Chemistry in

Daily Life
CHEMISTRY

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Chemistry in Daily Life

Medicines
Introduction
 Drugs are chemicals of low molecule mass (~ 100–500u).

 They interact with macromolecular targets and produce bio-reactions.

 When bio-reactions are therapeutic and beneficial, these chemicals are called drugs and are used to
diagnose, prevent and treat diseases.

 If more than the recommended amount is used, most drugs are effective poisons.

 The therapeutic use of chemicals is called Chemotherapy.

Classification of Drugs
On the basis of pharmacological effect
 It is useful for physicians because it is available to them for a particular treatment.

 For example, analgesics have an analgesic effect, destroy antiseptic microbes or inhibit their growth.

Based on the effect of the Drug

 It is based on the effect of the drug on a particular Biochemical process.

 For example, all antihistamines reduce the effect of the histamine compound, which produces
inflammation in the body.

Based on the chemical composition

 Drugs classified in this way share similar structural characteristics and often have similar pharmacological
functionalities.

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Based on Target-molecule
 Drugs typically interact with biomolecules, such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

 Those are called targets-molecules or drugs.

 Drugs with similar structural characteristics may have similar mechanisms of action.

 Target - Classification based on molecules is most useful for pharmaceutical chemists.

Drug Target Interaction

 Organic macromolecules perform various functions in the body.

 For example, proteins that act as bio-catalysts are called enzymes, proteins that are crucial in the body's
communication system are called receptors.

 Carrier proteins carry polar molecules across the cell body.

 Nucleic acids contain the symbolic genetic information of the cell.

 Lipids and carbohydrates are part of the structure of the cell.

 The drug-target interaction process can be described by the example of enzyme and receptor.

1. Like Enzymes Drug Targets

A. The catalytic function of enzymes

 In order to understand the interactions between drugs and enzymes it is necessary to know how to do
enzymes catalyze reaction.

 Enzyme do two major work in catalytic activity:

 The first function of an enzyme is to hold the substrate for chemical reaction.

 The active surface of the enzyme holds the functional molecule in the appropriate position,
allowing it to be effectively attacked by the reactant.

 Functions are bound by a variety of interactions on the active surface of the enzyme, such
as ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, wander wall interactions, or dipoles - bipolar forces.

 The second function of an enzyme is to provide a functional group to react to the chemical reaction
by attacking the base, which will attack the reaction.

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B. Drug-enzyme interaction

 Drugs inhibit any of the above activities of enzymes.

 They can block the binding surface of enzymes and interfere with the binding of enzymes or they can
inhibit the catalytic function of enzymes, such drugs are called enzyme inhibitors.

 Drugs can inhibit the combination of reactants on the active surface of an enzyme in two ways:

 Drugs compete with the actual agents on the active surface of the enzyme.

 Such drugs are known as competitive inhibitors.

 Some drugs do not combine on the active surface of the enzyme.

 It combines on different surfaces of the enzyme which is called allosteric surface.

 Combining on the allosteric surface of the resistor changes the shape of the active surface
in such a way that the substrate cannot recognize it.

 If the bond between the enzyme and the inhibitor is a strong covalent bond and cannot be
broken easily, the enzyme is permanently blocked.

 The body then degrades the enzyme-inhibitor clusters and creates a new enzyme.

2. Like Receptors Drug Targets

 Receptors are the deciding proteins of the body's circulatory system.

 Most of these are located in the cytoplasm.

 Receptive proteins are located in the cell in such a way that their small active surface part opens up in the
outer region of the cell.

 Some chemicals in the body transmit the message between the Nerve cells and muscle.

 These chemicals, called chemical messengers, are ingested on the binding surface of receptor proteins.

 The receiver size changes to accommodate the messenger.

 This causes the message to reach the cell.

 In this way chemical messengers convey the message within the cell without entering the cell.

 These receptors appear to be selective towards one of the chemical carriers.

 Because their bonding surfaces have different size, structure, and amino acid composition.

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 The drugs which bind on the surface of the receptor and obstruct its natural function are called
antagonists.

 This is beneficial for blocking messages.

 The second types of drugs are those that activate the receptor by imitating the natural messenger, these
are called Agonists.

 These are beneficial in the absence of natural chemical messengers.

Therapeutic Effects of Drugs of various Categories

1. Anti-Acid
 Excess production of acid in the stomach causes excitement and pain.

 Until 1970, acidity was treated only by Sodium Hydrocarbonate and Magnesium Hydroxide.

 But excessive sodium hydrogen carbonate alkalizes the stomach and induces more acid production.

 Metallic hydroxides are the better treatment.

 Because they are insoluble, they do not allow pH to move indifferently.

 Both treatments only control the symptoms of the disease, not the cause.

 Therefore, the treatment of the patient with these metal salts was not easy at first.

 Due to the ulcer (ulcer) being fatal in the advanced stage, its only treatment was to remove the diseased
part of the stomach.

 The main changes in the treatment of hyperemia occurred after that discovery.

 The drug cimetidine design was designed to prevent the interaction of histamine with receptors located in
the gastric wall.

 The importance of this drug was so great that Ranitidine (Zantec) was discovered.

2. Histamine
 Histamine is a potent vasodilator.

 It narrows the smooth muscles of the bronchioles and esophagus and softens the walls of other muscles,
such as blood vessels.

 Histamine is also the cause of nasal congestion caused by colds and allergies caused by pollen.

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 Brompheniramine (Dimetep) and Turphenadine (Seladein), a synthetic drug, act as antihistamines.

 It competes with histamine for the binding surface of the receptor on which histamine exerts its effect and
thus hinders the natural function of histamine.

Now the question arises why the above antihistamine does not affect the acid secretion of the stomach?

 The reason is that anti-allergic and anti-acid drugs work on different receptors.

