PCB Quality Metrics That Drive Reliability (PD 18) : Disclaimer

PCB Quality Metrics that
Drive Reliability Disclaimer

The material herein is presented “for guidance only”. We do
(PD 18) not warrant the accuracy of the information set out on this
presentation. It may contain technical inaccuracies or errors
and/or non-updated data.
Bhanu Sood, Ph.D. Information may be changed or updated without notice.

Reliability and Risk Assessment Branch
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
bhanu.sood@nasa.gov
IPC APEX EXPO 2020 February 3rd, 2020 IPC APEX EXPO 2020 2 February 3rd, 2020 bhanu.sood@nasa.gov
PDC Outline 1.
2.
1-10C Test Coupon and Artwork Generation Task Group
3-11 Laminate Prepreg Materials Subcommittee
About Me 3.
4.
5.
3-11G Corrosion of Metal Finishes Task Group
3-12D Woven Glass Reinforcement Task Group
3-12E Base Materials Roundtable Task Group
Section 0: Intro
6. 4-14 Plating Processes Subcommittee
• Member of ~40 IPC Subcommittees and Task 7.

8.
4-33 Halogen-Free Materials Subcommittee
5-21F Ball Grid Array Task Group
Groups. Chair IPC-7092: Design and Assembly

9. 5-21H Bottom Termination Components (BTC) Task Group
Section 1: What is reliability and root cause? 10.

11.
5-21M Cold Joining Press-fit Task Group
5-22A J-STD-001 Task Group
Process Implementation for Embedded 12. 5-22A-SKELETON J-STD-001 X-Ray Requirements
Section 2: Overview of failure mechanisms

13. 5-22ARR J-STD-001 Conformal Coating Material & Application Industry Assessment
Components. 14.
15.
16.
5-22AS J-STD-001 Space Electronic Assemblies Task Group
5-24B Solder Paste Task Group
5-32A Ion Chromatography Ionic Conductivity Task Group
Section 3: Failure analysis techniques • Member of IPC A-Teams 17.

18.
5-32B SIR and Electrochemical Migration Task Group
5-32E Conductive Anodic Filament (CAF) Task Group
19. 6-10C Plated-Thru Via Reliab.-Accelerated Test Methods
– Non-destructive analysis techniques 9 Microvia Weak Interfaces 20.

21.
7-12 Microsection Subcommittee
7-23 Assembly Process Effects Handbook Subcommittee
22. 7-24 Printed Board Process Effects Handbook Subcommittee
– Destructive analysis 9 J-STD-001 X-ray Requirements 23.

24.
7-24A Printed Board Process Effects Handbook Task Group
7-31FS IPC WHMA-A-620 Space Electronic Assemblies Addendum Task Group
25. 7-32C Electrical Continuity Testing Task Group
– Materials characterization 9 IPC-6017 Embedded Circuits Spec 26.

27.
6-10D SMT Attachment Reliability Test Methods TG
D-55A Embedded Circuitry Guideline Task Group
28. B-11 3-D Electronic Packages Subcommittee
Section 4: Summary and closure • NRL/CALCE/NASA 29.

30.
31.
D-13 Flexible Circuits Base Materials Subcommittee
D-22 High Speed High Frequency Board Performance Sub-committee
D-24C High-Frequency Test Methods Task Group Frequency-Domain Methods
• Bachelors/Masters/PhD Metallurgy, Electronics 32.

33.
D-31B IPC-2221 2222 Task Group
D-32 Thermal Stress Test Methodology Subcommittee
34. D-33A Rigid Printed Bd. Performance Specifications TG
Materials, Risk/Reliability 35.
36.
D-33AS IPC-6012 Aerospace Addendum Task Group
D-35 Printed Board Storage and Handling Subcommittee
37. D-55 Embedded Devices Process Implementation Subcommittee
38. D-55-AT IPC-6017A A-Team
Discussions and case studies of actual failures and subsequent analysis. 39.
40.
V-TSL-MVIA-CHEMPR-AT Chemical Processes and Metallurgy A-Team
V-TSL-MVIA-SIMMOD-AT Simulation and Modeling A-Team
IPC APEX EXPO 2020 3 February 3rd, 2020 bhanu.sood@nasa.gov IPC APEX EXPO 2020 4 February 3rd, 2020 bhanu.sood@nasa.gov
Explore some of the
solar system's oldest
bodies, a series of
asteroids known as the
"Trojans
NASA GSFC One World-Class Organization Who We Are

What makes Goddard one-of-a-kind?
THE GODDARD COMMUNITY

More than 10,000 People
World leader in
NASA’s leading science understanding the Sun’s
Technicians and
center, with cross- impact on Earth Clerical 5%
disciplinary, end-to-
Others 6% GSFC Workforce
end capabilities
Executing NASA’s
most complex 3,000+ Civil Servants
6,000+ Contractors
missions 1,000s of Others*
Communications Professional &

backbone – 98% Independent Verification Administrative 28%
and Validation Facility Scientists &
of NASA’s data 1 of 2 US routes for Engineers 61%
assures NASA’s most
is transmitted ISS cargo; 1 of 4 US
complex software The Nation’s largest community of
via Goddard orbital launch
functions as planned
infrastructure facilities
scientists, engineers, and technologists
*Including off-site contractors, interns, and Emeritus
IPC APEX EXPO 2020 7

7 February 3rd, 20202 bhanu.sood@nasa.gov IPC APEX EXPO 2020 8 February 3rd, 2020 bhanu.sood@nasa.gov
GSFC: A Diverse Mission Portfolio What is Reliability?
QuikSCAT
Wind Voyager EO-1
ERBS
Stereo ACRIMSAT
RHESSI
Geotail
TRMM
TOMS
Reliability is the ability of a product to properly function, within specified performance
limits, for a specified period of time, under the life cycle application conditions
SOHO Aqua ICESat-2
THEMIS
TIMED Landsat 7 TOPEX
TRACE
CALIPSO
Terra
ACE GRACE
Cluster
SORCE
POES
– Within specified performance limits: A product must function within certain tolerances in order to be
reliable.
SDO
IMAGE AIM
Aura
FAST GOES
Polar GPM
Solar-B
MMS
– For a specified period of time: A product has a useful life during which it is expected to function within
IBEX NPP
TDRSS LDCM
CloudSat
Aquarius
specifications.
Osiris-Rex
(Sample Return)
RBSP
WMAP
TWINS
Cassini
– Under the life cycle application conditions: Reliability is dependent on the product’s life cycle
(Instrument)
NuSTAR JWST
New Horizons WISE

HST
GALEX
operational and environmental conditions.
Messenger Spitzer
SWAS
Astro-H RXTE
Galileo IUE
Juno MAVEN
Integral
Pioneer EUVE
FUSE COBE
Mars Science Swift
Laboratory
Fermi
Compton
GRO
LADEE
LRO
IPC APEX EXPO 2020 9

9 February 3rd, 2020 bhanu.sood@nasa.gov IPC APEX EXPO 2020 10 February 3rd, 2020 bhanu.sood@nasa.gov
Physics of Failure Perspective of Reliability Influence of ‘Durability’ and ‘Quality’ on

Failure Distribution ‘Reliability’
(Weibull)
Overstress failures: (stress-strength interference) stress margin
f(t)
Hyper-exponential
V50
Reliability statisticians are interested in tracking E <1 E>1
infant mortality strength strength
system level failure data during the service life for wearout stress stress
exponential pdf V0.1
logistical purposes, and in determining how the E =1 pdf
hazard rate curve looks. “random” failures
time
failures change in failures change in
• PoF reliability engineers are interested in ‘Defective’ Nominal mean variance
f(t)
understanding and controlling the individual failures population population Changes in durability Changes in quality
that cause the curve. &
random Wearout failures: (damage-endurance interference)
• PoF engineers do so through systematic and detailed Cumulative Distribution Function
overstress Cumulative increase
assessment of
1
life
events damage endurance 0.8
margin
• influence of hardware configuration and life-cycle 0.6
t50
F(t)
stresses… pdf 0.4
t0.1
• on root-cause failure mechanisms… 0.2 desired life
• in the materials at potential failure sites. 0
time time (t)
IPC APEX EXPO 2020 11 February 3rd, 2020 bhanu.sood@nasa.gov IPC APEX EXPO 2020 12 February 3rd,1
2020 bhanu.sood@nasa.gov
2
Failure Definitions
When a Product Fails, There Are Costs . . .
• To the Manufacturer Failure A product no longer performs the function for which it was intended
o Time-to-market can increase

Failure Mode The effect by which a failure is observed.
o Warranty costs can increase
o Market share can decrease. Failures can stain the reputation of a company, and Failure Site The location of the failure.
deter new customers. Failure Mechanism The physical, chemical, thermodynamic or other process that results
o Claims for damages caused by product failure can increase in failure.
• To the Customer Failure Model Quantitative relationship between lifetime or probability of failure and
o Personal injury loads
o Loss of mission, service or capacity Load Application/environmental condition needed (electrical, thermal,
o Cost of repair or replacement mechanical, chemical...) to precipitate a failure mechanism.
o Indirect costs, such as increase in insurance, damage to reputation, loss of market
share
Classification of Failures Failure Mechanism Identification

• It is helpful to distinguish between two key classes of failure mechanism:
– overstress: use conditions exceed strength of materials; often sudden and catastrophic Overstress Mechanisms Wearout Mechanisms
Fatigue,
– wearout: accumulation of damage with extended usage or repeated stress Yield, Fracture, Mechanical Creep, Wear
Mechanical Interfacial de-adhesion
Stress driven diffusion
• It is also helpful to recognize early life failures: Glass transition (Tg) Thermal voiding (SDDV)
Thermal Phase transition
TDDB, Electromigration,
– infant mortality: failures occurring early in expected life; should be eliminated through process Surface charge
Dielectric breakdown,
control, part selection and management, and quality improvement procedures Electrical spreading, Hot electrons,
Electrical Electrical overstress,
Electrostatic discharge, CAF, Slow trapping
Second breakdown
Radiation embrittlement,
Radiation Charge trapping in oxides
Radiation Single event upset
Corrosion,
Dendrite growth,
Chemical
Chemical Contamination Depolymerization,
Intermetallic Growth
Cost of a Single Unplanned Data Center Outage Iceberg Model of Cost of Poor Quality
Across 16 Industries
The average cost of data center downtime across industries was approximately $5,600 per minute.
Ref: Ponemon Inst., 䇾Calculating the Cost of Data Center Outages,䇿 Feb. 1, 2011. Ref: A. Buthmann, “Cost of Quality: Not Only Failure Costs,” iSixSigma.
Quality Assurance Functions Printed Circuit Boards and Classification

• Printed circuit boards are the baseline in electronic packaging – they are the
• In today’s compressed development cycles where rapid interconnection medium upon which electronic components are formed into
and cost-effective testing and analysis are key, a properly electronic systems.
designed and executed quality assurance function (with – PCB materials are generally glass reinforced organic polyimide (epoxy,
appropriate reliability analysis) can enable products with BT, ceramic are also used).
robust design margins.
• Classified on the basis of
– Dielectrics used
Examples of Bare PCBs
– Reinforcement
Populated PCBA
– Circuit type
• If the mission conditions are not well understood or the – Component types
reliability analysis and accelerated testing are not – Board construction
conducted right, cost and schedule impacts, along with – Design complexity
unexpected failures will add risk to a Project
development cycle.
SOURCE: Industrial Laser Solutions. PCBShop.org
Polyimide PCBA Supply Chain* Major Constituents of Laminates*
Glass Raw Materials
(Silica, Limestone, Clay, Boric Acid) Constituent Major function (s) Example material (s)
Glass Fiber Production

Reinforcement Provides mechanical strength and electrical properties Woven glass (E-grade) fiber
Polyimide Raw Materials
(Formation, Coating/Binders, Yarns) (Petrochemical Derivatives)
Raw materials suppliers Bonds inorganic glass with organic resin and transfers
E-Glass Plies/Fabrics Coupling agent Organosilanes
stresses across the structure
Flame Retardants
Prepregs/Cores
Fillers and Additives
Copper Foil Laminates
Laminate suppliers Matrix Acts as a binder and load transferring agent Polyimide
Consumables (e.g.,
Oxide Coatings etchants, cleaners) Dicyandiamide (DICY), Phenol
Printed Circuit Curing agent Enhances linear/cross polymerization in the resin
novolac (phenolic)
Drill Bits Board Panels Solder Mask/Silk Screen
ENIG/HASL/ENEPIG w/Coupons Halogenated (TBBPA), Halogen-free
/OSP/other Plating Design and Coupon Data Board fabricators Flame retardant Reduces flammability of the laminate
(Phosphorous compounds)
Active/Passive/Discrete Silica,
Assembly AOI and Inspections Reduces dissipatation (high frequency), thermal
Electronic parts, HW Fillers
Solder, flux, cleaning Processes ICT, Tests, Burn-in expansion and cost of the laminate Aluminum hydroxide
Assembly houses
chemistries Imidazole,
Increases reaction rate, reduces curing temperature,
* - Sood, Bhanu, and Michael Pecht. "Printed Circuit Board Laminates." Wiley Encyclopedia of Composites (2011). Accelerators
controls cross-link density Organophosphine
* - Sood, Bhanu, and Michael Pecht. "Printed Circuit Board Laminates." Wiley Encyclopedia of Composites (2011).
Example: The Glass Treatment Story * Printed Circuit Boards Continue to Cause
Glass Weave Style Glass Weave Style Glass Weave Style
Headaches
• PCB vendors continue to provide high performance materials
which are represented to be resistant to conductive anodic
filament (CAF), fiber pullout and laminate cracking.
• Yet, PCB quality and reliability continues to suffer due to
1080 Style 2116 Style 7628 Style failures attributed to poor glass/resin adhesion leading to CAF.
Fiber/resin interphase • High rates of non-conformances carrying high risk lead to Halogen-free PCB Reliability Test and
Failure Analysis, IST Group
delamination occurs due multiple rebuilds causing impactful schedule delays.
poor glass treatment.
Hu, Chaohui. "Study on the factors which affecting the conductive anodic filament reliability Sood, Bhanu, and Pecht, Michael. "The effect of
for packing substrate." Electronic Packaging Technology (ICEPT), 2017 18th International epoxy/glass interfaces on CAF failures in printed
* - Sood, Bhanu, and Michael Pecht. "The effect of epoxy/glass interfaces on CAF failures in printed circuit boards." Microelectronics Reliability (2017). Conference on. IEEE, 2017. circuit boards." Microelectronics Reliability 82
(2018): 235-243.
Formation of Conductive Filaments [1] [2] Glass Fibers and Sizing Agents
Oxidation Sites
+ í • Coupling agents are part of the sizings, they are functionally graded materials that act as
adhesion promoters. [1] [2] [3]
Epoxy Resin – Sizing agents are typically composed of antistats, lubricant, surfactant, silanes and film formers.
PTH PTH
– Silane act as molecular bridges between two chemically different materials (glass and epoxy matrix).
Glass Fiber
Low pH
– Organo-functional group bonds to the organic resin and inorganic groups bond to the glass surface.
Cu Cu2+
• Sizing formulation chemistries and their proportions are closely held by glass suppliers and
Cu Cu
salt salt salt
Cu2+ Cu Cu
2+ Delamination
Low pH
Cu
PCB suppliers
Cu
salt salt salt
Cu2+
Epoxy Resin “…we are not allowed to discuss any sizing or glass chemistry related topics outside by company policy.
Low pH
Hope for your understanding…” – Senior Staff Scientist, PPG Glass.

