Grasmmoar Review

Omit1 Tenses
cHE PRESENT SIMPLE IS USED PROGRESSIVE IS USED
rfd habits. permarnent situations and THE PRESENT
actions/ events
happening
in the present
general truths f o r temporary states and
at or around the time of speaking.
lusually travel alone moment.
grandmother's at the
Water boils at 100° C. We're staying at my
related to personal
f o r planned future actions
for future actions related to timetables and arrangements.
programmes.
'm going to the cinema tonight.
The ship salls at 9 o'clock.

Usually always often never sometimes at t h e m o m e n t tonight at p r e s e n t

rarely
seldom hardly ever every day/week etc. now
this month etc.
nowadays

THE PAST SIMPLE IS USED:

THE PAST PROGRESsIVE IS USED:
for completed actions that happened at a definite definite time in the
f o r actions that were in progress at a
time in the past.
When I was five, my father gave past.was washing my hair at 9:00o'clock last night.
bicycle.
me a
.forhabits, repeated actions or permanent situations f o r lengthy past actions that were interrupted by
in the past. short sudden ones (Past Simple).
Last summer we went
swimming every day. I was driving along the street, when a rabbit jumped
in front of my car.
.foractions happening at the same time in the past.
While my sister was cooking. I was reading a magazine.
f o r background scenes to a story.
f o r temporary past states or actions.

yesterday then ago last month/night/week etc. while as etc.

THE PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE IS USED: THE PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE IS USED:
for actions which started in the past and are still t o emphasise the duration of actions that started in
happening or have just finished. the past and are still happening or have just finished.
've had this car since 1995. lan has been watching TV all day
with adjectives in the superlative degree or actions the results of which are obvious in the present.
expressions like: the only/first/second etc.. Her car is so shiny! She's been waxing it all
This is the best film l've ever seen.
morning
for past actions the results of which are connected to the
present.
Mum! The dog has spilt the milk on the floor! (The fMoor
is dirty).
'toannounce news, changes or events that affect the
present.
since for just yet already how long how long for since all day/morning etc.
ever never etc.

THE PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE IS USED:

THE PAST PERFECTSIMPLE IS USED: t o emphasise the
1or past events that were completed before other durationof actions that had been
definite time in the
past. in progress up to a time in the past or before
past events or by/at a the school play another past event.
By Monday, we had finished rehearsing
He had been driving for 20 years when he
had his first
car accldent.
for lengthy past actions with visible results in the past.
The children were exhausted because
they had been
playing football all morning.

before when bythe time etc. by when for since after before how
Dy+time after long etc.

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THE FUTURE THE FUTURE PROGRESSIVE IS USED:
SIMPLE IS USED:
for decisions made at for already planned future actions or events that
the moment of
I like this
dress. I think l'l buy it.
speaking. will be in progress at a specific time in the future
t o make
predictions based on This time next month, I will be sending you a
promises; requests or offers. personal opinions postcard from Hawaii.
I think
Grandpa will live to be
100
next week in a week/month/year etc.
month/year etc. tomorrow

THE FUTURE PERFECT

for actions that will be
SIMPLE IS USED: THE FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE IS USED
in the future or completed by a specific time t o emphasise the duration of actions up to a point of tima
before another future action. in the future.
Iwill have finished this
project by next week. By next July, they will have been living in this house or
ten years.

by by the time before by

THE FUTURE
"Going to" IS USED: WAS/WERE "Going to" IS USED:
for predictions based on evidence.
The acrobat is for actions that had been planned in the past
for plans or
losing his balance; he's going to fall. BUT did not eventually happen.
decisions that have already been made.
We're going to renovate our They were going to go to Chris'party, but they changed
summer house during the their mind.
holidays.
Stative Verbs
The following of
groups verbs express states -not
actions- and are not used in the progressive tenses.
verbs of the senses (feel,
hear, see, smell, taste etc.) Some stative verbs are used in the
verbs of emotions and progressive forms when
preferences
fear, mind, want, wish, need, (like, dislike, love, hate, they express actions rather than states.
verbs of perception, belief,
prefer etc.) Isee you've cut your hair. I'm seeing an old friend
knowledge and ownership (think, Ithink her cooking is delicious. I'm thinking tonight.
believe, know, understand, expect, of moving into
have, own, belong (to) etc.)
remember, forget, hope, a new apartment.
other verbs which describe Listen, look and watch, though verbs of the
permanent states (be, cost, weigh. senses, are used
seem, appear, consist (of) etc.) in the progressive tenses because
they describe voluntary
This pizza tastes delicious. actions.
I didn't hear the
It costs £10. telephone ring because I was listening to
At the moment, I think we should music.
keep calm.
Unit 2 Relative Clauses Clauses of Time -