3. Neural active drugs

 Pacific and Analgesics are neurologically active drugs.

 These affect the message-carrying process from nerve to receptor.

A. Pacific

 Pacific is a class of chemical compounds that are used in stress and minor or major mental illnesses.

 It inspires the feeling of being good, relieves anxiety, stress, anger or excitement.

 These are essential components of sleeping pills.

 Noradrenalin is a neurotransmitter that plays a role in mood changes.

 These drugs inhibit the enzymes that catalyze the degradation of noradrenaline.

 Equanil is used to control depression and atrophy.

 Barbiturates are sleepy, meaning they are used to sleep.

B. Analgesics

 It reduces or eliminates analgesic pain without consciousness, attenuation, psychosis, disorganization or

paralysis or any other obstruction in the nervous system.

 They are classified as follows:

 Asparagus Analgesic (non-sedative or non-addictive)

 Narcotic Drug (narcotic)

i) Asparagus Analgesic (non-narcotic)

 Aspirin and paracetamol are non-narcotic analgesics.

 Aspirin is the most common medicine.

 These drugs are effective in

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 Relieving the pain caused by skeletal pain, such as rheumatoid arthritis.

 Reducing fever (antipyretic) and stopping the uterine quivering.

 Prevent heart attacks due to the effect of not allowing blood clots to form.

ii) Narcotic Analgesic (narcotic analgesic)

 Morphine and many of its homogenes, when given in medicinal quantities, relieve pain and bring
them to sleep.

 In toxic amounts, they are insignificant, diabolical, twitching and finally death.

 Morphine Narrators are sometimes called Ahiphene (Opiates) because they are derived from
Poppy (Opium poppy).

 These analgesics are mainly used to give relief in post-operative pain, heart pain, end stage cancer
pain and labor pains.

C. Antimicrobial

 Diseases in humans and organisms can be caused by various microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses,
fungi and other parasites.

 Antibiotics are resistant, antibacterial and antibacterial drugs.

i) Antibiotics

 Antibiotic drugs are used to treat infections due to being less toxic to humans and organisms.

 Antibiotics, complete or partially by chemical synthesis, are said to be those substances that inhibit
or destroy their growth by inhibiting metabolic processes of microorganisms in low concentrations.

 In the 19th century, the discovery of such chemicals began to adversely affect the invading
organisms, but not on the host.

 The German biologist Paul Elish was the originator of this assumption.

 They investigated arsenic-based structures for the purpose of preparing less toxic substances for
the treatment of syphilis.

 He made the drug Arsphenamine known as Salvarsan.

 Paul Elish received the Nobel Prize for Medical Sciences in 1908 for this discovery.

 It was the first effective treatment discovered for the treatment of Syphilis.

 Although Salvarsan is toxic to humans, its effect on the Spirochete Bacterium, which produces
Syphilis, is much greater than in humans.
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 In 1932, he succeeded in making the first effective antibacterial, ‘Pontosil’, which resembles
Salvarsan in structure.

 It was soon discovered that in the body, contosil is converted into a compound sulfanyl amide,
which is the actual effector compound, thus sulfa drugs were discovered.

 The real revolution in antibacterial medicine started in 1929 with Alexander Fleming's antibiotic
discovery in penicillium fungi.

 It took 13 years to collect enough of the material for medical testing by separation and purification.

 The following are some examples of both types of antibiotics.

Antibacterial Antibodies

Penicillin Erythromycin

Aminoglycoside Tetracycline

Ofloxacin Chloramphenicol

 Penicillin is produced in India by Hindustan Antibiotics in Pimpri and in the private industrial
sector.

 Chloramphenicol is a broad spectrum antibiotic isolated in 1947.

 It is quickly absorbed into the gastrointestinal region.

 It is fed in diseases like typhoid, dysentery, acute fever, some urinary infections, meningitis and
pneumonia.

ii) Antiseptic and disinfectant (disinfectant)

 Antiseptic and disinfectant are also chemicals that either destroy microorganisms or inhibit their
growth.

 Anticonvulsants are applied to living tissues, such as wounds, bruises, ulcers and the surface of
diseased skin.

 The commonly used antidepressant Detol is a mixture of Chloroxylenol and Terpineol.

 Bithionol is added to soap to provide antiseptic properties (the compound is also known as bi-
ithanel).

 Iodine is a strong antidote.

 Its alcohol-water mixture of 2-3% solution of Iodine is called Tincture.

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 Iodoform is also used as antiseptic on wounds.

 By changing the concentration, the same substance can act as antiseptic or sterile.

D. Antigenicity

 Antigenicity drugs are useful in population control.

 Birth control pills necessarily contain a mixture of synthetic estrogen and progesterone derivatives. Both
compounds are hormones.

 It is known that ‘progesterone inhibits ovulation’.

 Synthesized progesterone derivatives are more effective than natural progesterone.

 Norethindrone is an example of a synthetic progesterone derivative widely used in reproductive control

pills.

 Ethinylestradiol (Novastrol) is an estrogen derivative used in reproductive control pills with a

progesterone derivative.

Chemicals in Food
 Reasons for adding chemicals to foods are

 Preservation of them

 Increasing attractiveness

 Promoting nutritional quality

 The following are the major classes of food additives added to food items

 Food dyes

 Flavor and sweeteners

 Fat emulsifiers and stabilizers

 Flour reformers that prevent rancidity and bleaches

 Antioxidants

 Preservatives

 Nutritional supplements such as minerals, vitamins and amino acids.

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 They are added either for the purpose of enhancing the safety of the stored food or to enhance its beauty.

1. Artificial Sweeteners
 Natural sweeteners such as sucrose increase the calories consumed.

 Ortho Sulfo Benzamide, also known as saccharin, is the first popular artificial sweetener.