• Optimizing the sizing layer is a complex art involving a compromise of manufacturing,
marketing, technical and economic factors.
Reduction Sites Water Monolayers
CAF is a two step process: tfailure = t1 + t2 t1>>t2
t1 - time for glass/epoxy degradation, t2 - related to rate of electrochemical reaction
[1]. Mishra, Debasmita, and Alok Satapathy. “An investigation on the dielectric properties of epoxy filled with glass micro-spheres and boron nitride." (2012).
[1]. Rogers, Keith Leslie. An analytical and experimental investigation of filament formation in glass/epoxy composites. Diss. 2005.
[2]. Mack, H. Choosing the Right Silane Adhesion Promoters for SMP Sealants, Adhesive and Sealant Council Meeting, Orlando, Fl, Spring 2001. Gelorme, J. D., & Kuczynski, J. (2010).
[2]. Sood, Bhanu, and Pecht, Michael. "Conductive filament formation in printed circuit boards: effects of reflow conditions and flame retardants." Journal of Materials Science: Materials in
[3]. U.S. Patent Application No. 12/694,005.
Electronics 22.10 (2011): 1602.
Coupling Agents Used in FR4[1] [2] Resin-Glass Interface/Interphase [1] [2]

• Dow Corning, BGF, Gelest are key suppliers.
• Main silane types are: OH The region between the glass and resin is a three-dimensional region between the bulk
HO
o Aminosilanes fiber and bulk resin, this includes:
o Epoxy Silanes – Area of contact (interface) between the fiber and the matrix
o Vinyl Silanes OH + HO Si (CH2)3 NH2
– Region of some finite thickness extending on both sides of the interface in both the fiber and resin
o Methacryl Silanes HO
OH matrix (interphase).
o Alkylsilane
Hydrolyzable Organofunctional
o Phenyl Silane
Glass surface group group
o Chlorosilane
• Dow Corning Z-6032 tends to dominate the Aminosilane
market
(Vinylbenzylaminoethylaminopropyltrimethoxysi
lane). O
• Not all supply chains re-validate compatibility
with changes in resin [2].
O Si (CH2)3 NH2 Sizing Application Glass-resin interphase [2]
[1] Mittal, K. L., & Pizzi, A. (Eds.). (1999). Adhesion Promotion Techniques: [1] Drzal, Lawrence T., Michael J. Rich, and Pamela F. Lloyd. "Adhesion of graphite fibers to epoxy matrices: I. The role of fiber surface treatment." The Journal
Technological Applications. CRC Press. O of Adhesion 16.1 (1983): 1-30.
[2] Scott Crane (personal communication, November 26, 2018). [2] Petersen, Helga Nørgaard, et al. Investigation of sizing-from glass fibre surface to composite interface. Diss. DTU Nanotech, 2017.
FIB Experiments FIB Sections – Glass/Resin Separation
FIB sectioning confirmed the presence

of separation between a glass fiber and
the epoxy in the PCB laminate.
• FIB removes the glass fibers selectively from the earlier

mechanical planar microsection.
• Beams with successively lower currents are then used to trim
the face of the cut until the interphases of interest are imaged
in the SEM.
• Slight adjustments in the position of each trim cut are made Sood, Bhanu, and Pecht, Michael. "The
effect of epoxy/glass interfaces on CAF
based on observation of the progress. failures in printed circuit boards."
Sood, Bhanu, and Pecht, Michael. "The effect of epoxy/glass interfaces on CAF failures in Microelectronics Reliability 82 (2018):
printed circuit boards." Microelectronics Reliability 82 (2018): 235-243. 235-243.
Inter-penetrating Networks [1] [2] [3] Hydrolysis of Siloxane Bonds

Diffused
O OH
O Si O HO
Glass Fiber
Glass Fiber
Si
O
Glass Surface
O Si (CH2)3 NH2
Glass Surface
O OH + HO Si (CH2)3 NH2
Time
O Si O Si H2 O
O O OH HO
O
O Si O Si
O Si2O + H2O ĺ 2SiOH
O Debonded epoxy
O Si O Si Bulk
Epoxy H2O
Covalently H2O
H2O
Chemically Bonded Silane Epoxy bonded siloxane H2O
Chemically Bonded Hydrolyzed
and glass
Silane Glass Fiber
Polymer
1. Sood, B., & Pecht, M. (2017). The effect of epoxy/glass interphases on CAF failures in printed circuit boards. Microelectronics Reliability.
2.Tomlin, Andrew Dermot. "Self-sensing composites: cure monitoring." (2010). As the PCBs absorb moisture and combined with the residual stresses at the glass-resin interphase, the hydrolysis
3.Halvorson, Rolf H., Robert L. Erickson, and Carel L. Davidson. "The effect of filler and silane content on conversion of resin-based composite." Dental reaction at the interphase between the glass and resin drives an “unzipping” of the bonded region.
Materials 19.4 (2003): 327-333.
Results of the Hydrolysis
Printed Circuit Board Supplier Capability Overview

Bulk
Epoxy H2O
Covalently H2O
H2O
bonded siloxane H2O
and glass
Glass Fiber
Bare PCB Suppliers* Support to U.S. Government Agencies*
* - “Challenges and Opportunities: State of the U.S. Bare Printed Circuit Board Industry” Crawford M. and Botwin B., IPC APEX Expo, February 11-16, 2017, San * - “Challenges and Opportunities: State of the U.S. Bare Printed Circuit Board Industry” Crawford M. and Botwin B., IPC APEX Expo, February 11-16, 2017, San
Diego CA. Reproduced with permission. Diego CA. Reproduced with permission.
Bare PCB Supplier Capabilities* Material Supply Chain Disruptions*
* - “Challenges and Opportunities: State of the U.S. Bare Printed Circuit Board Industry” Crawford M. and Botwin B., IPC APEX Expo, February 11-16, 2017, San * - “Challenges and Opportunities: State of the U.S. Bare Printed Circuit Board Industry” Crawford M. and Botwin B., IPC APEX Expo, February 11-16, 2017, San
Diego CA. Reproduced with permission. Diego CA. Reproduced with permission.
Factors Causing PCB Production Bottlenecks* PCB Quality

• In a vast majority of cases, NASA uses IPC standards
(e.g., IPC-6012, 6013)
– IPC-6012 for rigid, IPC-6013 flex, IPC-6018 high speed etc..
• Inspection include:
– Microsection evaluation (coupons)
– Surface finish evaluation (coupons)
• Test include:
– External visual examination
– Electrical continuity and isolation
– Solderability (not 100% cases)
– Cleanliness XRFSpectrum
• In some cases MIL, ESA or “in-
house” standards are applied. PTHinCrossͲ
* - “Challenges and Opportunities: State of the U.S. Bare Printed Circuit Board Industry” Crawford M. and Botwin B., IPC APEX Expo, February 11-16, 2017, San
section
Diego CA. Reproduced with permission.
Significance of Printed Circuit Board Requirements
• The requirements and coupons are a “front door”.
• Examples:
– Internal Annular Ring:
• Egregious violations indicate there may have been a serious problem in development
of the board (layup or lamination).
• Other NCs don’t indicate any risk at all (example: application of IPC-6012 Rev B.
v/s IPC-6012 Rev. D) PCB Supplier Evaluation Study
– Negative etchback v/s positive etchback:
• Modern cleaning processes and flight experience result in equal reliability with both
etchback conditions or no etchback.
– Wicking of copper:
• Requirements are conservative based on broad statistics.
• A basic analysis of the board layout can indicate directly if there is risk or not,
regardless of requirements violations.
Study Objective Microsectioning

– Evaluate a subset of GSFC PCB suppliers (direct or indirect) and IPC - PCB Multi-Issue Microsection Wall Poster*
corresponding PCB coupon microsection testing data. • Suppliers perform microsectioning and
– Develop a methodology for data generation and collection to provide inspect per specifications.
trend analysis • Secondary GSFC independent
microsection analysis yielded 20-30%
• Identifies/predicts violation of a process limit criteria (in case of an inspection rejects, caused by:
egregious NC). – Screening escapes:
• Test sample quality not consistent
– Provide analysis for severity categories of the nonconformance. • Supplier microsection process, inadequate coupons
– Provide recommendations to the suppliers (i.e. supplier quality – Requirement interpretations
engineering, continuous process monitoring, quality metrics definition). – Requirements flow-down issues
• Alternative specifications (MIL, ECSS)
• Buying heritage and off-the-shelf designs * - https://blog.ipc.org/2010/11/22/pcb-multi-issue-
microsection-wall-poster/
Requirements, Nonconformance, Data Study Methodology
Generation and Collection
• Present study evaluates only the microsections performed by GSFC. • Since 2015, received and analyzed 882 PCB coupon submissions from PCB suppliers.
– PCB coupon microsection evaluation in accordance to IPC Standard (IPC-6018B • Top ten suppliers sent 638 submissions.
Class 3, IPC-6012C Class 3/A). • Total nonconformance observed: 260
– Coupon evaluation reports were generated, identified non-conformances.
• All PCB coupon testing results from all GSFC suppliers were recorded for 3 years
(from 2015 – 2017): • For each supplier, analyzed nonconformance (s)
– Data include nonconformance and conformances in accordance with IPC – Identify severity trend across top 10 GSFC suppliers by analyzing submission rate
Standards. and nonconformance spread.
– Total number of data points are approximately 882 jobs. – Classifying and analyzing top 5 severity categories.
– Each job has number of nonconformance with different severity.
Data Analysis –Submission and Classification and Analysis - Top 5

Nonconformance for Supplier Nonconformances
638submissions
Twenty one distinct conformances observed among the ten suppliers
NC Nonconformance Standard
A Innerlayerseparations/inclusions IPC6012BClass3/A
B ElectrolessNilessthan118microinches IPC6012BClass3/A
Common Nonconformances from suppliers

C
D
Platingvoids
Separation/inclusionsbetweenplatinglayers
IPC6012DS
IPC6012BClass3/A PCB Suppliers
E Copperwickinginexcessof2.0mil IPC6012BClass3/A
F
G
Internalannularringlessthan2.0mil
Internalannularringlessthan5.0mil(drwg.note)
IPC6012BClass3/A
IPC6012BClass3/A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
H
I
Externalannularringlessthan5.0mil
Immersiongoldlessthan3.0microinches
IPC6012BClass3/A
IPC6012DS A F E K A N E E A E
Electrolessnickelandimmersiongoldplating
J
K
thickness<118microͲinches(Ni)and2microͲ
Blindviaplatingthicknesslessthan0.8mil
IPC6012BClass3/A
IPC6012BClass3/A
B G D F F O P A F F
L Resinrecessiongreatherthan3mil IPC6012BClass3/A
M Solidcoppermicroviavoidsinexcessof33% 8252313C C H B L D F C D S T
N Laminatedelamination IPC6012BClass3/A
O
P
laminatecracks
Etchbacklessthan0.2mil
IPC6012CClass3/A
IPC6012BClass3/A
D A I J J E D F D U
Q Immersiongoldplatingthicknessinexcessof6mil IPC6012CClass3/A
R Copperplatingthicknesslessthan1.0mil IPC6012BClass3/A E D J AM P Q R P R
S Laminatecrackgreaterthan3.0mil IPC6012BClass3/A
T Dielectricthicknesslessthan3.0milmin IPC6012BClass3/A
U Laminatevoidgreaterthan3.0mil IPC6012BClass3/A
Analyzing Top 5 Severities of Supplier’s
Nonconformance Inner Layer Separations or Inclusions
• Observations show the
(A) Inner layer separations/inclusions • Separation of inner-layer foil and the
nonconformances with the most
(D) Separation/inclusions between plating layers plated through hole barrel.
(E) Copper wicking in excess of 2.0 mil
occurrences (7 out of 10 Suppliers) are
(F) Internal annular ring less than 2.0 mil
• Inclusion - contaminant material that
D and F. is present in an area where it is not
(J) ENIG is less than the minimum requirements
• Investigated the contributors to expected.
implement techniques which may
eliminate theses nonconformances from
Risk: intermittent electrical open or
at least 7 suppliers.
complete open after board is
subjected to thermal excursions
(reflow, wave soldering or rework)
1. IPC-6012 – Qualification and Performance Specification for Rigid Printed Boards.