RELATIVECLAUSES
Relative clauses introduced by relative
are
pronouns (who, whom, whose, which, that) and
Defining relative clauses relative adverbs (where, when,
why).
.provide information which is essential to the
meaning of the
Non-defining relative clauses
sentence. provide additional information which is
not essential to the
are not put between commas. meaning of the sentence.
are put between
commas.
the relative
pronouns cannot be omitted; neither can we
use 'that' instead of them.
PEOPLE
The man who/that is standing next to her is her father. ANIMALS/THINGS
(Defining) | Her parents gave her a cat
The man, who was found (Defining) which/that had lovely grey fur.
guilty of
many crimes, was
sentenced to life imprisonment.
(Non-Defining) Her cat, which had lovely grey fur, was a from her
(Non-Defining) gift parents
The man who/whom/that () she is
expecting is her tather. The cat
(Defining) which/that () she is holding has
Her father, who/whom we met at the party last week, is sick. (Defining) lovely grey fur.
Her cat, which
(Non-Defining) wasgiven to her six months
had kittens. (Non-Defining)
()The pronouns may be omitted. ago, has alreaoy
() The
I met a girl whose father is a pilot. pronouns may be omitted.
(Defining) ve just finished a novel
Coco Chanel, whose original first name was
the first to Gabrielle, was
design simple women's clothes. (Non-Defining) character of which is an whose main character/the mai
His latest animal. (Defining)
book, whose main
which is an character/the main
animal, immediately charactero
148 Defining) became a best-seller. (No
 Grammar

He was born on the day when/that/on the first t i m e

which (") his father died. (Defining) m o o n for
A new age in space exploration walked o n the
started in 1969, when Neil Armstrong
Armstro9
(Non-Defining) S69
() may be omitted.

This is the house where/in which John lives.

This is the house which/that () John lives in.
(Defining)
One ot the
(Defining) used to live.
(Non-Derining)

most tamous areas in China is the Forbidden City in Beijing, where the emperors
C)may be omitted.

There must be a reason

why he always wears black. (Defining only)

all of. many of, any of

That is used only in defining relative clauses and can (some of.
4 Expressions of quantity+of of. neither of.
few of, most of, half of. either
replace: much of. each of, a used
of etc.) can be
who/which/whom when they refer to the object of the none number of, one of, the majority
of, a
whose.
before whom, which and
verb.
children, two of whom
have airea dy
when They have three
. where Cthat' must be followed by a preposition) finished school.
That is never used after a comma. relative
be used instead of
5 Present and past participles c a n
2 Which sometimes refers to the whole previous sentence and clauses.
relative clauses in the
cannot be omitted. Present participles (-ing) replace
He never tidies his desk, which really annoys me. active voice.
is the gardener.
The m a n who is cleaning the garden
the garden is the gardener.
3 Prepositions are used: T h e m a n cleaning
forms) replace relative
before or after which and whom. Past participles (-ed/irregular
clauses in the passive voice.
The hotel at which we stayed/which we stayed at was not rather expensive
Cars which a r e produced in Germany
are
very expensive.
are rather expensive.
only after who and that. Cars produced in Germany
The man who she came to the party with is her husband.
never with when, where, why.

GAUSESOF TIME
of time are introduced by when, while, as, just as, the moment (that), till/until, as soon as, before,
after, once
Clauses
whenever, every time etc.
(separated by a comma) or after the main clause (no comma).
.Clauses of time go before the main clause

Meaning Examples
Time words Use/Significance
time While my brother was waxing the car,I was
when. as, while for two events happening at the same
preparing dinner.

at the same time Just as l entered the room., the phone rang.
just as, for two short actions happening
the moment (that)
after the other They left as soon as they heard about the
when, as soon as, for events happening one
accident.
before, after, once
not later than" You should have finished by the time we return.
by the time
point of time" 11 stay at the office until I finish my work.
till, until up to a

.Will can be used after when only if it is a question word.

used in clauses oftime.
Will and would are never can be used instead of clauses Call me when you wil get back. (clause of time)
(ing)
The present participle When will you get back? (question)
of time.

Examples Significance
As she was driving home, she nad a terriDie d C I d e n t | d engtny action interrupted by a short/sudden one.