 It is about 550 times sweeter than cane sugar.

 It is excreted from the body in unchanged form with urine.

 It appears completely inactive and harmless after consumption.

 Its use is very important for patients with diabetes and those who need to control calorie intake.

A. Aspartame

 Aspartame is the most successful and widely used synthetic sweetener.

 It is about 100 times sweeter than sucrose.

 It is a Methyl Ester of a dipeptide made of Aspartic Acid and Phenylalanine.

 Its use is limited to cold foods and beverages only.

B. Alitem

 Alitem is a more potent sweetener.

 It is more permanent than aspartame.

 It is difficult to control sweetness when used.

C. Sucralose

 Sucralose is a trichloro derivative of sucrose.

 Its form - color and taste is like sugar.

 It is stable at cooking temperature.

 It does not give calories.

2. Food Preservatives
 Food preservatives protect food from malfunctions caused by the growth of microorganisms.

 Eating salt, sugar, vegetable oil and sodium benzoate are commonly used preservatives.

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 Sodium benzoate is used in limited quantities and it becomes metabolized in the body.

 Sorbic Acid and Propanoic Acid salts are also used as preservatives.

3. Antioxidant
 These are important and essential food additives.

 They aid in food preservation by slowing down the action of oxygen on the food.

 Their action towards oxygen is more than that of the food they prescribe.

 Butylated HydroxyToluene (BHT) and Butylated Hydroxy Anisole (BHA) are two such antioxidants.

 After adding BHA to butter, it’s safe storage time increases from months to years.

 Sometimes citric acid is also mixed with BHT and BHA to make it more effective.

 Sulfur Di-oxide and Sulfite are useful antioxidants for the preservation of organic liquor, beer, sugar
syrup, peeled or dried fruits and vegetables.

Purification Reagent
 Two types of scavengers are used as purification reagents,

 Soap

 Synthetic detergent

 It improves the purification properties of water.

 They aid in the removal of fat, which clings to clothing and skin along with other substances.

1. Soap
 Soaps are very old scavengers.

 Soaps used for cleaning are Sodium or Potassium salts of long-chain fatty acids, such as stearic, oleic and
palmitic acids.

 Soaps containing sodium salts are made by heating fat (glyceryl ester of fatty acids) with an aqueous
solution of sodium hydroxide. This reaction is called saponification.

 In this reaction the ester of fatty acids is hydrolyzed and the soap obtained remains in colloidal state.

 It is precipitated by adding sodium chloride to the solution.

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 After removing the soap, glycerol remains in the remaining solution, which can be obtained by efficient
distillation.

 Only sodium and potassium soap are soluble in water and used for cleaning.

 Potassium soaps are generally more gentle to the skin than sodium soaps.

 They can be made using potassium hydroxide solution in place of sodium hydroxide.

Types of Soaps

 Soaps are basically made by boiling soap fat or oil with appropriate soluble hydroxide.

i) Cosmetic Soap

 Cosmetic soaps are made from the best fats and oils and care is taken to remove excess of Alkali.

 Colors and fragrances are added to make them more attractive.

ii) Floating Soap

 Small bubbles of air are dissipated before they harden to make soap that floats in water.

iii) Transparent Soap

 Transparent soaps are made by dissolving soap in ethanol and then evaporating excess solvent.

Iv) Drug Soap

 Drug soaps are added with medicinal properties.

 Deodorant is added to some soap.

v) Beard Soap

 They contain glycerol to prevent beard soap from drying out quickly.

 When making this soap, the glue called rosin is applied.

 This makes sodium rosinate, which produces foam well.

vi) Washing Soap

 Washing soaps include supplements such as sodium rosinate, sodium silicate, borax and sodium
carbonate.

 To make the soap shavings, a layer of melted soap is mounted on a cold cylinder and scraped into
broken pieces.

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 Granular soap is small dried soap bubbles.

 Soap powders and cleansing soaps contain some soap, abrasives such as powdered pumice or fine
sand and builders such as sodium carbonate and trisodium phosphate.

Why do soaps not work in Hard Water?

 Hard water contains calcium and magnesium ions.

 These ions convert sodium or potassium soap into hard water into insoluble calcium and magnesium soap,
respectively.

 These insoluble soaps are separated from water like Scum and are useless for the purpose of purification
reagent.

 Due to this viscous substance in clothes washed with hard water and soap, the dye is not absorbed evenly.

2. Synthetic Detergent
 Synthetic scavengers are purification reagents that have all the properties of soap, but which are not
actually soap.

 It can be used in both soft and hard water, as it also forms foam in hard water.

 Some scavengers also foam in icy water.

 Synthetic detergents are divided into three classes

 Anionic Detergent

 Cationic Detergent

 Non-ionic Detergent

A. Anionic Detergent

 By reacting long chain alcohols with concentrated sulfuric acid, alkyl hydrogen sulfates are formed which
become neutral detergents when neutralized with alkali.

 Sodium salts of alkyl benzene sulfonates are important classes of anionic detergents.

 They are mostly used in domestic use.

 Anionic scavengers are also used in dentistry.

B. Cationic Scavengers

 Cationic scavengers are quiescent salts made with acetate, chloride or bromide anions of amines.

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 These have long hydrocarbon chains in the cationic part and a positive charge on the nitrogen molecule.

 Therefore, they are called cationic detergents.

C. Non-Ionic Scavengers

 There are no ions in the structure of non-scavengers.

 One such detergent is formed by the reaction of stearic acid and polyethylene glycol.

 The liquid scavengers used to wash dishes are anaerobic.

 The purification mechanism of such detergents is the same as that of soap.

 They also expel oil and fat by making them micelles.