* - “Challenges and Opportunities: State of the U.S. Bare Printed Circuit Board Industry” Crawford M. and Botwin B., IPC APEX Expo, February 11-16, 2017, San 2. Swirbel, Tom, Adolph Naujoks, and Mike Watkins. "Electrical design and simulation of high density printed circuit boards." IEEE transactions on advanced
Diego CA. Reproduced with permission.
packaging 22.3 (1999): 416-423.
Inner Layer Separations or Inclusions Separation or Inclusions Between Plating Layers

Contributors Resolution Plating separation -The separation
between a plating layer and foil.
• Improper lamination press or cure • Consistency in drilling
cycles whether it be pressure, time, processes.
temperature. • Reduce the resin content in the
stack up.
• Others include inadequate coverage of
• Good desmear, with adequate
inner layer oxide, moisture not
texture.
completely removed in pre-lamination
• Provide adequate copper border
bake cycle. for support and resin venting
• Bad batch of prepreg and or laminate.
Risk: intermittent electrical open or complete opens due to mechanical or
• Post-electroless copper cleaning thermal stresses.
residues, contaminated pretreatment
prior to electrolytic plating, or an out- 2. Yung, Edward K., Lubomyr T. Romankiw, and Richard C. Alkire. "Plating of Copper into ThroughဨHoles and
of-control electrolytic copper process. Vias." Journal of the Electrochemical Society 136.1 (1989): 206-215.
Separation or Inclusions Between Plating Layers
Copper Wicking in Excess of 2.0 mil
Contributors Resolution The extension of copper from a

• Incomplete wrap plating • Adjust plating parameters PTH along the glass fiber fabric.
• Overly-aggressive cleaning process • Optimize cleaning processes
• Insufficient cleaning
Risk: intermittent electrical shorts or
complete shorts due to bias driven
migration of copper towards non-
common conductors.
1. Sood, Bhanu, and Michael Pecht. "Printed Circuit Board Laminates." Wiley Encyclopedia of Composites (2011).
2. Tummala, Rao R., Eugene J. Rymaszewski, and Y. C. Lee. "Microelectronics packaging handbook." (1989): 241-242.
Copper Wicking in Excess of 2.0 mil Internal Annular Ring Less Than 2.0 mil
This occurs, when the inner layer

Contributors Resolution
copper pad (measured from the hole
• Optimize desmear parameters wall plating to its outer most length)
• Dull drill bits or broken • Improve drilling operation (feed and is less than 2 mils.
drill bits that causes a speed).
crack in the laminate.
• Ensure sufficient resin wet-out of glass Risk: inner layer breakouts after the
• Incompatible laminate fibers (siloxane treatment). board is subjected to thermal
material excursions (reflow, wave soldering or
rework) leading to intermittent
• Insufficient glass etch.
electrical or complete open behavior.
• Poor glass to organic
adhesion. 1. Sood, Bhanu, and Sindjui, N. "A Comparison of Registration Errors Amongst Suppliers of Printed Circuit Boards“,
Proceedings, IPC APEX Expo (2018).
Internal Annular Ring Less Than 2.0 mil ENIG (Au or Ni) Less than the Minimum
Electroless nickel and/or immersion
Contributors Resolution gold plating thickness (ENIG) is less XRFSpectrum
• Drilled-hole pattern not • Better material selection of than the minimum requirements (118
matching the lands on the laminate, improved
internal layers (Misregistration). cleanliness, and reduction in
micro-inches for Ni and 2 micro-inches
• Lamination process. the amount of volatiles. for Au).
• Prelamination treatments that Risk: (1) solderability and, (2)
• Confirm whether or not it is excessive dissolution of copper into
involve scrubbing or bending operator error.
may stretch the thin laminate, the bulk solder (forming brittle
which will then shrink after it is • Update drawing notes to intermetallic) when nickel is thin.
etched and baked dry. bring the notes in line with
• Application of specification or current industry maturity
drawing notes. levels. 1. Johal, Kuldip, and Jerry Brewer. "Are you in control of your electroless nickel/immersion gold process?." Proc. Of IPC Works. No. S03-3. 2000.
2. Meng, Chong Kam, Tamil Selvy Selvamuniandy, and Charan Gurumurthy. "Discoloration related failure mechanism and its root cause in Electroless
Nickel Immersion Gold (ENIG) Pad metallurgical surface finish." Physical and Failure Analysis of Integrated Circuits, 2004. IPFA 2004. Proceedings of
the 11th International Symposium on the. IEEE, 2004.
3. IPC-4552 – Specification for Electroless Nickel/Immersion Gold (ENIG) Plating for Printed Circuit Boards
ENIG Less than Minimum Summary - PCB Supplier Study

• The test data is analyzed using statistical method to provide trend analysis for all
suppliers.
Contributors Resolution – Root cause(s) and key contributors are identified.
• Improper cleaning of • Re-clean copper using chemical – Mitigation plan is included for the root cause of nonconformance.
surfaces. cleaners or mechanical
• scrubbing Institute micro-etch
• Improper or inadequate step to improve cleaning
rinsing. • Provide recommendations to the supplier’s process, identification and prediction of
• Improve rinsing( Check flow, nonconforming process limit criterion, and to improve test standards.
• Bath parameters not being agitation and water quality)
followed (pH and • Raise temperature per supplier • New technologies (example: smaller annular rings, via-in-pads, thinner laminates or
chemical). specifications newer plating) are implemented on the basis of supplier maturity and reported NCs.
• Readjust to supplier operational
• Bath temperature too low. parameters
• Copper surface not clean
of oil or inhibiting film.
What Causes Products to Fail?
Generally, failures do not “just happen.”
Failures may arise during any of the following
stages of a product’s life cycle:
Failure Analysis
The damage (failure mode) may not be detected until

a later phase of the life cycle.
What is Root Cause Analysis? What is a Root Cause?
Root Cause analysis has four major objectives: The root cause is the most basic causal factor or factors that, if corrected
or removed, will prevent the recurrence of the situation.*
• Verify that a failure occurred;
• Determine the symptom or the apparent way a part has failed The purpose of determining the root cause(s) is to fix the problem at its most
(the mode); basic source so it doesn’t occur again, even in other products, as opposed to
• Determine the mechanism and root cause of the failure; merely fixing a failure symptom. Identifying root causes is the key to
• Recommend corrective and preventative action. preventing similar occurrences in the future.
While generally synonymous, “Failure analysis” is

commonly understood to include all of this except
determination of root cause.
Ref: ABS Group, Inc., Root Cause Analysis Handbook, A Guide to Effective Incident Investigation, ABS Group, Inc., Risk & Reliability Division, Rockville MD.
Root Cause Analysis is From Symptoms to Root Causes
Different from Troubleshooting
• Symptoms are manifestations of a problem; signs indicating that a failure exists.
– Example: a symptom of printed circuit board failure could be the measurement of open circuits after
fabrication.
• Troubleshooting is generally employed to eliminate a symptom
in a given product, or to identify a failed component in order to • An apparent cause (or immediately visible cause)
is the superficial reason for the failure.
effect a repair. – Example: the apparent cause of open circuits could be that traces have discontinuities that result in
open circuits.
• Root cause analysis is dedicated to finding the fundamental
reason why the problem occurred in the first place, to prevent • Root Cause is the most basic casual factor(s).
– Example: the root cause could arise during the manufacturing process if the circuit boards are stacked
future failures. improperly, resulting in scratches to circuit traces. Another possible root cause could be the presence
of contaminants during the copper trace etching process, which resulted in discontinuities in the
traces.
Root Cause Analysis Root Cause Analysis Process

Preplanning: Establish Root Cause Culture with Management Support and Responsibilities
x Policy/procedures for notification x Trained investigation team x Hypothesization Tools
x Classification system x Analysis procedures x Risk Analysis
• Root cause analysis is a methodology designed to help:
The
Incident!
1) Describe WHAT happened during a particular occurrence,

Alert / Notification : Begin Investigation
2) Determine HOW it happened, and x Secure evidence (data collection)
x Assess immediate cause(s)
x Interview witnesses
3) Understand WHY it happened.
Hypothesize causes using tools such as Ishikawa (fishbone) diagram, and failure modes, mechanisms,
and effects analysis (FMMEA)
• Only when one is able to determine WHY an event or failure occurred, will one be able to
Analyze and Interpret Evidence
determine corrective measures, and over time, the root causes identified can be used to Review documents and
procedures, and check
Conduct physical
evaluation
Validate
hypotheses
target major opportunities for improvement. against standards (core of the FA process)
Identify Root Cause (s)
• Uncovering ROOT CAUSE may require 7 iterations of “Why?” Identify Restart Criteria
Conduct a Follow-up Audit,
Implement Corrective
Actions and/or Document Confirm Effectiveness, then
Develop Corrective Actions
Resolutions Critique and Modify Process
Hypothesizing Causes
Hypothesizing causes is the process of applying

knowledge of risks associated with a product’s
design and life cycle to the data gathered about the
failure event, in order to postulate a root cause.
• Tools for hypothesizing causes:

Tools for Hypothesizing Root Causes
• Failure modes, and effects analysis (FMEA)
• Fault tree analysis (FTA)
• Cause and effect diagram – Ishikawa diagram (fishbone analysis)
• Pareto analysis
FMEA Methodology Fault Tree Analysis

• Failure modes and effects Step 1.
analysis is an approach for Identify a Blackout
identifying all possible failure mode •In contrast with the “bottom up” assessment of
failures in a design, a FMEA, fault-tree is a “top down” analysis that
manufacturing or assembly starts qualitatively to determine what failure AND
process, or a product or modes can contribute to an undesirable top
Step 5. Calculate Step 2. Identify
service. level event.
a RPN (=S*O*N) a severity
number
• Knowledge of stresses is Emergency system
combined with failure models •It aims at developing the structure from which Off-site power loss
failure
to prioritize failure simple logical relationships can be used to
mechanisms according to express the probabilistic relationships among the
their severity and likelihood various events that lead to the failure of the OR
of occurrence. Step 4. Establish Step 3. Identify system.
a likelihood of a probability of
detection. occurrence
Voltage monitor Diesel generator
failure failure
Cause and Effect Diagram (Electrical Opens in PCBs) Cause and Effect Diagram (Electrical Shorts in PCBs) Design
Design
Heat Resistance
Heat Resistance Materials
Materials
Dissipation
Dissipation
Power
Materials
Materials Equipment Quality Properties
Power
Equipm ent Q uality Properties
Dielectric
Dielectric Tolerances
Tolerances
Com patibility Set points Compatibility
Set points Constant Dimensions
Constant Dim ensions Thickness Material
Thickness Material
Traces Therm al & Electrical Traces Thermal & Electrical
Calibration Operational Q uality Calibration Operational Quality
Stability Stability
Procedure Current Min Spacing Procedure Current Min Spacing
Dim ensions Dimensions
Max Selection Max Selection
tim e Im pedance Cost time Impedance Cost
Preventive Characteristic Preventive Characteristic
Capability
Maintenance Changes Requirem ents Capability
Operational Peak Resistance to Environm ental Maintenance Changes Requirements
Conditions Continuous
Process
Conditions Operational Peak Resistance to Environmental
Process
Assem bly Conditions Continuous Conditions
Precision Balanced? Environm ent Assembly
O bsolescence Specifications Precision Method Environment
Layer Thickness Material Micro Vias Obsolescence
Material Layer Specifications
Build up W arpage Plating Thickness
Method Material Stacking
O pen Warpage Sequence
Micro via
Router
W orking Instructions (Depaneling)
Fabrication
Response Flow
Short
Method Solder Pre-preg thickness
Pressing W arpage W orking Checklist (RFC) Mask
O JT Working Instructions Response Flow
Metallization Instructions Method
Pressing Warpage Working Checklist (RFC)
O ver stress Application OJT
Material W arpage Metallization Instructions
Handling SO P Notes
Ability Handling Over stress Application
Tolerances Material Warpage
Handling SOP Notes
Stack up Standards Ability Handling
Knowledge Deburr
Certification Drilling Tolerances
Registration Manual or
Cleaning Autom atic Stack up Standards
Knowledge Deburr
Capability Certification Drilling
Docum ented Registration Manual or
Training Process Cleaning Automatic
Quality Tolerance
Method Capability
Man Photolithography Documented
Artwork
Inspection Training Process
Inner layer Quality Tolerance
Cycles etching Method
Reflow Man Photolithography
Artwork
tim e Inspection
Soldering Inner layer
Peak Peak Rework
etching
W ave Tem p Assem bly Tem p Assembly
Solder Process Process
Ref: Coombs C. F. "Printed circuits handbook." Printed Circuits Handbook. McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing (2007). Ref: Sood B., and Pecht M., 2011. Printed Circuit Board Laminates. Wiley Encyclopedia of Composites. 1–11.
Cause and Effect Diagram (Delamination in PCBs) Pareto Chart Example