Driving home, she

had a terrible accident.
someone was following me. an action happening at the same time as another one.
felt that
ASIwas walking along. I
Walking along. 1 had the feeling that..
wnere my xeys were.an action happening immediately before another one
As I closed the door, I remembered
Closing the door,
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Unit3 Adverbs-Comparisons-Articles-Uncountables
ADVERBSS
General order of adverbs:
order of adverbs after verb of
manner-place-time. Did you sleep well at your hotel last nign
movement: place-manner-time. Did you arrive at your hotel sarely last
Special Cases nign
Types of adverbs
Adverbs of frequency Posltlon Examples
before the main verb
always, oCcasionally, often. | after the (first) We often play basketball together.
rarely, seldom, etc. auxiliary l've never liked yoghurt.
after the verb "to be" She is always late for school.
Adverbs of degree
usually before the
word they modify He was partly involved in this.
absolutely. hardly. quite.atrather+adjective+noun
rather, very, etc. It was a rather difficult subject.
ratherta/antadjective+noun It was rather a difficult subject.
a+quite+adjective+noun It was a quite difficult subject.
quite+a/an+adjective+noun It was quite a difficult subject.
atfairly/pretty+adjective+noun It was a fairly difficult subject.

COMPARISONS
Formation
OFADJEGTIVESANDADVERBS
Degree of
Types of Comparison Positive Comparative Superlative Pay attention to
adjectives/adverbs
one-syllable clean clean-er clean-est fat-fatter-fattest
long (adj / adv) long-er long-est close-closer-closest
shy shy-er shy-est dry-drier-driest
two-syllable heavy (adi) heav-i-er heav-i-est
ending in-y early (adj/adv) earl-i-er earli-est
more-than-one syllable creative (adj) more creative most creative quiet-quieter-quietest or
creatively (adv) more creatively most creatively quiet-more quiet-most quiet
But:
recent-more recent-most recent

Irregular forms

Positive good/well bad/badly old far much/many little

Comparative better Worse older/elder farther/further more less

Superlative best worst oldest/eldest farthest/

furthest most least

.Elder/Eldest describe close family relations. Elder is not Farther/ Farthest is used for distances only. Further
followed by than. Furthest is used for distances or additional information.
My elder sister is a vegetarian. Pluto is the farthest/ furthest
My sister Ann, who is older than me, is a vegetarian. For further information
planet from Earth.
please contact 9312.
Comparative+than Jim is fatter than Peter.
Jof all/period She's the most famous runner ofal/the decade
The superlative+ Lin+place/group of people
in her country/her team
The+comparative to compare two people orthings Nicky is the more beautiful of the two sisters.

Other forms ofcomparison Examples

as..as, not so/as...as or not such (a)+...+noun+as She's as good a painter as her father.
thesame as The weather today is the same as
twice/three times as..as An ostrich's egg is five times as yesterday.
as a chicken's
A sports car is less
big egg9
less..than economical than a city car.
the least This is the least practical machine I
have ever used.
t h e comparative.the+comparative (cause-result) The more we learn, the wiser we
get.
Comparative+ and + comparative (continual change) As Igrow up. I get wiser and wiser.

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ASLIKE
Structures
Use Examples
Hke+noun/pronoun/-Hng form similarity
as+subject+verb
He waved the flag like a sword.
as he was told
She advised her husband to do
as articlenoun
Description of sb's job or of the She works as a nurse at the
local hospital
function of something He used his coat as a blanket.
.Like and such as are used to give examples.
Manyor te edrtns iargest forests, such as/lIke the tropical rainforests, have been destroyed to a large exte
before the positive degree very', too". pretty, most, rather, quite, fairly
Considering you've just had an operation, you look fairly wel
before the comparative degree a bit, a lot, even, far, much, rather
Youremployer is even stricter than you told me.
very+ adjective positive meaning
=
She's a very good student.
too+adjective = negative meaning
She's too good for her class.

Very much is not placed before adjectives and adverbs.

ARTICLES
The indefinite article a/an is used before singular countable nouns or adjectives followed by singular nouns.

A/ANis also used Examples

before a noun which is mentioned for the first time and is not
specific. They own a house in the village.

before a noun representing a group of people, animals or things. A dolphin is faster than a shark
to show somebodys character, job or nationality. Her brother is a doctor.

with expressions of quantity and numbers. A couple of friends came by the house yesterday.