 The major problem in the use of synthesized detergents is that if they contain more branched hydrocarbon
chains, bacteria cannot easily degrade them.

 They remain in the water even after sewage management and produce foam in river ponds and springs
and their water becomes polluted.

 Nowadays, shaking in the hydrocarbon chain is controlled and kept to a minimum.

Glass
 Glass is a very useful substance in daily life.

 It is used to make glass bottles, light bulbs, glass of windows and doors, mirror of eyeglasses, mirrors for
face view and other equipment used in cars and buses etc.

 Glass is often a homogeneous mixture of different Silicates.

 There is no definite melting point or composition of Glass.

 Glass is not a compound but a mixture.

 It can be represented by the following formula

 xR2O.yMO.6SiO2

 Here R expresses the number of alkaline metals Na & K

 M expresses bisector metals Ca, Pb & Zn

 x and y express number of molecules

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 Ordinary glass is also called soda glass.

 The adjacent composition of this is Na2O.Cao.6SiO2

 Some glass may also have alumina, Al2O3 and borate (B2O3) in place of silica, SiO2.

 The following are the common features of glass

 It is amorphous.

 It does not have a fixed melting point.

 It is a transparent or an atopic solid material.

 It is the non-conductor of electricity.

 It does not react with air, water and acids.

 An exception to this is HF which transforms silica into SiF4.

 It is affected by Alkalis.

 It is brittle.

 It melts and becomes soft on heating.

 It has high compressive strength.

 Objects of different shapes can be made from it.

Glass Components or Raw Materials

 The raw materials used in the manufacture of glass, called its components.

 It contain the following substances,

 Silica (SiO2) - In the form of sand

 Alkaline Metal Oxides - Soda in the form of Na2CO3 (soft glass), Potash as K2CO3

 Calcium oxide - CaCO3 in the form of chalk, limestone and lime

 Lead Oxide - As litharge, PbO or red lead, Pb3O4 (flint glass)

 Zinc Oxide - Heat and Shock Proof glass

 Borate - In the form of borax or boric acid

 Cullets - To reduce the melting point of the glass

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Coloring Material
 Oxides or salts of some metals are added to the collected glass to make colored glass.

 The substance to be added

 Cupric oxide, CuO or covalt oxide : Blue Color

 Cuprous oxide, Cu2O or selenium oxide : Red Color

 Chromic oxide, Cr2O3 or ferrous salts : Green Color

 Sodium uranate or ferric salt : Yellow Color

 Cadmium sulfide, CdS : Lime-like yellow Color

 Manganese dioxide, MnO2 : Violet or Pink Color

 Fe2O3 or excess quantities of CuO : Black Color

 Stannic oxide, SnO2 : Milky Color

 Carbon : Amber Color

 Potassium dichromate, K2Cr2O7 : Green or Green-Yellow Color

Glass Classification or types of Glass

Industrial glass can be classified as follows

1. Soft glass or soda lime

2. Hard glass or potash lime

3. Flint glass or lead glass

4. Pyrex glass or Jaina glass

5. Optical or crux glass

6. Silica glass or vitreosil

7. Wired glass

8. Safety glass

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Uses of different Glass

1. Soft Glass
 It is a mixture of sodium and calcium silicates.

 Adjacent composition of ordinary glass is Na2O.CaO.6SiO2

 It is used in making glass mirrors, bottles, jars and electric bulbs etc.

2. Hard Glass
 It is a mixture of silicates of potassium and calcium.

 Its approximate composition is K2O.CaO.6SiO2.

 It is specially used in making hollow equipment of various sizes in the laboratory.

3. Flint Glass
 This is also called lead glass.

 It is a mixture of potassium and land silicates.

 Its approximate composition is K2O.PbO.6SiO2.

 It is used in making electric bulbs, prisms and lenses of optical instruments, cathode ray tubes and neon
sign tubes etc.

4. Pyrex Glass
 It is also called borosilicate. It is heat resistant.

 It is used for making excellent laboratory equipment, kitchen utensils and television tubes.

5. Crookes Glass
 It contains phosphorus, lead silicate and some cerium oxide.

 CeO2 has the ability to absorb ultraviolet (UV) light.

 Therefore, this glass is also called optical glass. It is used to make lense.

6. Silica Glass (Vitreosil)

 It contains 95% silica.

 It is used in making chemical equipment, laboratory equipment, electric heaters and funces etc.

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7. Wired Glass
 This is made by placing a wire mesh in the middle of the glass sheet.

 It does not break into pieces when broken.

 It is used in making fire-resisting doors, windows and roofs.

8. Safety Glass
 It is prepared by placing a thin layer of vinyl plastic between two or three sheets of glass.

 It does not break and fly into pieces.

 It is useful in protecting against strong wind in vehicles and aircraft

9. Fiberglass
 The glass produced in the form of fibers by passing the collected glass into fine nozzles is called fiberglass.

 It is used as a highly insulating material for heat, electricity and sound.

10. Glass Wool

 It is a fibrous material like wool.

 It is completely heat-proof.

 It is used as a heat-resistant oven, motor, wall and roof in homes and industries.

 It is also used for electrical and noise resistance.

Manufacturing Process of Glass

Glass manufacturing process consists of the following terms,

1. Melting
 Bring silica, soda ash, limestone and glass pieces in proper proportions and grind them.

 They are heated to 1800°C with a mixture of producer gas and air in a furnace made of fire-clay.

 At this temperature, these substances melt and become glass.

 When whole CO2 is released, then this liquefied substance is decolorized by adding MnO or niter.

 Now add the appropriate dye material to make colored glass.

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 When the liquid substance stops forming bubbles, it is cooled to about 800°C.

2. Forming and Shaping

 Forming desired objects of different shapes by pressing the liquefied glass in rollers or by molding it or
islowing it.

