ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

Two types of Reproduction

1. Asexual reproduction is common among lower form of animals. The fusion of egg cell and sperm cell does not occur,
reproduction is mainly through mitosis which means a clone of the parent.

In a stable or predictable environment, asexual reproduction is an effective means of reproduction because all the offspring will
be adapted to that environment. In an unstable or unpredictable environment, species that reproduce asexually may be at a
disadvantage because all the offspring are genetically identical and may not be adapted to different conditions.

2. Sexual reproduction is mostly observed by more complex animals. It involves the production of offspring by the fusion of
haploid gametes (sperm and ovum).

The combination of the genes from both parents increases the chances of species variation. Therefore, species extinction is
highly unlikely.

A. Methods of Asexual Reproduction:

1. Budding- results from the outgrowth of a part of the body leading to a separation of the “bud” from the original organism and the
formation of two individuals, one smaller than the other. The offspring typically remain attached to the parent until it is mature.

2. Fragmentation and Regeneration- fragmentation is when an animal’s body breaks into different parts, which later regenerate to
form several individuals.

If the animal is capable of fragmentation, and the parts are big enough, a separate individual will regrow from each part. Fragmentation
may occur through accidental damage, damage from predators, or as a natural form of reproduction.

3. Fission- is the separation/division of an organism to form individuals of approximately same size. An organism appears to split itself
into two parts and which will then form new organisms.

4. Parthenogenesis- is like apomixes in plants, where the egg cell develops without fertilization. It can more accurately be termed as
an “incomplete form of sexual reproduction.

B. Variations on Sexual Reproduction

1. Hermaphroditism occurs in animals where one individual has both male and female reproductive parts. Hermaphrodites may self-
fertilize or may mate with another of their species, fertilizing each other and both producing offspring. Self fertilization is common in
animals that have limited mobility or are not motile.

Sequential hermaphroditism occurs when an individual reverses its sex during its lifetime. There are two types of sequential
hermaphrodites. When individuals start out life as a female and change sex to male, this is called protogynous. A classic example is
the wrasse (reef fish). If there is no male present, usually the largest, oldest female changes and becomes the dominant male and will
begin to produce sperm within a week. When individuals start out life as a male and change to female, this is called protandrous. An
example of a protandrous species is oysters. All oysters start out life as males due to their small size. As the oyster grows and attains a
certain size, it will change into a female and produce eggs.

2. External fertilization usually occurs in aquatic environments where both eggs and sperm are released into the water. After the
sperm reaches the egg, fertilization takes place. Most external fertilization happens during the process of spawning where one or
several females release their eggs and the male(s) release sperm in the same area, at the same time. The spawning may be triggered
by environmental signals, such as water temperature or the length of daylight. Nearly all fish spawn, as do crustaceans (such as crabs
and shrimp), mollusks, squid, and echinoderms (such as sea urchins and sea cucumbers). Frogs, and mosquitoes also spawn.

3. Internal fertilization, the union of egg and sperm occurs within the female reproductive tract. Animals that undergo in this type of
reproduction produce offspring in any of the following ways: oviparity, ovoviviparity, and viviparity.

 Oviparity – after the eggs are fertilized internally, it would complete its development outside the mother’s body. The egg would
receive its nourishment through its yolk. This is found in some bony and cartilaginous fish (including clown fish and blue
tangs), most reptiles, some amphibians, all birds, and a few mammals (monotremes). Organisms that lay eggs are
oviparous.

 Ovoviviparity – the eggs are also fertilized internally and receive its nourishment through its yolk. However, eggs will
complete its development within the mother. They are then fully developed when they are hatched and released by the
mother. This is common in some bony fish (including mollies, guppies, and mosquito fish), some cartilaginous fish, and many
reptiles. Animals are ovoviviparous when the fertilized eggs are retained within the female’s reproductive tract and then she
gives live birth.

 Viviparity – the eggs are developed internally and receive nourishment directly from the mother’s blood through placenta
rather than from the yolk. This can be found in most cartilaginous fish (including lemon sharks), some amphibians, a few
reptiles, and almost all mammals including humans. Organisms that give birth to their young are called viviparous.