The definite article the is used before countable and uncountable nouns both in the singular and the plural

THE is also used before: Examples

specific nouns or nouns that have been mentioned before.
names of seas, rivers, groups of islands, mountains (plural), ranges,
countries (plural), cinemas, theatres, museums, restaurants, hotels,
institutions.
names of families and nationalities.
She bought two T-shirts and a dress yesterday but
shelikes the dress best.
the Black sea. the Netherlands, The Odeon Cinema.
The Archaeological Museum, the Steak House the
Holiday Inn, the University of London, the Alps
the Johnsons, the Japanese

adjectives referring to classes of people. the underprivileged, the deaf

musical instruments, dances, inventions. |thepiano, the mambo, the fax machine

THE is not used before: Examples

not mentioned before. Tike tea
referring to something general
or
nouns

names ofpeople.streets,cities, islands, countries,cotinents,mountains Alain Delon RegentStreet. Paris. Sicily, Germany
singular), religious holidays, days of the weex, montns, squares. parkS.| Alrica, Mont Blanc, Easter, Monday. July. Trafalgar

lakes, stations, magazines,sports, games, colours, SCnool subjects. | Square, Hyde Park, Lake Victoria, Euston station
Vogue, tennis, cards, red, Psychology. Spanish
languages. lalways have breakfast.
meals.
She goes to work by bus
means of transport.
the words hed.court, church, home, hospita, prisoi, Scnoo1, univerSITy.Sne went to bed early because she was exhausted

which they exist. She always makes the bed early in the
for the purpose for morning.
Work when they are used Bar, Giovanni's Restaurant Rucherre
pubs, restaurants, hotels, shops,
banks whose naimes inciude the
name| Mandy's
another proper name. Harvey Nichols, Barclay's bank.
oftheir founder or
we don't specify the kind. One is used when we emphasise the quantity.
OTE A/an is used when magazine. She brought me one magazine (only one).
me a
She brought
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UNCOUNTABLENOUNS
onabenouns cannotbecounted and have no pluralfom.Some, any,(a) Ittle etc. can beused with mostofthem.but not a/an/
D e c u y the quantity of uncountable nouns we use expressions like a plece of (advice, news), a bar of (chocolate, soap), etc
untable nouns describe food (eg. meat, cheese, etc), lquids (eg. milk, water, etc.), materlal (eg. glass, wood, etc.), natural
e n a (eg. weather, heat, etc.), languages (English, German, etc.),diseases (e.g. chickenpox, cancer, etc.), sclences and school
Sectseg.Physics. Literature, etc.), games (e.g. football, cards, etc.), albstract nouns (e.g. freedom, dignity. knowledge, etc) and
some concrete nouns (e.g.
money. luggage, etc.).

Unit4 Determiners-Pronount
Determiners are: articles (a/an, the). possessive adjectives (my.,your, etc), demonstratives (this, that, etc.). numbers (one, two,
etc.. quantifiers (some, any, no, each, every, much, many, a lot of, plenty, a little, a few) and the words both, elther, neither, most,
all, none, whole.

Some, any and no are used with countable and uncountable nouns. Each and every are used only with singular countable nouns.
The compounds of some, any, no and every cannot be used with nouns.

sOME (someone/somebody/something/somewhere) ANY (anyone/anybody-anything-anywhere) are used in:

are used in:
questions
affirmative sentences. Did you see anyone running?
Ineedsome advice. negative sentences with not or other negative words
polite requests and offers. (hardly, never, rarely, etc.).
Would you like some tea? You haven't done anything terrible.
questions (a positive answer is expected). affirmative sentences, meaning "no matter who/which/where"
CouldI help you with something? You can buy this magazine anywhere.

NO (no one/nobody/nothing/nowhere) are used in: EVERY (everyone/everybody-everything-everywhere)

.negative sentences instead of not any. No other are used:
negative words can be used (never, not, etc.). .for people or things considered as a group.
You have nothing to do with my problems. Every student needs books.
with nearly and not.
EACH is used: Not everybody can do a cartwheel.
for people or things considered separately.
Each athlete received a medal. Every one of + plural noun.
Every one of the children camne up with an excuse.
Each (one) of+ plural noun/pronoun
Each one of you must go out.

many+countable nouns/ much + uncountable nouns are used:

in questions and negations. Are there many cars in the street today?
in affirmative sentences with too, how, so and as. Il do as much as I can.
at the beginning of a sentence (formal English). Much trouble has been caused by this war

a few countable nouns few+countable nouns

a little+ uncountable nouns Iittle+ uncountable nouns
(positlve) and can be used with show a very small amount (negative) and can be used with
show a very small amount
very, so, too, as and how.
only. There's very little cheese in the fridge.
l've only read a few pages.
a lot (of) - lots (of) -plenty(of)+countable nounsanduncountable nouns are used:
in affirmative sentences before nouns and pronouns.
A lot of people like chocolate.
A lot, lots and plenty can be used without nouns.
Don't buy any more cheese: we've got a lot.
FOR MORE THAN TWO PEOPLE OR THINGS
FOR TWO PEOPLE OR THINGS
MOST (OF)-ALL (OF):
BOTH (OF:
are used with a plural verb.
i s used with a plural verb. Most teenagers like pop music.
dance the tango.
They both know how to Most of my schoolmates are noisy
EITHER (OF) All of my children enjoy picnics.
of the two"
Either means "any Either sport is enjoyable. all+that clause+ singular verb = the only thing...
Skiing or snow boarding?
with a singular or plural verb. Alll want is a little peace.
Either of is used is/are enjoyable.
Either of these sports