3. Annealing
 Glass is a bad conductor of heat.

 Therefore, glass items become extremely brittle (breakable upon rapid cooling.

 They are cooled slowly by sending them to various decreasing temperature chambers to prevent them
from rupturing quickly.

 This process is called cooling the temperature of glass.

4. Finishing
 All the glass items obtained after heating are processed for cleaning, rubbing, polishing, cutting or
imprinting them, etc. to finalize the glass

Tempering of Glass
 When a hot glass vessel is immersed in cold oil, the outer surface of the vessel shrinks and hardens, while
the inner layer is stretched.

 This process is called glass tempering.

 Tempered Glass is used in automatic doors, large showrooms, cars, trucks and aircrafts, etc.

Industrial Application of Glass

Glasses are used in many industries i.e.,

 Making many devices used in various laboratories.

 Making bottles and vials for placing medicines in the pharmaceutical industry and making thermometers
devices.

 To make the glass to be used in transport vehicles i.e. cars, buses, rail and aircraft.

 Making eyeglasses, face mirrors and lenses.

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 Making windows and doors in building construction.

 Making glass used in kitchen items, decoration items, clock and furniture.

Ceramics Materials
 Those all things made of clay come under Ceramics, which after giving desired shape, are heated in fire to
make it hard.

 These contain inorganic and non-metallic substances which are treated or used at high temperatures.

 Ceramics include

 Ceramic cans

 Dinnerware

 Tea cups

 Plates and kettle

 Building bricks

 Tiles

 Sinks

 Sewer pipes

 Various types of refractory bricks

 Sanitary Fittings

 Industrial utensils

Classification of Ceramics Materials

It can be classified into two classes,

1. Heavy Clay Products

 These include bricks, roof tiles, drains tiles and or stone wares etc.

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2. Pottery Products
 Various characters made of terracotta, porcelain and clay come under this category.

 It can be classified in four categories,

A. Terracotta

 It consists of veins made of simple clay. They are porous.

 They are not heated to high temperatures.

B. Earthen Wares

 The shiny vessels of red and white clay come under it.

 They are considered permeable.

 They can be heated to high temperatures.

C. Stonewares

 These are impermeable for hard and fluid.

 They are made at high temperatures.

 They are not affected by gases and chemicals.

 These are used in making drainage pipes, carboys and wash basins.

D. Porcelain

 These utensils of clay are white and impermeable.

 They are tougher than glasses.

 They are more resistant to chemical reactions. These are the best items to buy.

 When they are heated at high temperatures, they become Translucent.

Constituents of Ceramics
 The main ingredients of Ceramics are clay, china-clay, feldspar and sand.

 Hence these products are used as Raw material in the formation of Ceramic products.

1. Clay

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 The soil which drenched behaves like plastic and when heated red, the plasticity ceases to be a hard
substance which does not have any effect of water, is called clay.

 Clay is aqueous aluminum silicate which is formed from the contamination of igneous and feldspar rocks.

2KAlSi3O8 + 2H2O + CO2 → K2CO3 + Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O + 4SiO2

Potash feldspar Clay

2. China Clay
 This is the primary quay if clay remains in its original place. This is pure and concentrated clay.

 Its color is white. It has very low iron content.

3. Feldspar
 Ceramic uses the following three types of feldspar

A. Potash feldspar - K2O.Al2O3.6SiO2

B. Soda feldspar - Na2O.Al2O3.6SiO2

C. Lime feldspar - CaO.AI2O3.6SiO2

 Feldspar is rapidly liquefied at about 1150°C.

 These ceramics act as flux and mortar in substances.

4. Sand
 Sand in nature is often in the form of Quartz, Flint and Sand stone etc.

 It is non-repellent and non-plastic.

Polymers
1. Polymers
 Interconnected Monomers with very high molecular weight are called Polymers.

 For example- Polythene, Polypropylene and Polystyrene, Tarylene, Teflon

2. Monomers
 The compound or compounds of which many of their molecules combine to form polymers with very high
molecular weight are called Monomers.

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 Therefore, the repeating units of ordinary molecules forming polymers are called repeating units.

 Only unsaturated compounds are Monomers.For example, Ethylene, Propylene, Styrene and
tetrafluoroethylene

3. Polymerisation
 The process in which several simple molecules of a Monomer interconnect to form a Polymer is called
Polymerisation.

4. Condensation
 The chemical actions in which molecules of the same compound or of different compounds often separate
water, HCI or NH3, and form compounds with high molecular weight, is called Condensation.

 For example Nylon is produced by condensation of Hexa-methylene Di-emine and Adipic Acid.

5. Homopolymer
 The polymer that is formed from the same type of monomer is called Homopolymer. For example
Polyethylene is equivalent to ethylene monomer.

6. Copolymer
 The polymer, which is made up of two or more different monomer molecules, is called Copolymer.

 Nylon is a copolymer of Hixa-methylene Di-emine and Adipic Acid.

 Terylene is a copolymer of Ethylene Glycol and Terephthalic acid.

7. Biopolymer
 Many carbohydrates and proteins which are also biomolecules are called Biopolymer.

8. Polyolefins
 Those sum polymers that are formed from ethylene or its derivative are called Polyolefins. For example
Polythene, Polystyrene.

9. Polydienes
 The aggregate polymers that are formed from two double bound dyes are called polydienes. For example
Neoprene or synthesized rubber, Buna – S.

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10. Polyacrylates
 Polymers made of esters of acrylic acid and CH2 = CH - COOH, are called Polyacylates. For example
Polyaconitrile (PAN), Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA).

