Physics Notes 1

Physics Notes
 Chapter (1)

1. W=F.s

2. W = mgh ( F = mg , s = h )

3. W ( rate P )
P=
t

4. P=F.v

load deffort
5. MA = VR =
effort dload

6. Output Work = load x dload ( J , Nm )

7. Input Work = effort x deffort ( J , Nm )

8. output work
Efficiency = x 100%
input work
Physics Notes

9. MA
Efficiency = x 100%
VR

10. F=k.x ( F  lb , x  in , k  lbin-1 )

3
 Units SI CGS FPS

W J erg ft-lb

P W or Js-1 ergs-1 ft-lbs-1

v ms-1 cms-1 fts-1

F ( load , effort ) N dyn lb

m kg g s ( slug )

s , h , dload , deffort m cm ft

g,a ms-2 cms-2 fts-2

 hp hp W ft-lbs-1
 1 hp = 746 W = 550 ft-lbs-1
 MA , VR  no unit
 Input Work > Output Work
 load > effort
 Potential energy = PE = W = mgh

Physics Notes
4
 Chapter (2)

1. F ( P  Pa , mmHg , atm )
P=
A

2. P =  gh (   kgm-3 )

3. Ptotal = Patm +  gh

mercury , an atmosphere , on ground P P =  gh

floor , total pressure , under water P Ptotal
 ( twice , three times ) Ptotal atm unit
( eg. twice  Ptotal = 2 atm )

 Ptotal = 1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa

= 14.7 lbin-2
= 1.01 b
= 760 torrs
= 760 mmHg ( hHg = 760 mm )

 water = 1000 kgm-3 = 1 gcm-3

Physics Notes

 sea water = 1025 kgm-3

 air = 1.29 kgm-3
5
 wi
=

4.
wf  - 0

 wi > wf
 = density , 0 = density
 V wi =  gV

Balloon and lead block sum

balloon
Since is in equilibrium,
lead block

Upward thrust = Total weight

balloon  air gV = mg +  gas gV + T (or) F
lead block  0 gV = mg + T (or) F

V
m
V =


Vs 
5. = x 100%
V 0

Vf   
Physics Notes

6. = 1   x 100%
V  0 
6
 Vs
 sink , immersed , under water , submerged 
V
Vf
 above the water 
V

Fin A l
7. = in = out
Fout Aout lin

 (in) , (out)
small (in) , large (out)

 r  A =  r2

 d2
d  A=
4

 Volume = x x
V = l x b x h ( cube )

Physics Notes
7
 Chapter (3)

Q
1. H = ( H  W , Js-1 , Q  J )
t

 A(T2  T1 ) (   Wm-1K-1 )
2. H =
l

T2  T1
 = temperature gradient ( Km-1 )
l

3. H = qA (T2 - T1) ( q  Wm-2K-1 )

4. H = e AT 4 ( e  no unit ,  = 5.685 x 10-8 Wm-2K-4 )

5. H = e A(T2 4  T14 ) (T )

 sun , black body  e = 1

 d A =  dl

6.  0 =  T4 (  0  Wm 2 )

 0 = total emissive power of black body

Physics Notes

 Wm-2 unit 0
8
 ∆𝑄 H

Heat Heat Current

Amount Of Heat Rate Of Heat

Heat In Time Heat Per Second

Energy Energy Current

Amount Of Energy Rate Of Energy

Energy In Time Energy Per Second

 Q column Q
 H column H

Physics Notes
9
 Chapter (4)

 Distance between (N  N,A  A)=
2

 Distance between (N  A,A  N)=
4

1. v = f ( f  Hz , s-1 ,   m )