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FOR TWO PEOPLE OR THINGS PEOPLE OR THINGS

FOR MORE THAN TWO
NEITHER (OF) NONE (OF)
Neither means "not one and not the other". None is not followed by a noun.
None.
Neither dress fitted me well. Which book did you like best?
object pronouns with
.
Neither of goes with a singular or plural verb. None of is used before nouns or
Neither of my cousins know(s) how to swim. a singular or plural verb.
five months was/were
None of the films I saw in the past
interesting.
WHOLE (-COMPLETE)
Whole is used between a determiner and a singular countable noun.
The whole world knows that China has the biggest population.
Al (oD the world knows that China has the biggest population.
both...and Both Kate and Peter are good students.
either...or are used as linkers. You can either go skiing or mountain climbing.
neither...nor Neither John nor Paul like chocolate.

So/neither+auxiliary verb+ subject Ilove the opera!- So do l.

Ithink/hope/believe etc. so show agreement. Jim didn't go swimming. -Neither did I.
either at the end of the sentence Is Mike coming to the party?-l think so.
I don't like fish!-1 don't either.

Unit 5 Consolidation I

Unit 6 Infinitive, -fng Form

Forms Use Examples

ing form as a noun (subject or object of a verb) Hitch-hiking can be dangerous.
preposition or I'm thrilled about going to that party.
after a
verb+preposition
verbting after the verb go, indicating physical activities We go fishing in the summer.
taking (present form)
after the verbs need, want, require etc., with a Your room needs cleaning. (=Your room needs
passive meaning to be cleaned)
after the object of the verbs catch, find, leave I caught him listening behind the door.

having+past participle after be busy,spend/ waste+expression of lused to spend hours looking at the sea.

(perfect form) money/time

having taken possessive adj/case
after prevent+ His mother prevented him (John) from
lobject+fromt-ing getting hurt.
after excuse, forgive pardon. fpossessive Excuse my being late, but I got stuck in traffic.
prevent, understand+
adjective/case
after certain verbs and expressions listed below I quit smoking last year.
mention recall be/get as well as how about
admit dislike recommend accustomed to be in favour of it's no good/use
mind
appreciate enjoy resent be/get used to can't stand/help it's worth
miss
avoid fancy resist in addition to feel like there's no chance of
postpone
consider finish risk look forward to have difficulty (in) there's no point in
practise
delay imagine
prefer suggest object to have a h time what's the point of.?
deny involve
quit
tolerate take to have trouble What's the use of...?
discuss keep (on)
Use Examples
Forms
express purpose I went home to check if everything was alright.
Voiceto
resentInfinitive Active after would like, would love, would would prefer to stay home than go to that
to+bare infinitive (simple) prefer party
to take after the first/second/last/best etc. Laika was the first dog to travel to the moon.
to be verb+ing (progressive) after some., any, no andthelrcompounds She looks like she doesnt haveanythingto do.
to be taking . after it+betadjective(+of/for+object) It was generous of her to host us for the
night.
after too/enough This coffee is too hot for me to drink.
Present Infinitive Passive after it+take+expresslon of timne It takes me half an hour to walk home.
after certain verbs and expressions listed She refused to come to the party.
Voice
e p a s t participle (simple) below
to be taken
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Grammar Review
After the object of these verbs
After these verbs tollowed As the oblect of these verbs
by who, what, which, afford deserve mean remember advise forbid remind
where, how but not why. need allow force require
agree expect seem
teach
ask ask hire
remember appear fail offer swear
instruct tell
decide show airange forget plan tend beg
invite urge
explain tell ask happen prepare threaten cause
need want
forget understand beg hesitate pretend volunteer challenge
Convince order warn, etc.
know wonder claim hope promise want, etc
encourage permit
learn teach, etc. decide learn refuse
demand manage regret expect persuade
Forms Examples
Use
I may be late tomorrow
Bare Infinitive after most modal verbs
take after these verbs in the active voice: hear, Iheard her scream. BUT She was heard to
let, listen to, make, notice, observe, see, scream.
watch etc.
after why.../why not.. Why not go for a picnic?
anything, but I did everything but clean the
bathroom.
after do+ everything*{except
nothing
hadn't called.
after modal verbs would have finished by now he if
Perfect Infinitive Active Mount Everest.
after the verbs promise, seem, She claimed to have climbed
Voice She seemed to have been crying all night.
to) have+past participle appear, claim, expect, hope,
(simple) happen, pretend emerald.
He is thought to have stolen the
(to) have taken after these verbs in the passive voice: The emerald thought
is to have been stolen.
(to) have been+verbting believe, say, think, consider, suppose,
(progressive) understand
Cto) have been taking

Perfect Infinitive Passive

Voice
(to) have been+past participle
(to) have been taken

ffull infinitive lunch.

