SCIENCE CLUSTER

SCHOOL YEAR 2021 - 2022

BIO01 - General Biology 1

Course Outcome 2 | Quarter 1

The Cell Cycle

Prepared by:

BERNICE LORRAINE F. ROY

NAME: ____________________________________ TEACHER: ________________________

YEAR AND SECTION: _______________________ SCHEDULE: _______________________

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e-mail address: shs@mapua.edu.ph
telephone number: 8247 - 5000
BIO01 | General Biology 1

COURSE OUTCOME BULLETIN

Objective: This module aims to define the key terms related to the cell cycle. Specifically, this
aims to cover how prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells reproduce through the different
stages/phases of binary fission and cell division (mitosis and meiosis), respectively. This module
will also cover a particular type of disease that is caused by malfunctions in the cell cycle.
Subject Matters:
I. The Cell Cycle
II. Reproduction of Bacterial Cells by Binary Fission
III. Eukaryotic Cell Cycle
IV. Checkpoints and Regulations in the Eukaryotic Cell Cycle
V. Cell Division: Mitosis
VI. Cell Division: Meiosis
VII. Disoders/Diseases resulting from the malfunctions in the Cell Cycle
Learning Competencies: (main ideas or skills you expect students to master)
I. How Bacterial Cells reproduce via Binary Fission
II. Different stages of the Interphase and its control points
III. Stages, Importance, and Application of Mitosis
IV. Stages, Importance, and Application of Meiosis
V. Common Human Disorders/Diseases resulting from errors during the Cell Cycle
Evaluation:
Performance Task: DNA Damage and Human Diseases associated with Mitosis and
Cytokinesis Failure

Written Work: Blackboard Exam – The Cell Cycle

**NOTE: Ensure you will include where the student can access the activity, for example, ALEKS Workbook, Blackboard Assessment.

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Introduction

According to one of the three statements in the Cell Theory, new cells come only from pre-existing cells
by cell division. This is based from the scientific works of Rudolf Virchow. This means that every cell in an
organism does not come out of nothing. Rather, a cell originates from another cell. This module covers
how cells reproduce. Specifically, this module discusses how prokaryotic cells reproduce by binary fission
and how cell division occurs in eukaryotic cells. This also includes a brief discussion of the
disorders/diseases resulting from malfunctions or errors in cell division.

Pre-Test
TRUE OR FALSE. Analyze each statement carefully. Write True if the statement is correct. Otherwise, write
False. Write your answers in your respective notebooks. Check your answers after reading this module.

1. Most bacteria reproduce by Binary Fission.

2. In the G1 Phase of Interphase, cells grow in size.
3. In the S phase of Interphase, DNA replication occurs in the cell nucleus.
4. Gametes are the cells involved during mitosis.
5. Gametes are diploid cells.
6. Kinetochores are proteins attached in the centromere of a chromosome.
7. A centrosome is composed of two centrioles.
8. Mitosis is divided into two phases.
9. Cells with defective organelles can proceed to the S phase of the cell cycle.
10. Cells that are no longer needed by the body can go through apoptosis.

I. Cell Cycle
The Cell Cycle is a series of events involving growth, synthesis, and regulations in a cell that results
in cell division. Cell division refers to the reproduction of cells or a process where a parent cell
produces new, daughter cells. In the succeeding sections of this module, the reproduction of cells
in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes is discussed. Generally, the reproduction of cells in
prokaryotes is relatively simpler compared to that occurring in eukaryotes.

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II. Prokaryotic Cell Cycle: Binary Fission

Cell division in prokaryotes such as in
bacteria occurs through a process called
Binary Fission as illustrated in Figure 1. This
process start with a parent cell which
divides into two daughter cells.

Recall that prokaryotic cells such as

bacterial cells are characterized by a circular
and naked DNA. At the start of the binary
fission and prior to cell division, the DNA of
a parent cell replicates to produce its
identical copy. At this point, all other parts
of the cell duplicates. During DNA
replication, the bacterial cell also increases
its length and enlarges. After which, the
plasma membrane moves inward and
deposits a new cell wall material, thus
forming a cross septum. The cell then
begins to divide and separates into two new
daughter cells. Since the parent cell
underwent DNA replication, each of the
daughter cells formed contains the same or
identical copy of the DNA. The process of
binary fission can continue wherein each
daughter cell formed can now act as parent
cells that will each undergo DNA
replication, elongation, and cell division to
produce 2 daughter cells each, a total of 4.
Figure 1. Bacterial Cell Division via Binary Fission

Through binary fission, prokaryotic cells has an exponential growth. Reproduction of cells in
prokaryotes is affected by several conditions such as the medium where they are growing,
temperature, and nutrients available.