11. Polyhalo-olefins
 The polymers made of halogen substituted olefins are Polyhalo-olefins. For example Poly vinyl chloride
(PVC), Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon)

12. Polyesters
 The condensation polymers that hold esters (-C00-) are called Polyesters. For example Terrylene or
Dacron, Glyptal

13. Polyamide
 The condensation polymers that hold amide (-CONH-) are called Polyamide. For example Nylon-6, Nylon-
66.

Characteristics of Polymers
The main characteristics of polymers are the following:

 Polymers are crystalline and amorphous.

 For example Bakelite is crystalline polymer while polyvinyl acetate, polyastane and PMMA are
Acrystalline polymers.

 In crystalline polymers, the molecules of the monomer are arranged in a particular order.

 In Acrystalline polymers, there is no systematic sequence of monomer molecules.

 Crystalline polymers are hard but amorphous polymers are soft.

 The density of crystalline polymers is high while the density of amorphous polymers is low.

 Polymers with higher molecular weight have higher viscosity.

 Crystalline polymers have greater chemical resistance due to their densification.

 Polymers at low temperatures exist as glassy substances.

 Acrystalline polymers do not have a definite drug as they become soft on heating.

 Polymers in flexible crystals are flexible.

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Difference between Polymerisation and Condensation

1. Polymerisation
 In Polymerisation, molecules of the same monomer combine together to form aggregating polymers.

 Small molecules such as water are not isolated from the participating molecules.

 There is no new C-C or C-N bond installed.

 In Polymerisation, the molecular weight of the polymer is the absolute multiple of the monomer.

 Polymerisation is often reversible.

2. Condensation
 In condensation, the same monomer or different monomer molecules combine to form condensed
polymers.

 In Condensation, the atomic molecules are usually isolated small molecules like water, HCI or NH3.

 New C-C or C-N bonds are installed in it.

 The molecular weight of the condensed polymer may or may not be the absolute multiplier of the
molecular weight of the original monomers.

 Condensation action is often irreversible.

Classification of Polymers
1. On the Basis of Origin
A. Natural Polymers

 These polymers are derived from natural means such as fauna and flora. For example Natural
rubber,Starch,Cellulose,Protein

B. Synthetic Polymers

 These polymers are made by humans in laboratories. For example Polydin, Nylon, Synthetic rubber,
PVC

2. On the basis of structure

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A. Linear Chain Polymers

 In these polymers, monomer units have interconnected and make a long linear series.

 These chains are arranged on top of each other.

 The strength of liquids, densities and stretches of these polymers are very high. For
example Polythene, Nylon, Polyestar

B. Branched Chain Polymers

 Monomer units are interconnected in such series with such long chain in which branched series of
different lengths are also studded.

 Their liquidity, density and tensile strength are low due to irregularly studded. For example
Starch, Glycogen

C. Cross Linked Polymers

 In these polymers, monomer units are joined crosswise. They form three dimentional networks.

 These polymers are brittle. For example Backelite, Malamine – formaldehyde, Resin

3. On the Basis of Synthesis

A. Addition Polymers

 These polymers are formed by repeatedly interconnecting monomer units without separating any
small molecules.

 For example Polyethylene, Polypropylene

B. Condensation Polymers

 These are formed on the separation of small molecules such as H2O, NH3, HCI etc.

 For example Nylon-66, Tarylene, Backelite

4. On the basis of Molecular Forces

A. Elastomer

 In these polymers, the elastic character is like a rubber.

 Weak inter molecular force works in the chains of these polymers. For example, Natural
rubber

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B. Fibers

 In these chains of polymers, there are some differential molecular rings in the form of hydrogen
bonding. They are long, thin and similar to threads. They are used in waving. For example Silk,
Dacron, Nylon-66

C. Thermoplastics

 Inter molecular force in these polymers are stronger than elastomer but weaker than fibers.

 They are soft on heating and hard on cooling.

 Therefore, by heating and cooling the wires repeatedly, various shapes can be molded. For
example Polyethylene, Polystyrene, Taflon, Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC)

D. Thermosetting Polymers

 These polymers undergo a complete transformation when heated.

 These, when heated, become highly crosswise, rigid and infusible. For example Backelite,
Melamine formeldehyde

Addition Polymers and their Industrial Application

1. Polyethylene
 It is also known as polythene.

 Its monomer is ethylene, whose 100 to 1,000 units combine to form a long chain solid.

 Industrial applications,

 Being an insulator, in the insulation of wires, making equipment

 As packing materials of various things

 Household goods such as toys, glasses and buckets, and unbreakable bottles, Apron and beakers
etc.

2. Polystyrene
 Its monomer is styrene.

 Polystyrene is made by free radical multiplication with presence of benzoyl peroxide.

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 Industrial applications- It is used in making toys and household items like combs, roof tiles, refrigerators
and television parts etc.

3. Poly Vinyl Acetate (PVA)

 Its monomer is vinyl acetate which is obtained by the action of acetic acid in the presence of HgSO 4 on
acetylene.

 Polyvinyl acetate is formed by the free radical multiplication of vinyl acetate in the presence of benzoyl
peroxide.

 Industrial applications,

 It is used in the manufacture of paints, varnishes, yarn, leather, cardboard and wrapping paper etc.

4. Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC)

 Vinyl Chloride is its monomer.

 Poly vinyl chloride is a hardened resin that is formed upon polymerization of vinyl chloride, which is
unaffected by acid, alkali and moisture.

 Industrial applications,

 It is used in making raincoats, hand bags, bicycle and motorcycle mudguards, toys, flooring and
curtains etc.

5. Poly Methyl Meth Acrylate (PMMA)

 It is also called Plexi glass.

 Its monomer is methyl methacrylate.

 Industrial applications,

 It is used as a glass replacement and cork is used in making decorative items.

 It is used in making lenses, television screens, aircraft windows, plastic ornaments and sinewars
etc.