My brother helped me (to) prepare
help bare infinitive

(impersonal)+ seems + that clause.

Subject +seem+full infinitive= Its e e m s that he is intelligent.
He s e e m s to be intelligent.
= lt
-ing
recommend, require+
Advise, allow, encourage, permit, object full infinitive

him to exercise.)
exercising.(=The doctor encouraged
The doctor encouraged
to drink coffee in the morning.
Prefer also takea full infinitive. Iprefer
can
infinitive+rather than+bare
infinitive. Iprefer to walk rather than drive.
Prefer full to come to the party. It is unlikely to
snow tomorow
full infinitive John is likely
f
likely/unlikely will come to the party
clause Itis likely
that that John
after these verbs:
form are used with no difference In meanling
The infinitive or the -ing
continue, intend, prefer,
can't bear etc.
like, love, hate, begin, start, the shot. (=He began running as soon as he heard the shot).
to run as soon as he heard
He began
meanings after these verbs:
The infinitive or -ing form areused with different
try+fullinfinitive: make an effort.
will have.
do something to see what effect it Ttried to finish everything in time but that was impossible.
try+-ing: drinking
want to get rid of your s o r e throat, try
If you
something hot.
infinitive: We remember
-ing: Werefer to something that remember/forget/regret+full
remember/forget/regret+ something before doing it.
has already happened. We forget something we are supposed to do.
to my m u m that way. when we are sorry to do it.
Iregret talking We regret something
regret to tell you that you have failed your test.
I
E. PERMISSION D. DEDUCTION C. PROBABILITY B. POSSIBILITY A. ABILITY

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 Grammar Review
Will you come to the doctor's with me?
can/will...? informal request
Can you help me with my homework, Mum?
Could you show me the way to Oxford Street, please?
could/may/would..7 formal request
Synonymous Expressions:
Would you mind...? I/we'd like.. Would you mind turnling the lights on?
will: willingness to help | I will clean the car for you.
will (you).. informal offers and invitations Will you come to Mexico with me?
can/could: willingness to help |Ican help you with the washing up, if you like.
can/could/shall I...? formal offers Shall I wait for you?
would you like/prefer+noun/full infinitive...? Would you like to come to the cinema with us?
Would you rather +bare infinitive....? Would you rather have dinner with us?
Polite or formal offers and invitations
can: informal suggestions You can visit the Grand Canyon while you're in the USA.
shall/could...? polite or formal suggestions Could you turn down the music, please?
Synonymous Expressions:
Let's+bare infinitive, Why don't...? Why don't we go/How about going to the cinema?
How about + noun/-ing
shll: asking for advice Shall we tell him the truth or not?
should/ought to+ present infinitive: You should pay a visit to your dentist if you have a toothache.
asking for and giving advice
should/ought to+ perfect infinitive:
something should have happened but it didn't
She should have told her father before she went away.
had better:strong advice, threat or warning You'd better stop interfering in my affairs.
usedto: past habits and situations that are no longer She used to go fishing when she lived in the island.
true (NEGATIVE = didn't use to) He didn't use to dance when he was young.
would (+present infinitive): past habits or a person's They would read a book before they went to sleep.
typical behaviour in the past
will: to describe a person's typical behaviour in the Every time he passes by, he will say "hello
present
must: internal obligation felt by the speaker Imust tidy or mum will
up get angry.
have(got) to: external obiigation coming from facts You have (got) to take this three times a day.
syrup
Ought to/should: we remind someone of a duty or You ought to/should inform
your parents about the school
obligation trip.
need+ noun/-ing form/ full/bare linfinitive: I'm so dirty!I need a shower!
necessity The car needs repairing.
don't have to/ haven't got to/ needn't/ don't need You needn't eat it if you don't
to+ infinitive: It is not necessary to do something like it.
You don't have to pay me back
needn't+ perfect infinitive: something wasn't necessary We needn't have cooked.
today.
but it was done There was plenty of food left over
from yesterday.
didn't need to + infinitive: something wasn't necessary
but it isn't clear if it was done or not
| He didn't have to clean the car.
mustn't: prohibition You mustn't smoke in here.
can't: not being allowed to do something He can't enter that room;
it's for staff only
NOTE Need as a main verb forms the negative and Must is used only for
interrogative with do/did. the present. Past and
Do you need anything?
tenses areformed with have to. futu
He must take the
I
need something (a machine) to cut the grass with. He had to take
dog for a walk.
I didn't need his advice. the dog for a walk
forgot to. last night but ne
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Onlt 8 Passtve Volce