String and Open organ pipe

2. nv
fn = ( n = 1,2,3, ... )
2l

3. n T T
fn = ( v= ) ( T  N ,   kgm-1 )
2l  

  = mass per unit length

overtone 1st 2nd 3rd

n 1 2 3 4

frequency 1st 2nd 3rd 4th

If length = l , fundamental (or) lowest frequency = f1

Physics Notes 10

l
 If length = , fundamental (or) lowest frequency = f3
3

( n = 1,2,3 )
Closed organ pipe

nv
4. fn = ( n = 1,3,5, ... )
4l

n T T
5. fn = ( v= ) ( T  N ,   kgm-1 )
4l  

overtone 1st 2nd 3rd

n 1 3 5 7

frequency 1st 2nd 3rd 4th

 If length = l , fundamental (or) lowest frequency = f1

l
 If length = , fundamental (or) lowest frequency = f5
3

( n = 1,3,5 )
 open , closed tube

m (   kgm-1 )
6. =
l

  = mass per unit length

Physics Notes 11
 m
=
l
V
= (  m  V )
l
 Al
= ( V  Al )
l
7.  =  r 2 ( A   r 2 )

 

 ( length )
8. = l2  l1
2

9. v = 332 + 0.6 ( T - 273 )

v temperature

10. fb = f - f

 fb = beat frequency Physics Notes 12

 Chapter (5)

c
1. n= ( n v v n )
v

 vair = c = 3 x 108 ms-1

 nair = 1 eg. 24.45 = 24 + 0.45
1 = 60'
2. nx v x = n y v y 0.45 = ?
= 0.45 x 60
3. nx x = n y  y = 27'
 24 + 0.45 = 2427'

 nglass = 1.5 , n diamond = 2.42 , n water  1.33 , n ice = 1.31

f v = f

sin i
4. n =
sin r

1
5. n =
sin i c

ny
6. x ny =
nx
Physics Notes 13


eg. nair = 1 , nglass = 1.5
1
n = n =
air glass
sin i c
sin i c
n = n =
glass air
1

 refractive index of y with respect to x = xny

 refractive index of quartz with respect to glycerine = gnq
 medium n

real depth u
7. n= =
apparent depth v

t sin (i-r)
8. d=
cos r

sin i
 r n= r
sin r
 d , t  cm
 d = lateral displacement , t = thickness

 ( enter or emerge )
i ic
i i
Physics Notes 14

i i
i i
  A + Dm 
sin  
9. n=  2 
A
sin  
2

 A = angle of prism
 Dm = minimum deviation

Refracted ray and Reflected ray

'


AO = incident ray ( )
i = angle of incidence ( )

BO = reflected ray ( )
r ' = angle of reflection ( )
Physics Notes 15

CO = refracted ray ( )
r = angle of refraction ( )

 = angle between reflected ray and refracted ray

( )


 i = r' (  law of reflection of light )

 r +  + r' = 180 (  straight line )
sin i
 n=
sin r


Prism

60


1
 n= ic
sin i c
  + 60 = 180 
  + ic + r = 180   r
sin i
Physics Notes 16

 n= i
sin r
 Chapter (6)

'

'

 OO ' =
u =

II ' 
v = screen wall

 The object is 10 cm from lens  u = 10 cm

 The object is 10 cm from screen  u + v = 10 cm
 from screen , in front of screen u+v

1 1 1
1. + =
u v f

1 100
2. P= = [ P  D (dioptre) ]
f (m) f (cm)
Physics Notes 17

v II '
3. m=- = ( m  no unit )
u OO '
 1  1 1 
4. = (n-1)   
f  R1 R2 

Sign
 u , OO ' always plus
 f,R
 v v
 m,I

Image
 real  inverted  on other side  convex
 virtual  erect  same side

convex or concave real or virtual

f < v  convex f < v  real
f > v  concave f > v  virtual

 tall , long II ' OO '

 v u
 times m
( eg. 5 times  m = 5 )
 lens f
 move
Physics Notes 18

object moved  u - u
image moved  v - v
 screen , wall convex lens , real image
 magnifying glass convex lens , virtual image
 The image is 10 cm behind the object.

I' '

v = 10 + u
=-( ) cm ( virtual )

 Is it possible to obtain a sharp image larger than the object?

( II ' OO ' )
II '
m m
OO '

 What changes can occur when the object and screen are inter-
changed?
-v u
-
eg. interchanged  u = 60 cm , v = 30 cm
interchanged  v = 60 cm , u = 30 cm
v
m= 
u
Physics Notes 19

II ' 60
= 
OO ' 30
II ' = -2 OO'
 II ' OO'
 If a real image which is four times the size of object is required ,
how far must the object be moved?
- m=3, m=4
-m=3 f lens f
- f m=4
- move u -u

 How far must the object be placed from the lens to obtain a real
image of the same size as the virtual image obtained previously?