6. Buna – S
 It is also called styrene butadiene rubber. The monomers of this co-polymer are styrene and butadiene.

 Industrial applications- It is used in making rubber soles, vaults, hose pipes and vehicle tires etc.

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7. Buna – N
 It is also called nitrile rubber. The monomers of this co-polymer are butadiene and acylonitrine.

 Industrial applications- It is used in making aircraft industry, conductor belts, printing rollers and oil
resistant fans.

8. Teflon
 The monomer of this polymer is tetrofluoroethylene.

 Industrial application,

 It is used as an insulator in electrical equipment and in making only wire.

 Non-stick utensils, chemicals containing utensils and chemicals carrying pipes are made from this.

Condensation Polymers and their Industrial Applications

1. Nylon-6
 Its monomer is caprolactam.

 Industrial applications-It is used in making synthetic fabrics, ropes, carpets and teeth brushes etc.

2. Nylon-66
 The monomer of this co-aggregator is hexamethylene damine and adipic acid.

 Both of these monomars contain six atoms of carbon.

 This is the reason that the polymer formed by their polymerisation is called Nylon-66.

 Industrial applications, it makes garments, ropes, carpets and taps etc.

3. Backelite
 Its monomers are formaldehyde and phenol.

 Industrial applications,

 This makes insulated plugs, switches and handles etc.

 Records of gramophones, combs, radio, telephone and television etc. are made by casting it in
appropriate molds.

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4. Melamine Formaldehyde
 Its monomers are melamine and formaldehyde.

 Industrial applications,

 This makes plastic crockery and non-rupture cups and panettes.

5. Urea Formaldehyde
 Its monomers are urea and formaldehyde.

 Industrial applications,

 It is used to make unbreakable cups, toys, fancy items, radio cabinets, telephones and upper
shining surface of tables.

6. Terylene or Dacron
 Its monomers are Ethylene Glycol and Terthalic Acid.

 Industrial applications,

 It is used in making 'Wash and Wear' clothing, seat belts, tire cords and tents.

7. Polyurethanes
 Its monomers are Ethylene Glycol and Ethyl Di-isocyanate.

 Industrial applications,

 Due to good resistivity to heat and chemicals, it is used in making films, foams, tires, soles and heels.

Biodegradable Polymers
 Polymers that degrade into non-toxic substances by bacteria or microorganisms are called Biodegradable
polymers.For example Paper, Cotton, Silk, Wool, Jute.These polymers do not pollute the atmosphere.

 Various types of plastics are not decomposed by microorganisms into toxic substances and pollute the
atmosphere. Hence plastic is a non-biodegradable polymer.

 Some of the main biodegradable polymers are

1. Poly Hydroxyl Butyrate–Co-2-Hydroxyvelerate (PHBV)

2. Poly Glycolic Acid (PGA)

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3. Poly Lactic Acid (PLA)

4. Poly Capro Lactone (PCL)

Use of PHBV
 It is used in the treatment of bones (Orthopaedic) plants.

 It is useful in controlled drug release. The drug in the PhBV capsule is released after degradation by its
enzyme. It is also degraded by bacteria.

Biomineralized polymers are mostly used in tailoring wounds and injuries. The main uses of biodegradable
polymers are,

 In surgical post-stiches

 In covering the agricultural products such as film and seeds

 In food packings and personal hygiene products

Inorganic Polymers
 Silicones Silicon resins whose composition consists of silicon and oxygen combined in alternate form and
organic atoms, R are connected with silicon atoms, are called Silicones.
 Silicones are inorganic polymers with repeating units R2SiO.

The main characteristics of Silicones

 Silicon is found as fluid, thick fluid, semi-solid and solid like rubber.
 These are resistant to permanent oxidation at high temperatures and good water resistance due to Si-O
bonding.
 The following are their main characteristics,
 They are strong insulators, chemically inert and water repellent, resistant to oxidation and heat,
elastic.

Uses of Silicon
 They are used in making waterproof fabrics, electrical equipment and container containers, and lubricant
and cable business, making tires of aircraft.

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Fats and Oils

 All substances related to fats and oils are collectively called lipids or lipides.

 Lipids have the following properties,

 They are insoluble in water but soluble in ether, vangein and chloroform.

 They are compounds similar to esters made of fatty acids or have the ability to form such esters.

 It can be used by living organisms.

Classification of Lipids
1. Simple Lipids
 These are esters made with alcohols of fatty acids. For example, Neutral Fat, Oil, Wax.

2. Compound Lipids
 These are esters of fatty acids with alcohol and any other group.

 They include phospholipid, glycolipid, chromolipid and aminolipid.

3. Derived Lipids
 These include fatty acids present in high fatty acids, sterols, cholesterol and high molecular weight lipids.

Lipids contain some saturated and unsaturated fatty acids:

 Saturated higher fatty acids are mainly pamitic acid, C15H31COOH and stearic acid, C17H35COOH.

 The unsaturated higher fatty acids are oleic acid, C17H33COOH and linolenic acid, C17H29COOH.

Formation of Fats and Oils

 Fats and oils are esters (triglycerides) made with glycerol of high fatty acids.

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Difference between Fats and Oils

1. Fats
 Fats are esters, made with glycerol of high fatty acids, i.e. tri glycerides, which have a high content of
saturated fatty acids.
 Fat contains glyceryl pemetate and glyceryl stearate. For example – Desi Ghee, Vegetable Ghee (Dalda,
Chariot).

2. Oils
 Oils are triglycerides made with glycerol of high fatty acids which have high unsaturated high fatty acid
portions.
 The oil contains glyceryl trioliate and glyceryl linoleate. For example, mustard, soybean and groundnut oil.

Saponification
 Fats and oils are decomposed by caustic bases (caustic soda, NaOH or caustic potash, KOH) to form sodium
or potassium salts of gluten and high fatty acids.