Da5sive Voice stresses the actilon itself, not who or
what caused it.
FORMATION
Active Volce: The fire
destroyed the factory completely.

Passive Voice: The factory was completely destroyed by the fire.

VERB FORMSIN THEPASSIVE VoICE

Verb Forms
Active Voice Passlive Voice
Present Simple
Producers make horror films every Horror films are made every year.
Present Progressive
year
We are The furniture is being removed right now.
removing the furniture right now.
Past Simple
he technician repaired my TV yesterday. My TV was repaired yesterday.
Past Progressive Ihey were pursuing the thief when there The thief was being pursued when there was an
was an explosion.
explosion.
Present Perfect Simple We have finished these
reports. These reports have been finished.
Past Perfect Simple They had made a statement in Parliament A statement had been made in Parliament before
before the war broke out. the war broke out.
Future 'wil Someonewill make a speech on technology|A speech on technology will be made tomorrow.
tomorrow.
Going to They are going to hire a new employee. A new employee is going to be hired.
Future Perfect Simple I will have typed my thesis by next month. My thesis willhave been typed by next month.
Present Infinitive We ought to finish the building before the The building ought to be finished before the end
end of the year. of the year.
Perfect Infinitive We should have finished the The
building building should have been finished earlier.
earlier.
ing form We all appreciate other people helping us. We all appreciate being helped.
Modal verbs You must clean your room. Your room must be cleaned.
Imperative Please fill in this form. This form should/must be filled in.

The Present, Past and Future Perfect Progressive and the Future Progressive are not used in
the Passive Voice.
By+ agent is used to emphasise who does or what causes the action.
The new tax law was announced by the Prime Minister.

Note the following changes in: Active Voice

Passive Voice
Verbs with two objects He gave hera painting. She was
given a painting.
A painting was given to her.
Question words Who composed this song?
Who was this song
what, who, when, where, why, how) composed by?
informal)
By whom was this song
(formal) composed?
not...any no The head teacher didn't expel any of
the students.
| None of the students were expelled.
not...any of none of Nothing was found in the excavations.
not...anyone/anybodyno one/nobody They didn't find anything in the
not..anything nothing excavations.
nake, hear, help, see, etc. I heard her scream. She was heard to scream.
Delieve, consider, expect, find, hope, People say that he is very wealthy. It ls said that he is
nOw, report, say, think, understand very wealthy.
He is said to be
People say that he was very wealthy. very wealthy.
He is sald to have
been very wealthy.
verbs with prepositions They separated him from his parents He was
when he was young. separated from his parents when
he was young.

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Toc Use the following expressions Examples
Her parents let her stay out late.
Give permission let sb do sth
allow sb to do sth My lather allowed me to borrow his car.
The Mayor gave US permission to Use the old
give sb permission to do sth
|building for our rehearsals.
She is allowed to stay out late.
Be given permission be allowed to do sth We got the Mayor's permission to use the old
get sb's permission to do sth
building for our rehearsals.
late.
Deny permission not let, not allow to, not be allowed to+ infinitive Her parents don't allow her to stay out
She's not allowed to stay out late.
subject+is prohibited/banned
It is illegal/forbidden to do sth Smoking is prohibited in this section.
It is forbidden to enter that room.

PARTICIPLES
The Perfect participle is used for an action that happened before another one in the past
Having been hit by an earthquake, the small town took 15 years to return to its previous condition.
=After it had been hit by an earthquake, the small town took 15 years to return to its previous condition.

The past participle is used in

the passive voice to replace
Examples

a relative clause The dresses worn by film stars on the night of the Oscar awards are all designer labels. The
dresses which are worn by film stars on the night of the Oscar awards are all designer labels.
Handled with care, contact lenses can last for over 2 years. = If they are handled with care.
a conditional sentence
contact lenses can last for over2 years.
Fascinated by the film, they decided to stay and watch it again. = As/Because they were
a clause of reason
fascinated by thefilm, they decidedtostayand watchit again.
a clause of result Carried away bythe beautiful scenery, he lost concentration and had an accident= He was so
carried away by the beautiful scenery that helost concentration and had an accident.