- virtual , real
- same size as the virtual image
virtual image real image (  II v' = II r' )
-
(  OO'v = OO'r )

virtual real
'
 II v = II r'
 OO'v = OO'r
II v' II r'
=
OO'v OO'r
 mv = mr

-  virtual m real m
Physics Notes 20

- virtual m real
- lens f
-  virtual f real u
 Chapter (7)

Electric Force
 In vacuum or air ,

1 Q1Q2
1. F= x (Q  C)
4 0 r2

1
 = 9 x 109 Nm2C-2
4 0
  0 = 8.85 x 10-12 C2N-1m-2
 0 = permittivity of vacuum

 In other medium ,

1 Q1Q2
2. F= x
4 r2

  = permittivity of medium
 vacuum (1)
 vacuum (or) air ( eg. liquid ) (2)

 For all medium ,

Physics Notes 21

3. F1r12 = F2 r2 2 (F r )
 Gravitational Force

m1m2
4. FG = G x
r2

 G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2

G = gravitational constant

Note
 electron q , qe = -1.6 x 10-19 C = e
proton q , qp = +1.6 x 10-19 C = p+
neutron q , q n = 0 C = n0
 electron m , me = 9.1 x 10-31 kg
 e e , (-) (-)
(repulsive force )
 p+ e , (+) (-)
( attractive force )
 p+ n0 , n 0
(+) (-)
 p+ n0

 Force between proton and neutron , F = 0 N

5. Q = ne
Physics Notes 22

 e Q
eg. 10e  Q = 10e = 10 x 1.6 x 1019 C
 Q (3) F
 Q (3) (Q1 , Q , Q2 )
 Q direction
 Q1 Q r1
 Q2 Q r2
1
Q1Q
 F1 = x F1
4 0 r12
1 QQ
 F2 = x 22 F2
4 0 r2
  
 F = F1 + F2 vector form
 vector form
 vector form F1 F2 direction

 F direction

Induction ( )
 Induction Q1 = Q2


Q1 = +
Q2 = -
Physics Notes 23
 Gravitational Force
 Gravitational force between two  particles  particles
m1m2
m F=Gx
r2
 Gravitational force acting on the electron electron
m F = mg

F ( E  NC-1 )
6. E=
q

7. 1 Q
E= x
4 0 r2

8. E1r12  E2 r2 2 (E r )

 E positive charge
E (+)

F
Direction of E ( E = )
q
 Q (+) (-)
Physics Notes 24

+
 1 Q
Direction of E ( E = x )
4 0 r2
 Direction of F
 (+) (+) , (-) (-)
(-) (+) , (+) (-)

Note
 a F = ma
1
 s = v0t + at 2 ( rest v0 = 0 ms-1 )
2
 v2 = v0 2 + 2as
 KE = W = F x s
 If a body is in equilibrium ,
F=w
Eq = mg

direction
Physics Notes 25

If F = w , no direction ( equilibrium )

If F > w , upward direction

If F < w , downward direction

 P ( electric field ) Q
 Q1 , Q2 P
P electric field (+)
 P direction
 Q1 P r1
 Q2 P r2
1 Q1
 E1 = x E1
4 0 r12
1 Q
 E2 = x 22 E2
4 0 r2
  
 E = E1 + E2 vector form
 vector form
 vector form E1 E2 direction

 E direction

vicinity equal to zero ( E = 0 )



 Q
Physics Notes 26

 x
 E1 , E2
 Chapter (8)

1. 1 Q
V = x (Q )
4 0 r

W (Q ) ( V  V , JC-1 )
2. V=
q

 Potential difference between A and B VAB

3. VAB  VA  VB

 Work done brought from B to A WAB

4. WBA = VAB q

Equipotential surface (W )
 Equipotential surface A B
 V VA = VB = 200 V
 work done WAB = ?
 WAB = VBA q
Physics Notes 27

P ( electric potential ) Q
 Q1 , Q2 P
V scalar quantity direction
 Q1 P r1
 Q2 P r2
1 Q1
 V1 = x V1 Q1
4 0 r1
1 Q
 V2 = x 2 V2 Q2
4 0 r2
 V = V1 + V2
V scalar vector form
 V1 , V2

vicinity equal to zero ( V = 0 )