Assembly Process/Method
- Failure Causes in Electronic Devices -
time Pressure
Material 25 100
Epoxy Resin
Temperature System
Temp
Curing Hardener
% of failed devices
90
Stacking up
time Method Accelerator 20 80
Binder
Warpage
Pre-preg 70
Cumulative
Blank
Bow & Twist Humidity
15 60
Metallization Copper Sheet
Booking time Reinforce
method 50
Material Dimensions
alloy Solder
temperature 10 40
Reflow mask Properties
profile Wave 30
No. of passes CTE
Solder Quality
Cooling Rate
Profile 5 20
Delamination
Warpage 10
Working Instructions
Specs
Pre-preg 0 0
OJT
Pr d F tac t ape
nd
st d
ed
n
Fa nres D
M ble de D al
d
ot ond
al- ly
am ide
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La en
Po mb fec t
Fi ion hip
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As g D d
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tr Stit ers
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at ngo
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at
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ac -Re
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tc
a
al, sse
O
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Ve
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o
il
c p M ess- c h
Cycle
o
Po lliza ip s
M Sc r
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N
et
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A
ss
g
b
et
n
ta
es
in
Ability Handling Sequence
ro
e,
nt
xi
tr e
de
N
ks
n
es
O
se
il
Co
t
t,
il
Bo Co
rs
iff
D sion hea ail a
na
e
t
am Waf
O
ve
al
et
D
Cr
e
Sh
Operating Assembly
nd
tiv
F
O
si
a
rS
te
n
-
et
nd
Bo
al
Vi
ed
ly
ag
Conditions Process
et
Knowledge
ric
Bo
ot
Ch ess
ll
Certification
Ba
t
ec
i
ll
il,
D
c
ec -Ch
Ba
ro
El
Fa
d
ip
ol
isp
d
G
ol
Copper
tr i
M
G
Epoxy/Resin
Failure Causes
o
rr
Thickness
iel
Co
System
Training
No. of layers
Man
Design
Ref: Sood B., and Pecht M., 2011. Printed Circuit Board Laminates. Wiley Encyclopedia of Composites. 1–11. Ref: Pecht M. and V. Ramappan: “Review of Electronic System and Device Field Failure Returns,” IEEE Transactions on CHMT, Vol. 15, No. 6, pp. 1160-1164, 1992.
Collecting Supporting Evidence Analysis and Interpretation of Evidence
• Reviewing in-house procedures
– (e.g., design, manufacturing process, procurement, storage, handling, quality control, maintenance,
• Even if a root cause has been hypothesized, additional environmental policy, safety, communication or training procedures)
evidence is often required to assess (i.e., prove or invalidate) • …against corresponding standards, regulations, or part- and equipment vendor documentation
the hypotheses formulated. – (e.g., part data sheet and application notes, equipment operating and maintenance manuals)
• ….can help identify causes such as misapplication of equipment, and weakness in a design, process or
• Evidence can be gathered by procedure.
– undertaking sample physical evaluation. – Example 1: misapplication of a component could arise from its use outside the vendor specified
– reviewing documents and procedures against standards, and operating conditions (e.g., current, voltage, or temperature).
– Example 2: equipment (e.g., assembly, rework or inspection equipment) misapplication can result from
– interviews uncontrolled modifications or changes in the operating requirements of the machine.
– Example 3: a defect may have been introduced due to misinterpretation of poorly written assembly
instructions.
Example of Failure Analysis Process Flow

General Approach Used for Failure Analysis Occurrence of
Failure
• The overriding principle of failure analysis is to start with the least destructive Preservation of Failure
Investigation of Failure
methods and progress to increasingly more destructive techniques. Occurrence Circumstances
Non-Destructive Analysis
• The potential for a nominally non-destructive technique to cause irreversible changes of Failure
should not be underestimated. Electrical Test/

Intermittent
Verification of Failure/
– For example, the simple act of handling a sample, or measuring a resistance, can cause permanent Classification of Failure Mode
Reliability Test/
changes that could complicate analysis further down the line. Simulation of
Failure Circumstances
• Each sample and failure incidence may require a unique sequence of steps for failure Deprocessing (Destructive In-Circuit Evaluation
analysis. The process demands an open mind, attention to detail, and a methodical Physical Analysis
approach. Identification of Failure Site
Physical Analysis
Hypothesis of
Failure Mechanism
Verification &
Root Cause Determination Corrective Action
Documentation
Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) External Inspection
• Visual Inspection • Visual inspection of external condition
• Optical Microscopy – Differences from good samples
• X-ray imaging – May require exemplars
• X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy • Detailed inspection: appearance, composition, damage,
contamination, migration, abnormalities
• Acoustic microscopy – Low power microscope
• Residual gas analysis – High power microscope
• Hermeticity Testing – Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
Deprocessing:
Electrical Testing
Destructive Physical Analysis (DPA)
• Electrical characteristics/performance • Modification of specimen in order to reveal
• DC test internal structures and analyze failure site. May
• Parametrics (current-voltage characteristic) involve:
• Simulated usage conditions – Cross-sectioning and metallography
– Decapsulation or delidding
• Electrical probing
– Residual Gas Analysis for internal gases
Fault Isolation Physical Analysis of Failure Site
• Electrical Probing Visual and
Electrical Scanning Decapsulation Destructive
light Mechanical
testing of acoustic then optical cross-
• Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) microscope
examination
component microscope microscope section,
testing of
internal
and and X-ray E-SEM, VC, E-SEM, and
• Electron Beam Testing of part
connector radiograph and EBIC EDS
components
– electron beam induced current (EBIC),

Corrosion
– voltage contrast (VC), of leads
Shorts Package
delamination
Wire fatigue Intermetallic
growth
Wire pull
– cathodoluminescence (CL) Part

Opens
Die cracking
deformation
• Emission Microscopy Package cracking
Corrosion
SDDV and
Solder joint
cracking and Bond shear
coarsening
• Scanning Probe Microscopy Package cracks Parametric shifts electromigration
Die cracking
or bond lift
• Thermal Analysis Damaged
solder joints
Contact resistance
Wire sweep
broken wire EOS/ESD
Part
delamination Die shear
and cracking
Root Cause Identification

• Testing may be needed to determine the effect of hypothesized factors on
the failure.
• A design of experiment (DoE) approach is recommended to incorporate
critical parameters and to minimize the number of tests.
• This experimentation can validate a hypothesized root cause.
Failure Mechanisms
Review: Failure Definitions Review: Classification of Failures
Failure A product no longer performs the function for Key classes of failure:
which it was intended – overstress: use conditions exceed strength of materials; often
Failure Mode The effect by which a failure is observed. sudden and catastrophic
Failure Site The location of the failure. – wearout: accumulation of damage with extended usage or
Failure Mechanism The physical, chemical, thermodynamic or repeated stress
other process that results in failure.
– infant mortality: failures early in expected life; typically
related to quality issues.
In principle, it should be possible to develop a failure model
for a specific failure mechanism, expressing the likelihood of
failure (time-to-failure, probability of failure, strength, etc.) as
a function of the stresses and characteristics of the material.
Examples of Failure Models ESD/EOS Induced IC Failure Modes and Sites

Electrostatic discharge (ESD)/Electrical overstress (EOS) damage to an electrical circuit occurs due to
Failure Mechanism Failure Sites Relevant Stresses Sample Model
electrical or thermal overstress during a transient electrical pulse.
Fatigue Die attach, Wirebond/TAB, Nonlinear Power
Solder leads, Bond pads, Cyclic Deformations Law (Coffin-Manson)
Electrically, ESD and EOS can manifest as
Traces, Vias/PTHs, ( 'T, 'H, 'V)
Interfaces
• Opens Fused metal
Corrosion Metallizations M, 'V, T, chemical Eyring (Howard) • Shorts
• Increased leakage
Electromigration Metallizations T, J Eyring (Black)
• Parametric shift
Conductive Anodic Between Metallizations M, ȁV Power Law (Rudra)
Filament Formation
Physically, ESD and EOS can cause Silicon melting
Stress Driven Metal Traces V, T Eyring (Okabayashi)
Diffusion Voiding
• Melted bonding wires
Time Dependent Dielectric layers Arrhenius (Fowler- • Molding compound burning Gate metal fusing
Dielectric Breakdown V, T Nordheim) • Junction failure
• Gate oxide breakdown
': Cyclic range V: Voltage • Discoloration
ȁ gradient M: Moisture Junction
Gateburnout Gate oxide rupture
oxide rupture
T: Temperature J: Current density
• Contact spike
H: Humidity V: Stress
Lee, T. W., ‘ESD and EOS- There Is a Difference’, Commercialization of Military and Space Electronics Conference, pp. 49-65, 2002.
Board Level Failures (examples) Assembly Level Failures (examples)
Plated Through Hole (PTH)/Via Board Solder Interconnect
1. Fatigue cracks in PTH/Via wall 8. CAF (hollow fiber) • Poor Solderability/Wettability
2. Overstress cracks in PTH/Via wall 9. CAF (fiber/resin interface) – Tombstoning; Can accelerate other solder failure mechanisms
3. Land corner cracks 10. Electrochemical migration
• Overstress Interconnect Failures
4. Openings in PTH/Via wall 11. Buckling (warp and twist)
– Solder Fracture (accelerated by intermetallic formation)
5. PTH/Via wall-pad separation
Copper Metallization • Wearout Interconnect Failures
Electrical 12. Cracks in internal trace – Solder Fatigue, Solder Creep
6. Electrical overstress (EOS) 13. Cracks in surface trace • Solder Bridging
7. Signal interruption (EMI) 14. Corrosion of surface trace • Component Failure due to Handling
ECM: Surface and Sub-surface Mechanisms Formation of Conductive Filaments [1] [2]
Positive Negative Positive Positive Oxidation Sites
Anode Cathode Anode Anode
+ í
Epoxy Resin
PTH PTH
Glass Fiber
Cu Cu Cu2+ Cu
Cu2+ Cu2+ Delamination
Cu Cu Cu Cu2+
Negative
150 μm 300 μm Epoxy Resin
Cathode
ECM Conductive Anodic Dendritic Growth

Filament (CAF)
Growth Direction Anode to cathode Cathode to anode Reduction Sites Water Monolayers
Filament Composition Metallic salt Pure metal A two step process: tfailure = t1 + t2 t1>> t2
Growth Position Internal Surface 1. Rogers, K. L. (2005). An analytical and experimental investigation of filament formation in glass/epoxy composites (Doctoral dissertation).
Ref: Sood, Bhanu, Michael Osterman, and Michael Pecht. "An Examination of Glass-fiber and Epoxy Interface Degradation in Printed Circuit Boards.“ and Zhan, Sheng, Michael H.
2. Sood, B., & Pecht, M. (2011). Conductive filament formation in printed circuit boards: effects of reflow conditions and flame retardants.
Azarian, and Michael Pecht. "Reliability of printed circuit boards processed using no-clean flux technology in temperature–humidity–bias conditions." Device and Materials
Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics, 22(10), 1602-1615.
Reliability, IEEE Transactions on 8.2 (2008): 426-434.
PTH-PTH (6 mil) 10V, 85㼻C/85% RH [1] Importance of the Epoxy/Glass Interface [1] [2]
Path formation for CAF is often along the glass fiber to epoxy matrix interphase.
Factors
• Voltage gradient
• Humidity Hollow fiber
• Conductor spacing
• Ion concentration in
epoxy resin
Contributors 2um
• Fiber/resin
Path formation step (t1) for CAF
separation is eliminated when hollow glass
• Thermal excursions fibers are present.
• Hollow fibers
Fiber/resin interphase delamination occurs due to CTE mismatch (shear) induced
• Wicking
weakening or bond degradation.
• Drilling damage
[1] IPC-9691, User guide for the IPC-TM-650, method 2.6.25, conductive anodic filament (CAF) resistance and other internal electrochemical migration testing.
[1] Sood, B., & Pecht, M. (2011). Conductive filament formation in printed circuit boards: effects of reflow conditions and flame
[2] Shukla, A. (1997). Hollow fibers in woven laminates. Print Circ Fab, 20(1), 30-32.
retardants. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics, 22(10), 1602-1615.
CAF Paths Factors Affecting CAF:

PCB Internal Conductor Spacings
A. Between two plated-
through holes (PTHs) PTH-to-PTH spacings
B. Between two traces
C. Between a trace and

a plated-through hole PTH to plane spacings
(PTH)
Ref: Rogers, Keith, et al. "Conductive filament formation failure in a printed circuit board." Circuit World 25.3 (1999): 6-8.
Ref: Rogers, Keith, et al. "Conductive filament formation failure in a printed circuit board." Circuit World 25.3 (1999): 6-8.
Factors Affecting CAF:
Board Orientation Respective to Fabric Weave Effect of Voltage and Humidity on
The initial set of parallel Time to Failure
fiber bundles, known as the
warp, lie in the machine
direction
90 degrees
Solder mask over

bare copper with
A second set of parallel post coat
fiber bundles, known as

the fill or weft, is woven
through the first set
Ref: Rogers, Keith Leslie. "An analytical and

experimental investigation of filament formation in
glass/epoxy composites." (2005). Ref: Rogers, Keith Leslie. "An analytical and experimental investigation of filament formation in glass/epoxy composites." (2005).
Fiber/Resin Interface Delamination Hollow Fibers
Fiber/resin interface
delamination occurs
as a result of stresses
generated under
thermal cycling due
to a large CTE
mismatch between
the glass fiber and
Hollow fibers are vacuous glass filaments in E-glass laminates that can provide
the epoxy resin Delamination
paths for CAF.
(ratio of 1 to 12).
Delamination can be prevented/resisted by selecting resin With the appearance of hollow fibers inside the laminates, CAF can happen as a
one step process. In this case, the number of hollow fibers inside the laminates
with lower CTE’s and optimizing the glass surface finish.
is most critical to reliability.
Studies have shown that the bond between fiber and resin is
strongly dependent upon the fiber finish.
Ref: Rogers, Keith Leslie. "An analytical and experimental investigation of filament formation in glass/epoxy composites." (2005). Ref: Rogers, Keith Leslie. "An analytical and experimental investigation of filament formation in glass/epoxy composites." (2005).
Images of Hollow Fibers Drilling
Drilling damage can

accelerate CAF through
• Fiber/resin delamination,
• Creation of paths for
moisture to accumulate
• Wicking due to cracking
of the board material
Drilling Damage
Ref: Rogers, Keith Leslie. "An analytical and experimental investigation of filament formation in glass/epoxy composites." (2005). Ref: Rogers, Keith Leslie. "An analytical and experimental investigation of filament formation in glass/epoxy composites." (2005).
PTH-Resin Separation Background on Dendritic Growth