III. Eukaryotic Cell Cycle

Eukaryotic cell cycle is more complex than the cell cycle in prokaryotes. This is because eukaryotes
have sets of chromosomes, which require proper sorting. The eukaryotic cell cycle has three
stages namely 1) Growth Stage, 2) Mitosis (Nuclear Division), and 3) Cytokinesis (Cytoplasmic
Division), as shown in Figure 2.

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Figure 2. The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle

3.1 Growth Stage – Interphase

The Growth Stage includes the Interphase, which is further divided into three phases namely G1
phase (Gap 1), S phase (synthesis phase), and G2 phase (Gap 2). During the interphase, the cell
prepares itself for cell division.

In the G1 phase or Gap 1 phase, the organelles within the cell are performing their normal
functions, and the cell grows in size. After G1 phase is the S phase or synthesis phase. The name
comes after the event occurring in this phase, which is DNA synthesis. In the S phase, the DNA of
the cell initially organized as a chromatid (chromosome) replicates to form a pair of sister
chromatids. For example, if at G1 phase, there are 46 chromatids (46 chromosomes), after the S

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phase, there will now be 92 chromatids (46 chromosomes). During the G2 phase or Gap 2 phase,
the cell continues to prepare itself for mitosis and cell division. At this phase, the cell produces
proteins that help in sorting the chromosomes. The cell also double checks the chromosomes for
errors to make repairs if necessary and prevent malfunctions during the cell division.

3.2 Mitosis (Nuclear Division)

The next stage of the cell cycle is mitosis or nuclear division. Mitosis is divided into four stages –
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase. We’ll discuss in detail the events occurring in
each of these 4 stages in the next section of the module.

Mitosis is a process in which the nucleus of a cell divides into two. The 92 sister chromatids (46
chromosomes) are separated and sorted so that when new daughter cells are formed, each will
receive 46 chromatids (46 chromosomes).

3.3 Cytokinesis (Cytoplasmic Division)

Following the mitosis is the cytokinesis. Cytokinesis refers to the division of the cytoplasm to
produce two distinct daughter cells.

IV. Checkpoints and Regulation of the Eukaryotic Cell Cycle

The eukaryotic cell cycle is a highly regulated process as illustrated in Figure 3. It makes sure that
the cell is at proper condition and is well-prepared for cell division to avoid errors. Several proteins
are involved in making sure that the cell division occurs properly. In eukaryotic cells, cyclins and
cyclin-dependent kinases are examples of these proteins. The cyclin-dependent kinases, which

Figure 3. Checkpoints in the Eukaryotic Cell Cycle

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are mainly responsible for regulating the cell cycle, have to be activated by binding with the
cyclins.

Referring to Figure 3, during the G1 phase of the interphase, G1 cyclin levels increase. This
indicates that the cell has sufficient nutrients and growth factors to proceed with the cell cycle.
The G1 cyclin then binds to the cyclin-dependent kinase to form the cyclin/cyclin-dependent
kinase complex, and both becomes activated. Upon activation, the cyclin-dependent kinase
phosphorylates other proteins needed by the cell to proceed to the next stage of the cell cycle,
which is the S phase. When the cell is already in the S phase, the G1 cylin degrades. Then, in the
G2 phase, levels of mitotic cyclins increase. It binds to the cyclin-dependent kinase to form the
mitotic cyclin/cyclin-dependent kinase complex, which phosphorylates the proteins needed by
the cell to enter the mitosis stage. Once the cell completes the mitosis stage, the mitotic cyclin
degrades.

Other checkpoint and regulatory proteins also participates in the cell cycle. Proteins in the G1
phase, called G1-checkpoint proteins, checks if the DNA is in good condition or is damaged. If the
DNA is damaged, these proteins prevent it from entering the S phase to prevent replication of
damaged DNA. A damaged DNA creates malfunctions in the cell division. Malfunctions in the cell
division can cause harm such as a disease in an organism. Proteins in the G2 phase, called G2-
checkpoint proteins, checks newly synthesized DNAs from the S phase. In case that damages are
found at this point, modifications are performed before it enters the mitosis stage. Proteins in the
mitosis stage also regulates the cell cycle as it proceeds ensuring that the process occurs smoothly
and without malfunctions.

