were taken to the Caribbean. By the 1930s they set up
organizations such as Anjuman and the Islamic missionary Guild in 1960.

 Trinidad and Guyana had the highest Muslim population. Muslims of African descent are
widely found in Jamaica as well.

 Muslims had the “Five pillars of Islam” which guided their belief in Allah as God,
Muhammad as his messenger and that they should pray 5 times daily.

 They also believed in fasting at Ramadan (exempting children and pregnant women/sick
people). In addition they believed in giving to the less fortunate and going to Mecca on a
pilgrimage at least once in their life.

4. African Syncretic religions-

 Spiritual Baptists (largely found in Trinidad, Barbados, St. Vincent, Grenada) are an example
of religions that have mixed African doctrines with Christianity. They were referred to as
Shouter Baptists (negative term) because of their loud singing and clapping.

 A law was passed in Trinidad (Shouters Prohibition Ordinance 1917) by the colonial
government to stop their practices. The religion was banned for disturbing prominent
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citizens. In 1996 the Prime Minister of Trinidad Basdeo Panday granted Spiritual Baptists a
public holiday to remember their struggles & celebrate their religion.

5. Rastafarianism-
 This religion started in the Caribbean (Jamaica) in the 1930s. The movement is traced back to
1784. A U.S.A slave, George Liele was freed by his owner and in Jamaica he started the
Ethiopian Baptist church linking Christianity to Africa.

 Alexander Bedward later started the Native Baptist Church in 1891.Bedward claimed he had
healing powers, that he was Jesus reborn, and that he would destroy whites after he and his
followers went to heaven.

 This belief by Bedward in redemption was an important part of the Rastafarian movement. In
the 1930s Haile Selassie became Emperor of Ethiopia and claimed to be the 225th descendant
of the line of King David /Queen Sheba in the Bible.

 Marcus Garvey is believed to have made a prophecy about a black messiah who would free
blacks from oppression. This messiah was speculated to be Selassie.

 Rastafarian use the colours red (stands for blood of people who died because of belief in the
religion, green (Ethiopia beauty/vegetation) and gold (wealth of Africa) to represent them.
Rastas consume natural foods, were vegetarians, sported dreadlocks and believed in peace.

 Jamaican government has apologized to the Rastafarian community for slaughters committed
against them by the police at Coral Gardens in St James in 1963. There was also a “Back-o-
Wall” incident where Rastas were beaten/ forced to trim their locks in Kingston in 1959.

 Implications of membership in the various religious groups.

Being a part of religious groups from 1900-1985 had several implications. These can be
classified as social, economic and political implications.

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