Dendritic Growth is a form of electrochemical migration (ECM) involving the growth of conductive filaments on or in a
printed circuit board (PCB) under the influence of a DC voltage bias. [IPC-TR-476A]
+ -
DC voltage source
Plating
Solder alloy
Ion transport
Anode (Cu) Cathode (Cu)
Adsorbed Moisture
Substrate
Necessary Conditions for ECM Stages of ECM

• Electrical carriers (ions). • Path formation
• A medium, usually water, to dissolve
In both of these SEM pictures, a separation can be seen at the copper plating to fiber the ionic materials and sustain them • Electrodissolution
epoxy resin board interface. These gaps provide an accessible path for moisture to in their mobile ionic state. • Ion transport
accumulate and CAF to initiate. These voids can be adjacent to inner-layer copper foil • Electrical potential between the • Electrodeposition
electrodes to establish an ionic
or to the PTH barrel and normally result from contraction of the epoxy (resin current in the liquid medium. • Filament growth
recession) due to the heat of thermal stress.
He, Xiaofei, M. Azarian, and M. Pecht. "Effects of solder mask on electrochemical migration of tin-lead and lead-free boards." IPC printed circuit Expo, APEX & Designer
Ref: Rogers, Keith Leslie. "An analytical and experimental investigation of filament formation in glass/epoxy composites." (2005).
summit proceedings.
Electrochemical Migration Contaminants
• Halide residues, such as chlorides and bromides, are the most common
accelerators of dendritic growth.
• Chlorides are more detrimental, but easier to clean
• Bromides can resist cleaning; often require DI water with saponifier
• In general, an increased risk of ECM will tend to occur once the levels of
chloride exceed 10Pg/in2 or bromide exceeds 15Pg/in2
• Rapid failure can occur when contaminant levels exceed 50Pg/in2
Ref: He, Xiaofei, M. Azarian, and M. Pecht. "Effects of solder mask on electrochemical migration of tin-lead and lead-free boards." IPC printed circuit Expo, APEX & Designer summit Ref: He, Xiaofei, M. Azarian, and M. Pecht. "Effects of solder mask on electrochemical migration of tin-lead and lead-free boards." IPC printed circuit Expo, APEX & Designer summit
proceedings and Ambat, Rajan, et al. "Solder flux residues and electrochemical migration failures of electronic devices." Eurocorr proceedings, Nice 10.1.3321953 (2009). proceedings and Ambat, Rajan, et al. "Solder flux residues and electrochemical migration failures of electronic devices." Eurocorr proceedings, Nice 10.1.3321953 (2009).
What Are the Sources of Plated Through Hole (PTH) Failures

Contaminants? 1. Circumferential cracking
– Single event overstress
• Board Manufacturing • Assembly – Cyclic fatigue
– Flame-proofing agents – Fluxes
– Copper plating deposits – Solder paste residues 2. Openings (voids, etch pits)
– Etchants – “Fingerprints” – Accelerate circumferential cracking
– Cleaners • Environmental 3. Wall-Pad Separation
– Fluxes (for HASL coatings)
– Liquid (i.e., salt spray) – Also known as “breakout of internal lands” or “plated-barrel separation”
– Poorly polymerized solder
– Gaseous (i.e., Cl2)
masks
– “Fingerprints”
Ref: He, Xiaofei, M. Azarian, and M. Pecht. "Effects of solder mask on electrochemical migration of tin-lead and lead-free boards." IPC printed circuit Expo, APEX & Designer summit
proceedings and Ambat, Rajan, et al. "Solder flux residues and electrochemical migration failures of electronic devices." Eurocorr proceedings, Nice 10.1.3321953 (2009).
PTH Failures (cont.)
1. Circumferential Cracking –
Single Event Overstress
Pad
corner crack Etch pit Wall-Pad
PTH
separation
Circumferential crack Board Since the difference in the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of the copper
Pad plating and the resin system in the PWBs is at least a factor of 13, stress exerted
delamination
on the plated copper in the plated-through holes in the z-axis can cause
cracking.
Ref: Bhandarkar, S. M., et al. "Influence of selected design variables on thermo-mechanical stress distributions in plated-through-hole structures." Journal of Ref: Bhandarkar, S. M., et al. "Influence of selected design variables on thermo-mechanical stress distributions in plated-through-hole structures." Journal of
Electronic Packaging 114.1 (1992): 8-13. Electronic Packaging 114.1 (1992): 8-13.
Single Event Overstress (cont.) Design Considerations to Avoid

• Failure Mode Fatigue Damage in PTHs
– Complete electrical open
• Failure History • PTH Spacing
– Primarily occurs during assembly; may not be detected until after – Decreasing spacing improves mechanical reliability
operation
• Aspect Ratio
• Root-Causes – Decreasing board thickness more effective than increasing hole diameter
– Excessive temperatures during assembly
– Resin Tg below specification • Plating Thickness
– Insufficient curing of resin – Increasing leads to increasing in fatigue strength
– Outgassing of absorbed moisture
• Nonfunctional Internal Pads
– Plating folds
– PTH wall recession – Minimal effect. Results in localized stress relief; most effective when
results in elimination of resin-rich areas
– Resin-rich pockets adjacent to PTH
– Insufficient mechanical properties of deposited copper
– Plating voids
– Etch pits
– Insufficient PTH wall thickness Ref: Kapur, Kailash C., and Michael Pecht. Reliability engineering. John Wiley & Sons, 2014.
Root-Cause Analysis of Circumferential
2. Openings in PTH Walls
Fatigue Cracking
• Failure Mode
– Intermittent to complete electrical open
• Failure History
– Requires an environment with temperature cycling; often occurs after extended
use in the field (“child” or “teenage” mortality)
• Root-Causes
– Resin CTE below specification
– Plating folds
– PTH wall recession
– Resin-rich pockets adjacent to PTH Optical micrograph of cross section of Electron micrograph of same PTH
– Customer use exceeds expected environment PTH with etch damage shown on left
– Insufficient mechanical properties of deposited copper
– Presence of overstress crack Overetching can cause electrical opens or induce overstress
– Plating voids
circumferential cracking
– Etch pits (“mouse bites”)
Ref: Bhandarkar, S. M., et al. "Influence of selected design variables on thermo-mechanical stress distributions in plated-through-hole structures." Journal of
– Insufficient PTH wall thickness Electronic Packaging 114.1 (1992): 8-13.
Evidence of Overetching Opening in PTH/Via

• Failure Mode
– Complete electrical open
• Failure History
– Often occurs during assembly; may not be detected until after operation
• Root-Causes
– Openings in PTH’s/Vias are etch pits or plating voids and often occur
because the following manufacturing processes are not optimized:
• Drilling
• Desmear/Etchback
• Electroless copper plating or direct metallization
Optical micrograph of cross section of Optical micrograph of cross section of
• Electrolytic copper plating
PTH with etch damage (bright field) PTH with etch damage (dark field)
• Tin resist deposition
Evidence of overetching can include reduced plating thickness • Etching
– Openings can also occur due to poor design (i.e., single-sided tenting of
and discoloration of PTH barrel walls vias, resulting in entrapment of etchant chemicals)
3. PTH/Via Wall-Pad Separation PTH/Via Wall-Pad Separation
• Failure Mode
– Intermittent or complete electrical open
• Failure History
– Will primarily only occur during assembly
• Root-Causes
– Insufficient Curing of Resin.
– Outgassing of absorbed moisture
– Excessive temperatures during assembly
– Resin CTE or Resin Tg below specification
– Number of nonfunctional lands (only useful for failures during assembly)
Wall-Pad Separation – Drilling process resulting in poor hole quality
Optical micrograph of cross section Optical micrograph of cross section – Insufficient desmearing process.
perpendicular to the PTH axis parallel to the PTH axis – Substandard processes or materials in electroless copper plating
Failure Mechanisms due to Handling When Do Handling Failures Occur?

• Assembly
• Affects leadless components – Transfer of product between lines; during rework
– Ball grid arrays (BGAs), Flip Chip on Board • Heatsink Attachment

– Use of screws
• Affects brittle components • Connector Insertion
– Large press-fit connectors; daughter boards into mother boards
• Insidious • Electrical Testing
– Failures due to handling tend to difficult to screen and intermittent in nature – Bed-of-Nails testing can bend local areas
• Packaging
– Often occur after testing • Transportation
• Customer Site
– Slot insertion
Evidence of Damage Due to Handling -- Evidence of Damage – Ceramic
BGAs Capacitors
BGA Bond Pad
Intermetallic Layer
BGA Solder Ball
10μm
Keimasi, Mohammadreza, Michael H. Azarian, and Michael G. Pecht. "Flex Cracking of Multilayer Ceramic Capacitors Assembled With Pb-Free and
Ref: SEM Lab. Tin–Lead Solders." Device and Materials Reliability, IEEE Transactions on 8.1 (2008): 182-192.
Intermittent Failures
No Fault Found
• No-Fault-Found (NFF): Failure (fault) occurred or was reported to have occurred during product’s use. The
product was tested to confirm the failure, but the testing showed “no faults” in the product.
• An intermittent failure is the loss of some function in a product for a
limited period of time and subsequent recovery of the function. • Trouble-Not-Identified (TNI): A failure occurred or was reported to have occurred in service or in
manufacturing of a product. But testing could not identify the failure mode.
• If the failure is intermittent, the product’s performance before,
during, or after an intermittent failure event may not be easily • Can-Not-Duplicate (CND): Failures that occurred during manufacture or field operation of a product cut
predicted, nor is it necessarily repeatable. could not be verified or assigned.
• However, an intermittent failure is often recurrent. • No-Problem-Found (NPF): A problem occurred or was reported to have occurred in the field or during
manufacture, but the problem was not found during testing.
• Retest-OK: A failure occurred or was reported to have occurred in a product. On retesting the product at the
factory, test results indicated that there was no problem.
Ref: Qi, Haiyu, Sanka Ganesan, and Michael Pecht. "No-fault-found and intermittent failures in electronic products." Microelectronics Qi, Haiyu, Sanka Ganesan, and Michael Pecht. "No-fault-found and intermittent failures in electronic products." Microelectronics Reliability 48.5 (2008):
Reliability 48.5 (2008): 663-674. 663-674.
The Impact of Intermittents NFF Test Sensitivities
¾ Can not determine root cause and thus the reason for the failure (NFF) Testing has five possible outcomes:
¾ Reliability modeling analysis can be faulty
¾ Potential safety hazards
• Test can say it is good when it is good.
¾ Decreased equipment availability
¾ Long diagnostic time and lost labor time
• Test can say it is bad when it is bad.
¾ Complicated maintenance decisions • Test can say it is good when it is bad.
¾ Customer apprehension, inconvenience and loss of customer confidence • Test can say it is bad when it is good.
¾ Loss of company reputation • Test can be inconsistent.
¾ Increased warranty costs
¾ Extra shipping costs
Intermittent Failures in Electronic Assemblies

Characteristics of Intermittent Failures
Cause-and-Effect Diagram
Connectors Printed Circuit Board
Conductive
Use conditions
filament
Vibration
• May indicate that a failure has occurred. Intermittent failure may be due
Fretting Contamination
Inner layer Convection
Plating
adhesion Moisture air flow Abuse
Environment Whiskers
Electro-chemical
Corrosion
Pore
Plating
defects Contamination
at interfaces
migration
Contamination
On PCB
Electric field
Vibration,
current
Use
Spacing
Finish Plating
Flaw
Component
to some extreme variation in field or use conditions.
Temperature conditions Pad size
Moisture Temperature
Wiring degradation Dendrites Load
Material Size
Warpage
Vibration
Wear out Aging CTE
Temperature
Wiring Via cracking Copper PCB stiffness
Electromagnetic
interference
Layout
Damaged Misalignment Contaminated
wire Mating surface
Thickness
Quality Via creation
unbalance
Intermittent • May indicate the imminent occurrence of failure.
Plating method Failures in
Interconnect External Soft error Short/Open
Fatigue Electronic
Defects in via Temp. Vibration
crosstalk radiation Circuits Assemblies
Solder cycle
Packaging Electro-
IC
materials migration material Grain size
Dislocation
Handling Temperature
Voids
Temperature
Strain relaxation
• May not leave a failure signature making it difficult to isolate the site.
Metallization Dielectric Ionic Passivation
short breakdown contamination crack Load
Whiskers Wire bond lifts Short
Lead pitch Strength Thermal cycling Vibration Humidity Electro-chemical migration
Force
Ref: Qi, Haiyu, Sanka Ganesan, and
Lead finish Delamination Stress
Loose
Fillet lift Black Non-wets
Socket Michael Pecht. "No-fault-found and
Intermetallic solder Defects
Package Pad Temperature
intermittent failures in electronic products."
Temperature Microelectronics Reliability 48.5 (2008):
Manufacturing Open
Warpage
defects Oversized
663-674 and Bakhshi, Roozbeh, Surya
Moisture
Atmospheric solder InsufficientVoids/cracks Kunche, and Michael Pecht. "Intermittent
contamination Chemistry of solder Failures in Hardware and Software."
Corrosion
Creep
product Components
Component-PCB Interconnects Journal of Electronic Packaging 136.1
corrosion (2014): 011014.
Example: Intermittent Failures Due to
Electrical Contact Resistance vs. Fretting Cycles
Fretting Corrosion Initial 100000
• Tin alloys are soft metals on which a thin but hard oxide
layer is rapidly formed. 10000
• Being supported by a soft substrate, this layer is easily Normal Force

Broken oxide films
1000
Contact Resistance (m:)

broken and its fragments can be pressed into the Micromotion Failure Criterion
underlying matrix of soft, ductile tin-lead alloy. 100
• The sliding movements between contact surfaces break the
New oxide films
oxide film on the surface and expose the fresh metal to 10
Fretting Amplitude
oxidation and corrosion. Intermittents
Micromotion
1
• The accumulation of oxides at the contacting interface due
to repetitive sliding movements causes contact resistance
0.1
to increase, leading to contact open. New oxide films
• Tin based lead-free solders are expected to show similar 0.01