V. Cell Division: Mitosis

Mitosis is a type of cell division in which a parent cell produces two daughter cells that are both
genetically identical to it. As mentioned in the previous section, mitosis, generally, involves the
division of the cell nucleus into two. It is specifically divided into 4 stages namely prophase,
metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Following these stages is the cytokinesis or the division of
the cytoplasm.

The importance of mitosis, especially for eukaryotes, is that it is necessary for the growth and
development of an organism. Mitosis is necessary to form the more complex structures in an
organism such as tissues and organs. Moreover, mitosis is the process involved when an organism
needs new and genetically identical cells to replace those that are already old, lost, and/or
damaged.

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5.1 Eukaryotic DNA Organization

The DNA of eukaryotes is linear, has a double helix structure, and is associated with proteins in
order to be organized in a way that it properly fits inside the cell nucleus, as illustrated in Figure
4. When the DNA is wrapped around histone proteins, nucleosomes are formed. These
nucleosomes fold to produce the chromatin.When chromatins further condenses, it forms the
chromosomes.

Figure 4. Eukaryotic DNA Organization

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Shown in Figure 5 is how the chromosomes in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cells look like prior to
mitosis. In the S phase of the interphase, which occurs before mitosis, chromatin replicates. A pair
of sister chromatids are formed. When mitosis starts, chromatins condense and become more
compact.The centromere is a region in the chromosome where sister chromatids are linked
together. It is also in the centromere where a protein complex, called kinetochore, assembles.
Kinetochores are attachment sites for spindle fibers, which are key structures in moving and
segregating chromosomes during cell division like mitosis.

Figure 5. Chromosomes in the cell nucleus before Mitosis

5.2 Stages of Mitosis

After the G1 phase, S phase, and G2 phase of Interphase, cells proceed to the different stages of
mitosis. The process of mitosis in animal cells and plant cells is the same.

5.2.1 Prophase
During interphase, the chromosomes in the cell nucleus are not condensed, see Figure 6,
step 1. When cells proceed to the prophase stage of mitosis (Figure 6, step 2), these
chromosomes condense to form a more organized and more compact structure, as
illustrated in Figure 6. It is important to note that each chromosome in this stage contains
sister chromatids, which is a product of the DNA replication during interphase. It is also
during prophase that the nucleolus within the cell nucleus disappers and its nuclear
envelope breaks down into vesicles. Such events cause the release of most of contents of

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the cell nucleus into the cytoplasm. Two centrosomes, each having a pair of centrioles and
microtubules, also start to form and become visible.

Figure 6. Stages of Mitosis: (1) Interphase, (2) Prophase, and (3) Prometaphase

5.2.1.1 Prometaphase
After prophase, before the cell proceeds to metaphase, it first goes through the
prometaphase. At this point, the nuclear envelope of the nucleus now appear as
vesicles, and the centrioles and spindle fibers of the centrosome are now
completely formed. See Figure 6, step 3. During prometaphase, the centrosomes
move to the opposite poles. The spindle fibers then interact and attach to the with
the kinetochore proteins found in the centromere of every chromosome present.
These events in the prometaphase are important in the proper segregation of
chromosomes in the next stages of mitosis.

5.2.2 Metaphase
A key event during the metaphase is the alignment of the sister chromatids in the
metaphase plate, which is at the center of the cell. See Figure 7, step 4.

5.2.3 Anaphase
During anaphase (Figure 7, step 5), the connection between sister chromatids is broken.
Due to this, they are separated and they move away from each other. Each settle in the
poles to which they are attached. As this occurs, the opposite poles also move away from
each other due to the spindle fibers pushing against each other.

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5.2.4 Telophase
After settling in their respective poles, the chromosomes decondense and the nuclear
envelope re-forms. At this point, two new nuclei are formed. See Figure 7, step 6.

Figure 7. Stages of Mitosis: (4) Metaphase, (5) Anaphase, and (6) Telophase

5.3 Cytokinesis
Quickly following the mitosis is the cytokinesis. As mentioned, cytokinesis is the division of the
cytoplasm. Such process occurs to separate the two nuclei formed during mitosis. Cytokinesis
occurring in animal cells has a difference on the cytokinesis occurring in plant cells. See Figure 8.