 These salts are called soaps and the process of making soap from fats and oils is called saponification.

 Sodium stearate and sodium pamitate, C15H31COONa are harsh soaps that are often used in laundry.

 Potassium salts such as potassium linoleate, C17H31COOK are soft soaps that are used for bathing.

Manufacturing of Soap
For making soap, mainly the following two substances are required,

1. Fats and Oils

 Fats are found from the fat of pig and buffalo etc. and oils from coconut, mahua and olive etc.

2. Caustic alkali
 Sodium hydroxide, NaOH is used for making hard soap and potassium hydroxide, KOH to make soft soap.

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Explosives
 Substances that decompose as a result of heat, friction or thrust and produce a large amount of gases and
heat and produce intense explosions are called explosives.

 For example Trinitro Tolchine (TNT), RDX, Dynamite.

 Explosives are often used in Blasting and Excavation processes. They are used in military operations to
make bombs, rockets, grenades and missiles. Fireworks and fireworks items are also made from them.

1. Trinitrotoluene (TNT)
 Nitrification of trinitrotoluene is done by 1:1 solution of conc. HNO3 and conc. H2SO4, then we get 2, 4, 6 -
Trinitrotoluene (TNT).

 Light yellow crystals of TNT are formed only after cooling the obtained fluid in cold water.

 The melting point of TNT is 81oC. It forms gaseous products upon detonation.

 TNT explodes and gives black smoke. TNT is a permanent high explosive that is less susceptible to fire and
shock.

 Before its use, a highly sensitive substance called a detonator is used with it. The detonator is a primary
explosive that encourages detonation of TNT.

 Uses:

 Used to fill TNT bombs and grenades etc.

 It is used to make amatol explosives by mixing with ammonium nitrate which is used to break old
buildings and rocks etc.

2. RDX
 It is also known as Cyclonite or Cyclo Methylene Trinitroamine.

 It is made by reaction of hexamethylene tetramine with concentrated nitric acid.

 RDX is a strong explosive substance because its decomposition results in the formation of all gaseous
products.

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 Uses:

 RDX is used in bombs and rockets etc.

3. Dynamite
 The major ingredient in dynamite is the explosive organic matter glyceryl trinitrate (nitroglycerin).

 Glycerol is reacted with a mixture of concentrated HNO3 and concentrated H2SO4 at 20°C to form glyceryl
trinitrate.

 Glyceryl trinitrate is a colorless oily liquid that is insoluble in water.

 Glycery trinitrate is absorbed on wood sawdust to make dynamite.

 Ammonium nitrate or sodium nitrate is added to it so that it becomes in solid state.

Paints and Varnish

Paints
 Paints are the mixture of one or more pigments and drying oil.

 By spreading the paint on a surface, it transforms into a solid state and forms a sticky layer of adhesive.

 This provides protection and decoration to the surface of the objects.

Ingredients of Paints
A. Drying Oils

 These include Linseed Oil, China Wood Oil, Cotton Seed Oil and Soyabean Oil etc.

 Lead or manganese salts are also added to reduce the drying time of the oil.

B. Pigments

 They contain white lead (basic lead carbonate), 2PbCO3.Pb (OH)2, Zinc Oxide and Lithopone
(analogous mixture of BaSO4 + ZnS) etc. are white colored substances and other coloring
substances.

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C. Thinner

 Turpentine oil is used to dilute the thickener as needed to make it suitable for coating.

 In addition, ceramic, silica and talc are also added in the paint for its good grip on the surface of the
object.

Characteristics of a Good Paint

 Paint should be beautiful, shiny and durable. It should be quick drying.

 It should be opaque and inert to chemicals. Its covering capacity should be high.

 Cracks should not come after drying. It should be non-toxic.

Types of Paints
A. Readymade Paints

 These are powdered or thickened liquids in which turpentine oil is mixed and used.

B. Enamel Paints

 These paints are also readymade. They are made by mixing varnish in safeda or white-zinc.

C. Cement Paints

 These are made by mixing salt, extinguished lime and various colors in white cement.

4. Aluminum Paints

 They are made by mixing fine aluminum powder with varnish. It is shiny and corrosion resistant.

5. Plastic Paints

 The surface made of this paint is strong and shiny. The spots on it can be cleaned by washing with
water.

6. Distemper

 They are made by mixing chalk, essential color and water. They have no effect on the weather.

Varnish
 Varnish is the solution of natural or synthesized resins in spirit or oil.

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 The main components of a varnish are as follows:

1. Natural Resin
 These include Shellac, Resin and Damar etc.

2. Synthetic Resin
 These include phenol-formaldehyde resins, urea-formaldehyde resins, alkyl resins and vinyl resins etc.

3. Vehicle
 Linseed, Tung or Perrila oil as a carrier by providing fluidity to apply oil resins to any surface.

4. Drier
 Litharge and linoleate of lead & manganese are helpful in quick drying of varnish.

5. Tinting Agents
 They are added to the varnish to produce Tint.

Properties of Good Varnish

1. It should be quick drying. Its layer should be shiny and permanent.

2. After drying it should not have cracks on its surface.

3. Its layer should be resistant to air, moisture, heat or sunlight. It should be non-toxic.

Types of Varnish
1. Spirit varnish
 It is made by dissolving the shellac in the methylated spirit.

 It is often used in furnitures. It is affected by the environment.

2. Oil varnish
 It is made by mixing resin or copal linseed oil.

 Turpentine oil is also added to it. It does not dry our quickly.

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3. Turpentine Varnish
 It is made by dissolving damper glue or other natural resins in turpentine oil. It dries quickly.

4. Laquers
 These shells are made by mixing lacquer with methylated spirit and pigment. It polishes motor cars etc.

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