10 100 1000 10000
fretting corrosion susceptibility as tin-lead solder coatings.
Fretting Cycles
Ref: Wu, Ji, and Michael G. Pecht. "Contact resistance and fretting corrosion of lead-free alloy
coated electrical contacts." Components and Packaging Technologies, IEEE Transactions on Accumulated Oxide layer Ref: Wu, Ji, and Michael G. Pecht. "Contact resistance and fretting corrosion of lead-free alloy coated electrical contacts." Components and Packaging Technologies, IEEE
29.2 (2006): 402-410. Transactions on 29.2 (2006): 402-410 and Antler, Morton, and M. H. Drozdowicz. "Fretting corrosion of gold-plated connector contacts." Wear 74.1 (1981): 27-50.
Intermittent Failure Due to Improper Known μvia Failures in the Literature

Micro-via Plating in PCB • Failure modes:
• A computer graphics OEM was
experiencing intermittent failures on printed
circuit boards with chip scale packages Via
(CSPs) and ceramic ball grid array packages

(CBGAs).
Interfacial separations [1] Barrel cracks [3] Corner/knee cracks [1] Target pad cracks [2]
• High magnification metallurgical
• Failures can be caused by
microscope imaging of micro-etched cross
• CTE mismatch driven thermomechanical stresses
sections of micro-vias in the printed circuit
• Design – stacked/staggered
board showed a separation of the via plating Plating separation
• Laser parameters
from the target pad [Nektek Inc. Service
Plating separation at base of micro via • Processes and chemistries
Report, 2004]. [Nektek Inc. Service Report]
• The plating separation was found to be the
[1] B. Birch, “Reliability Testing for Microvias in Printed Wire Boards”, Circuit World, Vol 35, No. 4, pp.3 – 17, 2009
[2] Heer, Hardeep, and Ryan Wong. "Reliability of stacked microvia." Proc. IPC APEX Technical Conference. 2014.
[3] Lesniewski, Thomas. "Effects of dielectric material, aspect ratio and copper plating on microvia reliability." Proc. IPC APEX
cause of intermittent failure. Technical Conference. 2014.
[4] Magera, J, “Copper Filled Microvias The New Hidden Threat Links of Faith Are Not Created Equally”, IPC APEX 2019.
[5] Baccam J, “Microvia Reliability”, IPC High Reliability Forum 2018.
Impact of Laser Scan Parameters Example: Intermittent Failure Due to
Open Trace in PCB
• Open trace can also cause
intermittent failures in PCB under
UV-CO2-UV
50μm
UV-CO2 50μm
environmental loading conditions.
Pattern Plated Cu + Alternative Core Construction
Oxide • Under thermal cycling or vibration
loading, the open trace may
reconnect with intermittent electrical
continuity observations.
One UV Pulse Multiple UV Pulses Open Trace
1. Sood, Bhanu, Craig B. Arnold, and Alberto Pique. "Depth and surface roughness control on laser micromachined polyimide for direct-write deposition." Micromachining and
Microfabrication Process Technology VIII. Vol. 4979. International Society for Optics and Photonics, 2003.
2. Duley, W. W., UV Lasers: effects and applications in materials science, Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Ref: A Study in Printed Circuit Board (PCB) Failure Analysis, Part 2, Insight Analytical Labs, Inc
3. Magera, J, “Copper Filled Microvias The New Hidden Threat Links of Faith Are Not Created Equally”, IPC APEX 2019.
Example: Intermittent Failures Due to Example: Intermittent Failures Due to Electro-chemical Migration
Electro-chemical Migration (Surface Dendrites) (Conductive Anodic Filament Formation)
• Electrochemical migration (ECM) can cause
• Conductive filament is formed internal to
shorts due to the growth of conductive metal
the board structure.
filaments in a printed wiring board (PWB). Positive
Anode
Conductive
filament
Negative
Cathode
• In CAF, the filament is composed of a
• Surface dendrites can form between the
metallic salt, not neutral metal atoms as in
adjacent traces in the PWB under an applied
dendritic growth.
voltage when surface contaminants and
moisture are present. • One of distinct signatures of CAF failures
is intermittent short circuiting. The
• It is often difficult to identify the failure site
Dendritic growth during an ECM test conductive filament bridging the two
because the fragile dendrite structure will
shorted conductors can blow out due to the
burn upon shorting, often leaving no trace of
high current in the filament, but can form A conductive filament bridging two plated
its presence. through holes in a PWB
Ref: Zhan, Sheng, Michael H. Azarian, and Michael
again if the underlying causes remain in
Pecht. "Reliability of printed circuit boards processed
using no-clean flux technology in temperature–
place.
humidity–bias conditions." Device and Materials
Reliability, IEEE Transactions on 8.2 (2008): 426-434. Ref: Sood, Bhanu, Michael Osterman, and Michael Pecht. "An Examination of Glass-fiber and Epoxy Interface Degradation in Printed Circuit Boards.“
Electrical Resistance vs. Time Due to CAF Example: Intermittent Failures Due to Creep
Corrosion
1.E+09
• Definition
Intermittents – Creep corrosion is a mass transport process in
which solid corrosion products migrate over a
1.E+08
surface.
Resistance (Ohms)
• Failure mode
1.E+07
– On IC packages, creep corrosion can eventually
result in electrical short or signal deterioration due
to the bridging of corrosion products between
Failure Criterion isolated leads.
1.E+06
– Depending on the nature of the environment, the
insulation resistance can vary and cause
intermittents.
1.E+05
100.0 150.0 200.0 250.0 300.0 350.0 400.0
Time (hours) Ref: Thesis “Reliability challenges in airside economization and oil immersion cooling”, Jimil Shah, 2016.
Ref: Sood, Bhanu, Michael Osterman, and Michael Pecht. "An Examination of Glass-fiber and Epoxy Interface Degradation in Printed Circuit Boards.“
Intermittent Failures Due to Tin Whiskers Intermittent Failures Due to Black Pad
• Whiskers are elongated single crystals of Sn which
grow spontaneously out of the surface. Internal • The ‘Black Pad’ phenomenon in
stresses within the plated deposit drives growth.
• Tin (and other conductive) whiskers or parts of
Black Pad Electroless Nickel over Immersion Gold
Whiskers (ENIG) board finish manifests itself as
whiskers may break loose and bridge isolated
conductors, resulting in an intermittent short gray to black appearance of the solder pad
Failed relay due to tin circuit. These field failures are difficult to duplicate
vapor arcing coupled with either poor solderability or
Whiskers on the armature of a or are intermittent because at high enough current
Accelerator position sensor board relay the conductive whisker can melt, thus removing the solder connection, which may cause
connections
failure condition. Alternatively, disassembly or intermittent electrical ‘opens.’
handling may dislodge a failure-producing whisker.
Nickel • Bulwith et al. [2002] identified numerous
• Failure analysis concluded that tin whiskers
initiated the current surge to the ground. Once a Copper Pad Ball Grid Array (BGA) package
whisker bridged a terminal stud to the armature, intermittent electrical open failures to be
plasma arcing could occur with enough voltage and black pad related.
current to damage the relay.
1. Davy, Gordon. "Relay Failure Caused by Tin Whiskers." (2002).
Tin whisker on the edge of an 2. Sood, Bhanu, Michael Osterman, and Michael Pecht. "Tin whisker analysis of Toyota's electronic
acceleration position sensor throttle controls." Circuit World 37.3 (2011): 4-9.
3. Leidecker, H., L. Panashchenko, and J. Brusse. "Electrical failure of an accelerator pedal position Zeng, Kejun, et al. "Root cause of black pad failure of solder joints with electroless nickel/immersion gold plating." Thermal and Thermomechanical Phenomena
board connection terminal of a 2002 sensor caused by a tin whisker and investigative techniques used for whisker detection." 5th in Electronics Systems, 2006. ITHERM'06. The Tenth Intersociety Conference on. IEEE, 2006.
Toyota Camry International tin whisker symposium. 2011.
MLCC Construction
• Ceramic Dielectric
CASE STUDY* – Typically comprised of compounds made with
titanium oxides
¾ BaTiO3 (“X7R”) for this study
• Electrodes
Failure Analysis of Multilayer – Base metal consisting of nickel (BME)
¾ Precious metal consisting of silver/ palladium (PME) Ref: Kemet
Ceramic Capacitor (MLCC) with • End Termination
Cross-section of a MLCC
Dielectric
– Standard termination consists of silver or copper
Low Insulation Resistance coated with nickel and tin Electrode
¾ Flexible termination consists of a silver filled
polymer coated with nickel and tin
End
* Adapted from: termination
1. Shrivastava, A., Sood, B., Azarian, M., Osterman, M., & Pecht, M. (2010, June). An investigation into a low insulation resistance failure of multilayer
ceramic capacitors. In Electronic Components and Technology Conference (ECTC), 2010 Proceedings 60th (pp. 1811-1815). IEEE.
2. Brock, Garry Robert. "The Effects of Environmental Stresses on the Reliability of Flexible and Standard Termination Multilayer Ceramic Capacitors." PhD
diss., 2009.
Loading Conditions: IR Test Data for Failed

Temperature-Humidity-Bias 1.0E+09
Flexible Termination MLCCs
• A Temperature-Humidity-Bias (THB) test
was performed for 1766 hours at 85㼻C and
1.0E+08
Insulation Resistance (Ohms)

85% RH, at the rated voltage of 50V.
• Capacitance, Dissipation Factor (DF) and Data Acquisition, Temp. Cap 24

Cap 26
1.0E+07
Insulation Resistance (IR) were monitored LCR Meter: C, DF Cap 62
Cap 66
during the test. High Resistance Meter: IR
• A 1 Mȍ resistor was placed in series with 1.0E+06

each of the MLCCs.
• The MLCCs were size 1812 and soldered to

1.0E+05
an FR-4 printed circuit board using eutectic 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
tin-lead solder. Time (Hours)
THB Failure Analysis Methodology for Biased MLCCs Metal Migration Between Electrodes
45 μm
OHM
• A Buehler MPC 2000 (with 9 micron lapping film) was used to

cross-section the MLCC.
• The MLCC (on a PCB) was mounted to a fixture using wax.
• Wires were soldered to the board, along with a 1 kȍ series
resistor.
• Resistance was monitored with a multimeter as the sample was
moved ~5 microns at a time while checking for a resistance
change.
• Epoxy was added under the part to prevent buildup of metal
debris, which could cause an inaccurate resistance value. 20 μm
SEM Image of Cross-section
Optical Micrographs of Cross-section
EDS Line Scan Showing Silver and EDS Map Showing Silver Migration and
Palladium in Area of the Metallic Bridge Voiding in Ceramic
100
Ag
Pd
80
electrode electrode
Counts
60
40 Background
Pd level of Ag
Ag
20
0
10 Distance [μm] 20 30
Failure Mechanism
• Metal migration was found in several of the failed MLCCs.
• Voids in the ceramic, without silver or palladium, were also
found close to the conduction path. Non-Destructive Techniques
• The failure mechanism was electrochemical co-migration of
silver and palladium, aided by porosity in the dielectric.
• Electrical Testing
• Scanning Acoustic Microscopy (SAM)
• X-ray Inspection
• X-ray Fluorescence (XRF)
• Optical Inspection
Electronic Testing Equipment

• Digital meters
– Multimeters
Electrical Testing of – Specialized parametric meters, such as LCRs,
high resistance meters, etc.
Components and Printed
• Oscilloscopes, Spectrum Analyzers
Circuit Boards • Curve tracer/Parameter Analyzers
• Time Domain Reflectometers
• Automated Test Equipment (ATE)
Digital Multimeters LCR Meters and Impedance Analyzers
• Typically provide: • Variable AC voltage and
– Voltage (DC, AC rms) frequency.
– Resistance (2 wire) • Used to characterize
– Current
– Capacitors
• Other common – Inductors
options: – Transformers
– Resistance (4 wire)
– Filters
– Frequency or count
– Diode voltage – Dielectric materials
– Capacitance (e.g., PCB substrates)
Agilent 34401A Agilent 4263B
– Temperature
– Datalogging
High Resistance Meters Oscilloscopes and Spectrum Analyzers

• Digital scopes allow:
• Typically measure:
–Waveform storage
– Leakage current
– Insulation resistance –Capture of transients
• Common –Waveform
applications: measurements
– Insulation resistance of –Math (e.g., FFT)
dielectrics (capacitors,
substrates) –Complex triggering
– Surface insulation
resistance of PCBs
• Spectrum analyzers are
used for frequency
Agilent 4339B
domain measurements.
Agilent 54601
Curve Tracer or Parameter Analyzer
Automated PCB Test Equipment
• Dedicated Wired Grid – test probes wired to the grid. High cost.
• Universal Grid (“Bed of Nails”) –Low cost, reusable. Spring loaded or rigid test probes
in mechanical contact to the grid.
Normal I-V curve
Normal I-V curve • Flying Probe or Fixtureless System with moveable single or double probes. Expensive.
Empirical techniques applied on capacitance /impedance data to determine a good board.
Good for micro products. Issues with pad damage.
• Low frequency display of

voltage versus current Abnormal I-V curve (due to the Abnormal I-V curve – Ionic
presence of a series resistance) Contamination (Reverse Bias)
Common Applications
Defects specific to IC packages include:
• Delamination at wirebonds, substrate metallization, dielectric layers, element
attaches, and lid seals.
• Die-attach field-failure mechanisms induced by improper die mounting and de-
adhesion.
• Delamination of the molding compound from the leadframe, die, or paddle
• Molding compound cracks
• Die tilt
• Voids and pinholes in the molding compound and die attach
Scanning Acoustic Microscopy Other applications:
• Flip Chips
• Bonded Wafers
• Printed Circuit Boards
• Capacitors
• Ceramics
• Metallic
• Power Devices/Hybrids
• Medical Devices
• Material Characterization
Common Applications Scanning Acoustic Modes
A-Scan: Raw ultrasonic data. It is the received
RF signal from a single point (in x,y).
Die Top Mold compound voids Flip Chip Underfill