Figure 8. Cytokinesis in a) animal cells and b) plant cells

During cytokinesis in animal cells, a cleavage furrow becomes visible and separates the cell. In
plant cells, a cell plate is rather observed. The cell plate then forms a cell wall to separate the two
daughter cells. After cytokinesis, two new daughter cells are formed from one parent cell. This is

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applicable in both animal cells and plant cells. Each daughter cell formed is genetically identical to
the parent cell. Each daughter cell is also a diploid cell, which contains two homologous sets of
chromosomes. In humans, almost all types of cells perform cell division through mitosis, except
for gametes (egg cell and sperm cell) which undergo meiosis. Diploid human cells contain 46
chromosomes.

VI. Cell Division: Meiosis

Meiosis is a type of cell division that occurs
in gametes or sex cells, which are egg cells
and sperm cells. Gametes are haploid cells,
having only a single set of chromosomes.
Meiosis occurs in two divisions – Meiosis I
and Meiosis II. Each stage of these two
divisions has its own key events. Meiosis
occurs in two divisions mainly because of its
function of correctly sorting chromosomes
to produce 4 haploid daughter cells from
one diploid parent cell. Shown in Figure 9 is
an overview of meiosis.

Like mitosis, meiosis only occurs after a cell

finishes the G1 phase, S phase, and G2
phase of the interphase in the cell cycle.
During the S phase of interphase,
homologous chromosomes in the nucleus of
the diploid parent cell replicate (Figure 9,
step 1). Moreover, similar to mitosis, each
of the two divisions of meiosis also occurs in
different stages: Prophase, Prometaphase,
Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase. See
Figure 10. After telophase, cytokinesis
follows.

Figure 9. Overview of Meiosis

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Figure 10. Stages of Meiosis I and Meiosis II

6.1 Meiosis I
The key event in Meiosis I is the separation of homologous chromosomes from each other.

6.1.1 Prophase I
During Prophase I, the DNA inside the nucleus coils tightly and become visible
chromosomes when viewed under a microscope. Then, the replicated homologous
chromosomes associate with each other to form a bivalent through the process known as
synapsis. Right after synapsis, crossing over occurs. Crossing over refers to the exchange
of genetic information between the homologous chromosomes in a point of contact
known as chiasmata. In species that undergo sexual reproduction, crossing over increases
the chance of genetic variation. It is also during prophase I that the centrosomes also start
to form.

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6.1.1.1 Prometaphase I
During prometaphase I , the nuclear envelope disintegrates and turns into vesicles
and the centrosomes move to the opposite poles of the cell. The centrioles and
the microtubules of the centrosomes become completely visible. The
microtubules then bind to the chromosomes (pair of sister chromatids) via the
kinetochore proteins. A pair of sister chromatids is attached to one pole. Such
feature of prometaphase I is necessary for proper sorting of chromosomes.

6.1.2 Metaphase I
During Metaphase I, the bivalents randomly align in the metaphase plate following a
double row arrangement.

6.1.3 Anaphase I
In anaphase I, the connection between bivalents breaks and the kinetochore
microtubules pull the homologous chromosomes away from each other and move to
the opposite poles. At this point, sister chromatids of each chromosome are not
separated yet.

6.1.4 Telophase I
During telophase I, the chromosomes settles in their respective poles and then
decondenses. Then, the nuclear envelop forms again producing two nuclei. After
telophase I, cytokinesis follows wherein the two nuclei are separated to form two diploid
cells, each having a pair of sister chromatids.

6.2 Meiosis II
The key event in Meiosis I is the separation of sister chromatids from each other. After cytokinesis
of Meiosis I, prophase II of meiosis II follows. No DNA replication occurs between meiosis I and
meiosis II.

6.2.1 Prophase II
During Prophase II, the sister chromatids in the nucleus of the haploid cells produced in
meiosis I condense. The nuclear envelope also breaks down into vesicles. The centrosome
with the centrioles and microtubules start to appear.

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6.2.1.1 Prometaphase II
In prometaphase II, the nuclear envelop completely becomes vesicles and the
centrosomes move to the opposite poles. The microtubules in each pole attach to
the kinetochore of each sister chromatid.

6.2.2 Metaphase II
In Metaphase II, the sister chromatids randomly align in the metaphase plate.

6.2.3 Anaphase II
During Anaphase II, the microtubules separate the sister chromatids by pulling them away
from each other, toward the opposite poles.