 Q
 x,y
 V1 = -V2

5. V = Ed ( E  Vm-1 (or) NC-1 )

 parallel plate distance d r

 W velocity

6. 1 2
W= mv
2
Physics Notes 28

 v a

7. v2 = v0 2 + 2as ( a  ms-2 ) ( rest v0 = 0 ms-1 )

 Chapter (9)

Q ( C  F , CV-1 )
1. C=
V

k 0 A
2. C= ( k  no unit )
d

  0 = 8.85 x 10-12 C2N-1m-2

 k = dielectric constant ( k k=1 )
Q
 C= C constant ,
V
V C Q
k A kA
 C= 0 C ,
d d
C k,A d

C (C dielectric constrant )
3. k=
C0

 C > C0 , C C0

1 1 1 Q2
4. 2
W = QV = CV =
2 2 2 C

 W = work done (or) energy

Physics Notes 29

 Parallel plate Q
eg. plate +1C -1C
 capacitors in parallel ( V Q )
Cp = C1 + C2 + C3 + .....
 Vp = V1 = V2 = V3 = ..... ( V )

 Identical ( ) capacitors in parallel

Cp = nC

 capacitors in series ( Q V )
1 1 1 1
=    ...
Cs C1 C2 C3
 Qs = Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = ..... ( Q )

 Identical ( ) capacitors in series

1 n
=
Cs C

All possible ways

1. All series
2. All parallel
3. Two series and one parallel
4. Two parallel and one series Physics Notes 30
 When the distance of capacitor is doubled , what percent does
the capacitance change?
capacitor capacitance

 How much work is required to pull apart the plates twice their
original separation?
capacitor W
distance = d
distance = d1
 distance is doubled , twice their original separation

d d
 d1 = 2d
k 0 A
capacitance = C =
d
k 0 A
capacitance = C1 =
d1
 k , 0 , A k , 0 , A (1)

k 0 A k  0 A 1 k 0 A
C1 = = = x
d1 2d 2 d
1 C
C1 = xC=
2 2
 C C
Physics Notes 31

 C C 50
 The capacitance decreases by 50 % . [ (1) ]
1 Q2
Work done = W =
2 C
 1 Q2 Q Q (1)
Work done = W1 =
2 C1

1 Q2
=
2 C
2
Q2
=
C
eg. W 20J , W 100J , 80J

 W W W

 Required Work = W1 - W
Q2 1 Q2
= -
C 2 C
1 Q2
= [ (2) ]
2 C

Physics Notes 32
 Chapter (10)

1. Q = ne ( e = 1.6 x 10-19 C )

Q
2. I= ( I  A , Cs-1 )
t

3. V = IR (R )

 V = IR R constant


4. R  (   m )
A

  = rssistivity
d2
 diameter A 
4
radius A  r 2

volume V = Al

5. R t  R 0 (1   t ) (   C 1 )

 = temperature coefficient of resistance

Rt = Resistance at temperature t C
R0 = Resistance at temperature 0C
Physics Notes 33

(E  V)
6. E
I= ( battery )
Rr
( circuit I )
 E = e.m.f
 r = internal resistance
 r r 0 
 battery E,r

Batteries in series aiding

E1  E2
6. I 
R  r1  r2

Batteries in series opposing ( minimum current )

E1  E2
7. I 
R  r1  r2

Batteries in parallel ( maximum current )

E  parallel let
I  let E1 = E2 = E
8. r
R
2 r1 = r 2 = r

 resistors in series ( I V )
Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 + .....
 Is = I1 = I2 = I3 = ..... ( I )
Physics Notes 34

 Identical ( ) resistors in series

Rs = nR
 resistors in parallel ( V I )
1 1 1 1
=    ...
Rp R1 R2 R3

 Vp = V1 = V2 = V3 = ..... ( V )

 Identical ( ) resistors in parallel

1 n
=
Rp R

All possible ways

1. All series
2. All parallel
3. Two series and one parallel
4. Two parallel and one series

 battery
series aiding

 Identical ( ) batteries in series aiding

nE
I
Rnr
Physics Notes 35
 A copper wire and a silver wire have same length , same poten-
tial difference and same current.
By given, lc = ls
Vc = Vs
Ic = Is
 V = IR V I R
 Rc = Rs