Delamination Voids
B-Scan: Line of A-scans. (Vertical cross-section)
C-Scan: Data from a specified depth over the

Die Pad delamination entire scan area. (Horizontal cross-section).
Die Tilt, B-Scan Die Attach Voids
Ref: Moore, T. M. "Identification of package defects in plastic-packaged surface-mount ICs by scanning acoustic microscopy." ISTFA 89 (1989): 61-67 and Briggs, Andrew,
ed. Advances in acoustic microscopy. Vol. 1. Springer Science & Business Media, 2013.
Limitations of the Techniques

• Materials and interfaces of interest have to be flat (i.e., not useful on
solder balls or joints unless at a flat interconnection sites.
• Materials have to be relatively homogeneous (not practical for PWB
internal examination, hence not applicable for BGAs on PWB
substrates, but allowable for BGAs on ceramic).
• Metals tend to interfere with the acoustic signal (i.e., unable to
examine underneath of metal layers such as a copper die paddle or X-ray Radiography
an aluminum heat sink. The copper metallization on PWBs is
another hindrance for their internal examination).
• Operator needs to be highly skilled to correctly acquire and interpret
data.
• Since resolution and penetration depth are inversely related, a trade
off must be made.
Applications and Examples Applications: CT Visualization and Software
Typical applications include:
• Internal structures of electronic devices

• Connection techniques (Flip Chip, μBGA,
BGA, MCM, COB)
• Inner layers of PCBs
Use of voiding calculation software enables the

The computed tomography (CT) technique estimation of voided area observed in die attach. Given
enables 3-dimensional inspection of planar a nominal size area, voids can be color coded for easier
components as seen in this BGA assembly. visualization of areas larger than or smaller than these
dimensions. The yellow represent normally sized voids,
whereas, the red ones are larger.
Limitations of X-ray Techniques

• Although considered a non-destructive test, X-ray radiation may change the electrical properties of sensitive
microelectronic packages such as EPROMS, and hence should not be used until after electrical
characterization has been performed on these devices.
• For samples on or below thick metal layers such as large heat sinks as seen in power devices, X-ray imaging
is more difficult and requires high voltages and currents.
• Magnification using contact X-ray equipment can only be done externally by a magnified view of the 1:1
photo, or from an enlarged image of the negative. Hence, resolution will decrease as the image is enlarged.
X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF)
• The operator may have to experiment with voltage settings and exposure times, depending on the type of
sample and film used, to obtain proper contrast and brightness in the photos.
Types of Analysis Background on X-Ray Fluorescence
• Spectrum analysis to determine the

elements and the composition of an Incident x-ray KE • Incident x-ray is incident on
sample
unknown sample.
• Core electron is ejected
• Material analysis for bulk samples (one KD • Electron from outer shell
layer sample) falls down to fill up the
vacancy
• Thickness analysis to determine the Compositional Analysis
• X-ray photon is emitted
thickness and the composition of different Ejected (energy equal to the
layers. electron difference between the two
levels involved in the
• Pure element and alloy standards (such as transition), which is
Ni, Cu, Ag, Sn, Au, Pb and SnAgCu or Comparative Analysis characteristic of the element
SnPb alloys) can be used to calibrate the and the electronic transition
spectrometer.
Conclusion
• XRF is a powerful tool to analyze composition and coating thickness on a
variety of electronic products
• A non-destructive tool, does not require sample preparation, provides
quick analysis results
• Users should be aware of the issues related to the automated analysis Visual Inspection
software
External Visual Inspection Analytical Techniques
Low power stereo
macroscope (up to 65x) • Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy (ESEM)
– Overview • Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS)
– Package level
– PCB level
• Thermo-mechanical Analysis
• Microtesting (Wire Pull, Ball Bond and Solder Ball Shear,
Cold Bump Pull)
Higher power light optical
microscopes • Decapsulation / Delidding
• Dye Penetrant Inspection (Dye and Pry)
• Inverted
• Upright
Typical stereo macroscope

Applications and Examples

• Excessive wicking of copper in PTHs of a PWB
• Separation at the interface between the copper plating and
the fiber epoxy resin board interface
• Fiber/resin interface delamination
• Corrosion and intermetallic growth at the bondpad under the
gold ball bond
Scanning Electron Microscopy • Stress-driven diffusive voiding and hillock formation of Al

metallization lines
• Metallization corrosion
• Wirebond fracture
• Passivation cracking
• Delamination at the die/die paddle interface
• Dendritic growth
• Electrostatic discharge/electrical overstress
• Wire fatigue
• Solder fatigue
Applications Limitations
• By eliminating the need for a conductive coating, SEM allows imaging of delicate structures and
permits subsequent energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) compositional analysis. • Large samples have to be sectioned to enable viewing in a SEM or an E-SEM, due to the limited size of the sample chamber.
• Only black and white images are obtained. Images can be enhanced with artificial color. Thus, different elements in the same area, having
• An ESEM (a variant of SEM) can image wet, dirty, and oily samples. The contaminants do not close atomic numbers may not be readily distinguished as in optical viewing.
damage the system or degrade the image quality.
• Samples viewed at high magnifications for extended periods of time can be damaged by the electron beam (e.g., fiber/resin delamination can
be initiated this way).
• The ESEM can acquire electron images from samples as hot as 1500ºC because the detector is
• Areas having elements with large atomic number differences are not easily viewed simultaneously; increasing the contrast to view the low
insensitive to heat. atomic number element effectively makes the high atomic number element appear white, while decreasing the contrast allows a clear view
of the high atomic number element, the image of the low atomic number element is drastically compromised.
• ESEM can provide materials and microstructural information such as grain size distribution, surface • Variations in the controllable pressure and gun voltage can allow samples to appear differently. Lower pressure and voltage give for more
roughness and porosity, particle size, materials homogeneity, and intermetallic distribution. surface detail; the same surface can look smoother by just increasing the pressure. Therefore, sample comparisons before and after
experiments, especially cleaning treatments should always be examined under the same conditions.
• ESEM can be used in failure analyses to examine the location of contamination and mechanical • Image quality is determined by scan rate; the slower the scan rate, the higher the quality. However, at lower scan rates, the image takes a
damage, provide evidence of electrostatic discharge, and detect microcracks. longer time to be fully acquired and displayed. Therefore, sample movement appears visually as jerky motions. A trade off must be made
between image quality and visual mobility.
Applications
X-ray analysis can be used to detect:
• Surface contamination (chlorine, sulfur)

• Presence of native oxides
• Corrosion
X-ray Spectroscopy • Concentrations of phosphorus, boron, and arsenic
• Compositional analysis (i.e., Sn to Pb ratio)
• Conductive filament formation
• Intermetallic growth
• Elemental distribution using mapping techniques
X-ray Mapping Acquired Spectrum Using EDS
Pb Sn
An X-ray mapping of Tin (Sn)

distribution (right) and Lead
(center) in a eutectic solder. The
associated spectrum is shown on The bromine and aluminum peaks overlap, at 1.481 and 1.487 KeV
left bottom. respectively. It is not clear, using EDS, whether or not aluminum is in this
sample. Bromine is present, as evidenced by its second identified peak at
11.91 KeV. The elemental KeV values can be found on most periodic tables.
Limitations of EDS Thermal Analysis Techniques

• Resolution is limited, therefore it is possible to have • DSC – Differential Scanning Calorimetry
uncertainties for overlapping peaks (i.e., tungsten – Measures changes in heat capacity
– Detects transitions
overlap with silicon and lead overlap with sulfur) – Measures Tg, Tm, % crystallinity
• Cannot detect trace elements • TGA – Thermogravimetric Analysis
– Measures changes in weight
• Limited quantitative analysis – Reports % weight as a function of time and temperature
• No detection of elements with atomic number < 6 – Helps determine composition
• If a Beryllium window is used, cannot detect light • TMA – Thermomechanical Analysis

– Measures changes in postion
elements such as carbon, nitrogen and oxygen with – Detects linear size changes
atomic number < 9 – Calculates deflection, CTE, and transition temperature
• DMA – Dynamic Mechanical Analysis
• Specimen must be positioned in such a manner that an – Measures changes in stiffness
unobstructed path exists from the analysis site to the – Measure deformation under oscillatory load
– Determines moduli, damping, and transition temperature
detector.
Thermal Techniques - Use TMA (Samples A and B)*
• All techniques are destructive to the sample • Coefficient of thermal expansion before
– Sample will be heated above transitions TMA Sample A glass transition temperature (alpha 1)
– Will have to be cut to fit in instrument and after glass transition temperature
• All techniques use small samples (alpha 2) is determined.
– 10 mg or so for DSC and TGA • Glass transition temperature (Tg) is also
– Samples from 5 to 40 mm long for TMA and DMA determined.
DMA DSC Sample B

• Constant stylus force applied on
the sample: 2 mN. Larger Transition
• Typical scan setup: temperature range
as compared to A
• Hold 1 minute at 25 C.
• Heating from 25㼻C to 280㼻C at
20㼻C/minute.
* - Sample preparation and test refer to IPC TM-650 2.4.24
What Is Micro-sectioning of
Printed Circuit Board?
Technique used to evaluate printed wiring board quality by
exposing a cross-section at a selected plane such as
¾ Plated through-holes
Metallographic Sample Preparation* ¾Plating thickness
¾ Via
¾ Soldered connections
¾Delamination in PCB
¾Inner layer connections
*- Adapted from Buehler Limited/ITW
192
Primary Purpose of Micro-sectioning Goal of Specimen Preparation
Reveal the true microstructure of all
• To monitor the processes rather than to perform final materials
inspection because it makes no sense to add value to ¾Induce no defects during specimen
a product that is already rejectable!
preparation
• Therefore, the objective is to detect any deviations ¾ Obtain reproducible results
from normal in the manufacturing processes as early ¾Use the least number of steps in the shortest
as possible to avoid adding value to a defective time possible
product. Corrections to the process should then be
made as soon as possible. ¾ Achieve a cost effective operation
193 194
Preparation Steps
Documentation
‘Each step is equally important” ¾ Process data: vendor, material,
¾ Documentation batch #, part #, sampling
¾ Sectioning ¾ Description of specimen orientation,
location, cut area, Macro image
¾ Mounting
¾ Type of analysis and defect, area of
¾ Grinding and Polishing
interest
¾ Visual Examination
¾ Record mounting, polishing, etching
¾ Etching parameters
¾ Analysis ¾ Record microstructure data:
inclusions, porosity, grain size, etc.
Sectioning Methods
¾ Equipment Method Comments
¾ Blade, wheel (SiC, alumina, diamond) Shearing Severe torsion damage to an undetermined distance adjacent to the
¾ Load cutting edges
¾ Blade RPM Hollow punch Convenient, and rapid but limited to boards 0.08” thick or less
¾ Feed rate (Saved hole)
¾ Coolant Routing Rapid and versatile with moderate damage but noisy and hard to
¾ Delicate materials may require encapsulation or chuck control.
padding for holding Band saw Rapid, convenient moderate damage and easy to control when a 24-
32 pitch blade is used at 3500-4500 ft./min.
Low speed saw Least damage of any method allowing cuts to be made even into the
edge of the plated through-hole barrel. However, it is too slow for
high volume micro-sectioning.
Precision table Least destructive method of removing specimens from component
saw mounted boards for soldered connection analysis
197 198
Sectioning damage Mounting Principles

Method Type of damage Possible depth • Sample encapsulated in epoxy, acrylic or other compound
Shearing Deep mechanical damage 5 mm • Sample edges protected during polishing process
• Delicate samples protected from breakage
Band / hack saw Moderate thermal and 2.5 mm
lubricated not mechanical damage • Smooth mount edges increase life of polishing surfaces
cooled • Allows automation and ability to prepare multiple samples
Dry abrasive Moderate to severe thermal 1.5 mm
simultaneously
cutting damage • Uniform pressure on mount maximizes surface flatness
Wet abrasive cut- Minimal thermal and 250 Pm • Safety
off saw mechanical damage
Diamond / Minimal thermal and 50 Pm
precision saw mechanical damage
199 200
Mounting Method Selection Potting Compounds
Castable (cold) mounting Compression (hot) mounting
•Resin/hardener selection • Compound selection Resin of Choice?…EPOXY!
•Vacuum • Pressure
•Additives for edges, conductivity • Heat x Low shrinkage and moderate hardness
are important for microelectronics.
- Less surface relief
Specimen characteristics to consider:
•Softening/melting temperature - Better edge protection
•Sample thickness, ability to withstand pressure x Uncured epoxy typically has low viscosity
•Brittleness, friability for filling small cavities.
•Porosity
•Hardness & abrasion resistance relative to x Epoxy can be cast while under
mounting compound vacuum. This enhances its cavity
•Importance of edge retention filling ability.
201 202
Damage Grinding Steps

Coarse Grind ¾ The initial grinding surface depends on the condition of the cut surface – more
damaged surfaces require coarser first-step grinding
Deformation
¾ For excessive damage, re-sectioning with an abrasive or precision saw is
recommended
¾ A single grinding step is adequate for most materials sectioned with an abrasive
or precision saw
¾ Softer materials require multiple grinding steps and smaller abrasive size
Fine Grind
increments
Deformation
¾ Remove damage with progressively smaller abrasive particle sizes
Coarse Polish
Fine Polish
¾ With decreasing particle size:
Incremental Removal of Damage 1. Depth of damage decreases
Each abrasive step leaves 2. Removal rate decreases
3. Finer scratch patterns emerge
deformation. As abrasive size is
reduced, less deformation is left
behind.
203 204
Polishing Principles Polishing
Time
¾ Further refinement of ground surface using resilient cloth surfaces charged
with abrasive particles
¾ Each step must remove the surface scratches and sub-
¾ Depending on material characteristics, cloth selected may be woven,
surface deformation from the previous step
pressed or napped
¾ Increase time to increase material removal
¾ Commonly used abrasives are diamond and alumina
¾ Smaller increments in abrasive size require shorter times at
¾ The polishing process consists of one to three steps that:
each step
1. Remove damage from the last grinding step
¾ Increases in surface area may require longer times
2. Produce progressively finer scratches & lesser depth of damage
¾ Too long times on certain cloths can produce edge rounding
3. Maintain edges and flatness and relief
4. Keep artifacts to an absolute minimum
205 206
Additional Considerations Final Polishing Principles