6.2.4 Telophase II
During telophase II, the nucleus re-forms and the chromosomes start to decondense
again. Cytokinesis follows wherein from the two haploid cells produced during meiosis I,
4 new haploid cells are produced in meiosis II.

It is important to note that each haploid cell produced in meiosis is not genetically
identical to the parent cell. Each haploid cell contains half the number of chromosomes
found in the parent cell. Each haploid cell produced in meiosis is genetically unique.

VII. Cancer
In multicellular organisms like humans, cancer is a disease mainly caused by uncontrolled cell
division. Cancer is an acquired disease and comes in different types depending on which type of
cell went through uncontrolled cell division. This is mostly caused by agents known as
carcinogens, which includes chemicals and UV light that can trigger mutations or changes in the
DNA therefore affecting gene expression that affects cell division.

Shown in Figure 11 is an illustration of how a cancer progresses. Cancer begins with one cell that
experienced mutations or genetic changes, which promoted abnormal cell division. A cancer is
initially diagnosed via the presence of a tumor or the mass or lump of cells as a result of abnormal
cell division. Tumors can either be benign or malignant. Bening tumors are settled in only one
part and do not spread in other parts of the body. Malignant tumors, on the other hand, are those

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that can metastasize or invade other body parts aside from the part where the abnormal cell
division started.

Figure 11. The Progression of Cancer

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Post Test / Evaluation

Written Work 2 – Blackboard Exam

General Directions:

• Proceed to your Cardinal Edge/Blackboard accounts and open Written Work 2 (WW2).
• This written work contains questions related to the topics discussed in the CO2 module – Cell Cycle
• Read and analyze each question carefully and choose/identify the best answer.
• You have 2 attempts for this written work. For each attempt, you are given to 2 hours to answer.
• The attempt with the highest score will be the one recorded.

Performance Task 2 – DNA Damage and Human Diseases associated with Mitosis
and Cytokinesis Failure

Guidelines:

1. Research 3 different diseases in humans caused by damages or mutations in the DNA and abnormalities
in the stages of mitosis and cytokinesis. For each disease, be able to provide the following:

• Definition
• Underlying Causes
• Diagnosis
• Treatments / Medications (if any)

2. Collect your ideas and organize them into a 5-10 minute presentation following the guidelines below:

• One or two persons should present your prepared content.

• Pre-record the presentation using your preferred platform/app (i.e Zoom, MS Teams, Google
Meet, etc).
• You are free to choose between using a powerpoint presentation or make your own audio-visuals.
• Be creative. Strategize and plan how you can present your ouput in a unique, informative, catchy,
and interesting way.
• Use appropriate font style, font size, graphics, illustrations, and background.

3. This Performance Task is a group output. Please check the groupings in your respective blackboard
accounts. The file should be submitted in mp4 or MOV format. A submission link is provided under
Performance Tasks folder in Blackboard. You can send an actual copy of the pre-recorded presentation
or provide a link (OneDrive or Google Drive) to where I can access it. File Name Format should be CO2 –
PT – Section – Group No.

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Example: CO1 PT – IS220 – Group 1 s

RUBRICS FOR GRADING CO1 PT

CRITERIA DESCRIPTION PERCENTAGE

The information presented is related to the topic discussed in the
Accuracy of guidelines and/or lectures in Course Outcome 2. The information
50%
Information is well-researched and accurate. Appropriate and reliable
references are included.
The presentation of the ideas is clear, logical, and in order.
Important information have been properly discussed.
Presentation
The presentation contains required content and time limit 40%
Proper
mentioned in the guidelines. It is informative and interesting to
watch and listen to.
Creativity of The group demonstrated a unique way of presentation through
10%
Presentation the use of appropriate media, platforms, graphics, etc.
TOTAL 100%

References

Brooker, R. J., Widmaier, E. P., Graham, L. E., Stiling, P. D. (2021). Principles of Biology, Third Edition,
Cengage Learning.

Biology: The Dynamic Science, 4th ed by Russell, Hertz, & McMillan (2017)

World of the Cell, 8th Ed by Becker, Hardin, Kleinsmith, & Bertoni (2012)

ANSWEY KEY
Pre-Test

1. True 6. True
2. True 7. True
3. True 8. False
4. False 9. False
5. False 10. True

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