 R 
A
 radius A  r2

 A wire of 10  is stretched to double its original length. If the

resistivity and density of wire do not change , find the resistance
after stretching the wire.
10 
R
 length = l1
 1
resistance = R1   10 
A1
 resistivity (  )  (1)
 length = l2 = 2l1


resistance = R2 = ?
 wire mass (m)
Physics Notes 36

 density (  )
m
 =  ,m V
v
 V1 = V2
 A 1 l 1 = A2 l 2
A1 l1 = A2 ( 2l1 )
A
A2 = 1
2
ρl ρ(2l1 ) 4ρl1
 R2 = 2 = = = 4R1 = 4x10 = 40Ω
A2 A 1 A1
2

 A copper wire has a resistance of 0.5  . A second wire is made

from the same mass of copper but has one-half the radius. Find
the resistance of second wire.
copper wire R = 0.5  copper wire wire
mass wire radius wire radius
wire R
yx r wire radius = r1
r1
wire radius = r2 =
2
 wire copper density (  ) resistivity (  )

 mass (m)
m
 =  ,m V
v
 V1 = V2
A1 l1 = A2 l2
πr12l1 = πr2 2l2
2
r 
Physics Notes 37

2
πr1 l1 = π  1  l 2
2
 l2 = 4l1
ρl1
wire resistance = R1 = = 0.5
A1
  resistivity (  )  (1)
ρl2 ρ(4l1 )
wire resistance = R2 = =
A2 πr2 2
4ρl1 r1
= 
( 2r = )
πr12 2
4
ρl1
= 16 = 16 x 0.5 = 8
πr12

 If a copper wire and an iron wire have the smae volume and
some resistance , compare their lengths. Assume that resistivity
of iron is four times that of copper.
 (1) i = 4c
(2) Vi = Vc
Aili = Aclc
Ac l
= i
Ai lc
(3) Ri = Rc
ρ i li ρl
= cc
Ai Ac
Ac ρl
= c c (  = 4 )
Ai 4ρc li i c

li l A l
= c ( c = i )
Physics Notes 38

lc 4li Ai lc
2
 li  1 li 1
  = , = 
 lc  4 lc 2
 Chapter (11)

rate of heat
Electrical energy Electrical power Heat 𝐻
(W) (P) (H) ( )
𝑡

Wh (or) J W cal cals-1

𝑊 𝑊
W = VQ P= H=
𝑡 𝐽

𝑉𝐼𝑡 𝐻 𝑉𝐼
W = VIt P = VI H= =
𝐽 𝑡 𝐽

𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡 𝐻 𝐼2 𝑅
W = I2Rt P = I2 R H= =
𝐽 𝑡 𝐽

𝑉2𝑡 𝑉2 𝑉2𝑡 𝐻 𝑉2
W= P= H= =
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅𝐽 𝑡 𝑅𝐽

 J = 4.2 Jcal-1
 P,W t hour
hour W Wh
H
 H, t second
t
second W J
 1 kWh = 3.6 x 106 J
 unit
W kWh
1 kWh = 1 unit
Physics Notes 39

 cost (or) payment

unit

cost (or) payment = unit x

 5 , 10 and 15 are in parallel. If each resistor has 0.5W ,
find the maximum potential difference supplied to parallel com-
bination.
V2
 P= V P P R
R
 V R V R
 maximum potential difference
V R
V2
 R  5 , P = Vmax
R

Battery
 r  0 V=E
  r  0
E2
P = EI =
R
 rate of production of heat by the battery
H I 2R R
=
t J
H I 2r
 battery = r
t J
E
 I I = I
Physics Notes 40

Rr
H I 2r
I =
t J
 Chapter (12)
Ammeter

i (I r )
1. r  RG
( I - i)

 I>i
 How -
The galvanometer must be connected in parallel with (r )
resistor
 What r

Voltmeter

V
2. R   RG (V R )
i

 RG = resistance of galvanometer
 How -
The galvanometer must be connected in series with (R )
resistor
 What R
Physics Notes 41