¾ Bevel mount edges to increase cloth life
¾ Clean specimens and holder between steps to prevent cross ¾ Removes remaining scratches, artifacts and smear
contamination of abrasives ¾ Produces a lustrous, damage-free surface
¾ Ultrasonic cleaning may be required for cracked or porous ¾ Maintains edge retention
specimens
¾ Prevents relief in multiphase materials
¾ Dry thoroughly with an alcohol spray and a warm air flow to
eliminate staining artifacts
¾ Remove polishing debris by rinsing cloth surface after use to
increase cloth life
208
Etching Principles Etching Techniques
• Immersion – sample immersed directly into etchant solution
¾ Etching is a process of controlled corrosion
• Most commonly used method
¾ Selective dissolution of components at different rates reveals the
microstructure • Requires gentle agitation to remove reaction products
¾ Completion of etching is determined better by close observation than • Swab – polished surface swabbed with cotton ball soaked with etchant
timing • Preferred method for materials in which staining is a problem
¾ Etching is best performed on a freshly polished surface before a • Electrolytic – chemical action supplemented with electric current
passive layer can form • Attack controlled by chemical selection, time, amps
¾ A dry surface produces a clearer etched structure than a wet one
¾ An under-etched surface may be re-etched but an over-etched
surface requires re-polishing
209
PWB Etchants
(For Copper) Dye Penetrant (Dye and Pry)
• Identify failed components (electrical
¾ Equal parts 3% H2O2 and ammonium hydroxide, swab measurement)
• Boards are immersed in stripping agent (Miller-
for 3 to 10 seconds, use fresh etchant to reveal grain Stephenson MS-111) for 25 min at room
boundaries of plating and cladding copper material. temperature to remove the solder mask. IPA can
be used for a final rinse. Dry in air.
• Dye is applied to the board (DYKEM steel red
layout fluid) with a pipette. Important: Flip the
¾ 5 g Fe(NO3) 3, 25 mL HCl, 70 mL water, immerse 10 – board, so that the dye flows into the cracks
• Place boards in vacuum for 5 minutes so that the
30 seconds, reveals grain boundaries very well. dye penetrates into fine cracks that otherwise
would be blocked by trapped air pockets. A
strong vacuum pressure is not important for this
process (Typical 220 mm Hg)
• Place the board on a hot plate for 30min 80㼻C to
dry the dye (as prescribed by DYKEM).
Picture: “Solder joint failure analysis” Dye penetrate technique

BY TERRY BURNETTE and THOMAS KOSCHMIEDER
211
Dye and Pry Steps Potential Nonconformities
(For BGAs)
• Flex the board with a pair of pliers until the components peel away.
• Remove the components with tweezers and fix with double sided tape on the board,
because it is important to see the component side and the substrate side to identify the
failure site.
1. Solder Fail Component
(component side)
2. Solder Fail 1
(substrate side)
3. Pad Lift BGA
4. Trace Fail
4
2
Pad
Trace
3
Substrate
Picture: “Solder joint failure analysis” Dye penetrate technique
BY TERRY BURNETTE and THOMAS KOSCHMIEDER
Dye and Pry:

Failure Sites Observed
Trace failure
Failure site- Crack on
board side
(a) Failure on board side (b) Trace failure

Focused Ion Beam Etching
Failure site- Crack
on component side
Pad Crater
(b) Failure on component side (d) Pad crater
FIB Introduction FIB Cross-section of Bumps
SEM image of a die- Ag antenna
20μm
• Focused ion beam (FIB) processing involves directing a focused beam of bump interface after
gallium ions onto a sample. FIB etching. Overview Bump
of the interface in
• FIB etching serves as a supplement to lapping and cleaving methods for
failure. The beam of ions bombarding the sample's surface dislodges (a) shows the bump, Die Metallization
atoms to produce knife-like cuts. die and silver (a)

Die
antenna,
5μm
(b) and (c) show close 5μm
Bump
Bump
up of the bump at
Ag antenna Ag antenna
two sides.
Passivation
Passivation
(b) Pad (c)

Pad
Ref: Sood, Bhanu, et al. "Failure site isolation on passive RFID tags." Physical and Failure Analysis of Integrated
Circuits, 2008. IPFA 2008. 15th International Symposium on the. IEEE, 2008.
Focused Ion Beam Limitations

• Equipment is relatively expensive
• Large scale cross-sectional analysis is impractical

since the milling process takes such a long time
Superconducting Quantum
Interference Device (SQUID)
• Operator needs to be highly trained
Microscopy
• Samples could be damaged or contaminated with gallium
• Different materials are etched at different rates, therefore uniform cross-sectioning

using ion milling is not always possible
Magnetic Imaging Used to Locate Failures Site Isolation of CAF in PCBs Using SQUID[1]
• Scanning quantum interference device
(SQUID) microscope is a sensitive near-field
magnetic imaging system.
• System can detect magnetic fields as faint as
20 picotesla. Its sensitivity is high enough to
image currents as small as 600nA at a 100 mm
working distance with 30 ms averaging.
• Bias is applied to the test boards suspected of

CAF failures.
• Magnetic field produced by a sample can be
imaged by rastering the sample in close
proximity to the SQUID, magnetic field maps
are generated.
Ref: Sood, Bhanu, and Michael Pecht. "Conductive filament formation in printed circuit boards: effects of reflow conditions and flame retardants." Journal of Materials [1] Sood, Bhanu, and Michael Pecht. "Conductive filament formation in printed circuit boards: effects of reflow conditions and flame retardants." Journal of Materials Science: Materials
Science: Materials in Electronics 22.10 (2011): 1602-1615. in Electronics 22.10 (2011): 1602.
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy

– Spectrum Production
Non-absorbed Light Sample Incident Light
(e.g., Reflected or Transmitted)
Spectroscopy,
including Detector
Fourier Transform Infrared Fourier Transform
Spectroscopy (FTIR) Interferogram Spectrum
(Time (Frequency
Domain) Domain)
Properties of an Infrared Spectrum Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
• An infrared spectrum contains absorption peaks corresponding to the – Spectrum Interpretation
frequencies of vibration of the atoms of the molecules making up the sample.
1.0
0.8
Infrared Spectrum
0.6
of Acetic Acid
Butyl Ester
0.4
0.2
0.0
3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500

Correlation with charts of
characteristic absorption Identification of
frequencies material
Ref: ChemAnalytical LLC: FT-IR Spectra
Engineering Applications of FTIR
• Materials identification and evaluation

– Identification of unknown inorganic and organic materials by comparison to
standards and by molecular structure determination
– Determination of the locations of known and unknown materials
– Determination of material homogeneity
• Failure analysis
– Identification of contaminants
– Identification of corrosion products
Chromatography
– Identification of adhesive composition change
• Quality control screening

– Comparison of samples to known good and known bad samples
– Comparison of materials from different lots or vendors
– Evaluation of cleaning procedure effectiveness
– Identification of contaminants
Ion-exchange Chromatography Example of IC Results on a Mixture of
Anions
• Ion exchange chromatography exploits ionic interactions and competition • The eluent was 0.01 mol/L NaOH.
to realize analyte separation. • The column used was an Dionex AS11.
• It can be further classified into Standard 1 Position 15
– cation exchange chromatography (CEC): separates positively charged ions; and 10.0μS
2 - Chloride - 2.400
– anion exchange chromatography (AEC): separates negatively charged ions. 8.0
6.0
• The output of an IC test is a graph of conductivity versus time. 4.0
3 - Nitrite - 2.650
5 - Nitrate - 3.992
1 - Fluoride - 1.775
• Calibration is with standards of known composition (elution time) and 2.0
4 - Bromide - 3.808
6 - 4.817
7 - Sulfate - 6.508
8 - 7.783
concentration (peak area). -1.0 min
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.00 6.50 7.00 7.50 8.00
• Based on the retention time, the type of ions can be

determined with comparison to standard ions.
• Based on the area under the peaks, the concentration of the
ions can be determined.
Ref: Dionex AS11 Carbon Eluent Anion-Exchange Column
Applications of Ion Chromatography in

Electronics Reliability
1. Tests on assembled or bare printed wiring boards (PWBs) to
relate cleanliness to electrochemical migration.
2. Determination of amount and type of extractable ions

present in encapsulation materials to relate amount and type
of ionic content to corrosion failure. Summary
3. Electroplating chemistry analysis to relate breakdown
products to plating adhesion failure.
Ref: IPC-TM-650 Test Method No. 2.3.28

Restart Criteria Corrective Actions
• Failures with severe consequences (e.g., safety) may require processes • Many of the failures having a direct impact on
(e.g., manufacturing, distribution) to be interrupted after discovery of the production require immediate corrective actions
failure. that will minimize downtime.
• Depending upon the identified root cause, processes interrupted may be • Although many immediate actions may correct
re-started if corrective action (s) can be implemented that will prevent the symptoms,
recurrence of the failure, or sufficiently minimize its impact. – temporary solutions may not be financially justifiable
over the “long haul”; and
– there is a large risk that a temporary solution may not
solve the problem.
Verification Root Cause Analysis Report

The report should include the following information:
Verification of the corrective action includes: 1. Incident summary
2. History and conditions at the time of failure
• verifying the approval and implementation of the corrective 3. Incident description
action; 4. Cause evaluated and rationale
5. Immediate corrective actions
• verifying a reduction in the incidence of failures;
6. Causes and long-term corrective actions
• verifying the absence of new failures associated with the 7. Lesson learned
failure sites, modes, and mechanisms identified during the 8. References and attachments
failure analysis. 9. Investigating team description
10. Review and approval team description
11. Distribution list
Questions?
Failures of a Failure Analysis Program
• Shutting down the malfunctioning equipment

• Refusing to recognize that a failure can or does exist
• Assuming an apparent cause to be the root cause
• Determining the failure cause by assumption
• Collecting insufficient information and ending an analysis before it is
complete
• Discarding failed parts
• No documentation
Acknowledgements
ÏNASA GSFC SMA Mission Assurance Directorate Thank you!
ÏNASA GSFC Risk and Reliability Branch (Code 371)
ÏNASA Workmanship Program
Bhanu Sood, PhD
Safety and Mission Assurance (SMA) Directorate
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

Phone: (301) 286-5584
bhanu.sood@nasa.gov

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Bhanu Sood, Ph.D. Information may be changed or updated without notice.

• Member of ~40 IPC Subcommittees and Task 7.

Groups. Chair IPC-7092: Design and Assembly

Section 1: What is reliability and root cause? 10.

Section 2: Overview of failure mechanisms

Section 3: Failure analysis techniques • Member of IPC A-Teams 17.

– Non-destructive analysis techniques 9 Microvia Weak Interfaces 20.

– Destructive analysis 9 J-STD-001 X-ray Requirements 23.

– Materials characterization 9 IPC-6017 Embedded Circuits Spec 26.

Section 4: Summary and closure • NRL/CALCE/NASA 29.

• Bachelors/Masters/PhD Metallurgy, Electronics 32.

NASA GSFC One World-Class Organization Who We Are

THE GODDARD COMMUNITY

Communications Professional &

IPC APEX EXPO 2020 7

New Horizons WISE

IPC APEX EXPO 2020 9

Physics of Failure Perspective of Reliability Influence of ‘Durability’ and ‘Quality’ on

time time (t)

o Time-to-market can increase

Classification of Failures Failure Mechanism Identification

Quality Assurance Functions Printed Circuit Boards and Classification

Glass Fiber Production

Hope for your understanding…” – Senior Staff Scientist, PPG Glass.

Coupling Agents Used in FR4[1] [2] Resin-Glass Interface/Interphase [1] [2]

FIB sectioning confirmed the presence

• FIB removes the glass fibers selectively from the earlier

Inter-penetrating Networks [1] [2] [3] Hydrolysis of Siloxane Bonds

Printed Circuit Board Supplier Capability Overview

Bare PCB Suppliers* Support to U.S. Government Agencies*

Factors Causing PCB Production Bottlenecks* PCB Quality

Study Objective Microsectioning

Data Analysis –Submission and Classification and Analysis - Top 5

Common Nonconformances from suppliers

1. IPC-6012 – Qualification and Performance Specification for Rigid Printed Boards.

Inner Layer Separations or Inclusions Separation or Inclusions Between Plating Layers

Contributors Resolution The extension of copper from a

This occurs, when the inner layer

ENIG Less than Minimum Summary - PCB Supplier Study

The damage (failure mode) may not be detected until

What is Root Cause Analysis? What is a Root Cause?

While generally synonymous, “Failure analysis” is

Root Cause Analysis Root Cause Analysis Process

1) Describe WHAT happened during a particular occurrence,

Identify Root Cause (s)

Hypothesizing causes is the process of applying

• Tools for hypothesizing causes:

FMEA Methodology Fault Tree Analysis

Cause and Effect Diagram (Delamination in PCBs) Pareto Chart Example

Example of Failure Analysis Process Flow

should not be underestimated. Electrical Test/

approach. Identification of Failure Site

– electron beam induced current (EBIC),

– cathodoluminescence (CL) Part

Root Cause Identification

Examples of Failure Models ESD/EOS Induced IC Failure Modes and Sites

ECM Conductive Anodic Dendritic Growth

CAF Paths Factors Affecting CAF:

B. Between two traces

C. Between a trace and