Unit 9 Pronouns- Causative Form

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
CMy. Your, His, Her, Its, Our, Your, Thelr)
Use Examples
before a noun my notebook, her car, their chairs
possessive adjective+ own+ noun is used to emphasise that |don't take the bus. I have my own car.
something belongs to only one person
on+possessive adjective+ own is used to emphasise that the My son always studies on his own.
Subject acts alone, withou help

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
CMine, Yours, His, Hers, Ours, Yours, Theirs)
Use Examples
t o replace a possessive adjective+ noun ike your house better than ours house.
They are never followed by nouns.
Alan+noun+ of+ possessive pronoun= A colleague of yours of your
=
one colleagues.
one of + possessive adjective+ noun

POSSESSIVECASE
Form Use Examples
(people or animals) John's ca, the horse's tall
|.singular nouns

|. the compounds of some, any, no Somebody's car Is in front of my garage.

.irregular plural nouns not ending in -s Men's ties, women's dresses
time expressions / idioms A hard day's work

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Form
Use Examples
plural nouns ending in -s My cousins'house
lur of
ndependence, the
, dDtract nouns and the price of
of+ n o u n
animals(sometlines) The roofof the house,
fur)
the cat (-the cat's

long phrases.
NOTE: Whentwoor more people own something in common, We can use of for people, only
in
who lives next
door is a
's is added to the last noun. The cousin of the girl
John and Mary's house. student.
When two or more people own different
added to each noun.
things, 's ls

John's and Mary's cars.

REFLEXIVEPRONOUNS
CMyself, Yourself, Himself, Herself, Itself, Ourselves, Yourselves, Themselves)

Use Examples
dress.
with the verbs behave, cut, educate, enjoy, help, hurt, kill, The little girl likes herself in that red
| She
like, teach etc, if the subject and the object of the verb are hurt herself while trying to cut the breaa.
at your party.
the same. We enjoyed ourselves very much

after certain verbs with prepositions (talk to, say to, take care The young people took care of themselves while camping.
of, etc.)
must be wrong with
after the verbs look, seem, etc, to describe emotions or | She doesn't look herself lately: something
behaviou.
her family.
award.
The Queen herself gave the Beatles an
for emphasis (emphatic pronouns)
by+reflexive pronoun alone, without help. Ipainted my room by myself

themselves and each other

Note the difference between
used if we do not want to repeat a
NOTE:One-Ones are
(=one another).
countable noun. the zoo yesterday.
can use the one over Mary and John enjoyed themselves at
This phone is broken; you each other from the moment they
Mary and John liked
there. met.
also go with expressions
another =one more. It
can

of time, distance or money.

I'm afraid you'll have
r'd like another steak please.
minutes.
to wait for another ten

CAUSATIVE FORM expert) to do

ourselves, but we arrange for
someone else (usually an

Form is used when we do not do something

The Causative
it for us. Formation
+Object +Past Participle
+Have/Get
Subject
Cin the correct form) painted next month
our house
are having
Ve
If we want to mention who performs the action, we
formed as in the Active
NOTE:Questions and
negations are Present
can add by+ agent at the end of the sentence.
do/does in the
auxiliaries We had the tap tixed by the plumber
Voice with the
Past Simple. have someone do something = make someone do
did in the
Simple and halr cut? When did
How often
do you have your something.
serviced?
car She had her children clean the living roorm.
have your
you especially in informal
instead of have,
We can u s e get get someone to do something persuade someone
=

shortened to do something.
style. too long so
Igot it She got her children to clean the living room
dress w a s
My

Consolidation
II
Unit 10

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 Grammar Review
Dnit 11 Clauses of concession, reason, purpose and result

CAUSESOFCONGESSION
express contrast,oppositlon orunexpectedresults
Use Examples
although Although she's studied medicine, she faints at the sight of blood
even though Even though he's smart, he didn't get into the course he wanted
subject+ verb
though Though we knew the way, we got lost.
despite noun/-ing form We managed to climb the mountain despite the rain.
inspite of the fact that+ clause In spite of the fact that he was
sleepy.hedrove homesafely
adjective
adverb J *asthough+ subject+ verb
Clever though he is, he couldn't solve the problem.
Cloudy though it was, we got sunburnt.
however
no matter how *adi/adv +
subject+ verbHowever fast he we managed to
walked, keep up with him.
No matter how much she ate, she didn'tget fat.
whatever She cant convince me that she's telling the truth, whatever she says.
*Subject +verb
nomatter what Ill go to the party, no matter what you say.
However can introduce a main clause. Sam came by yesterday: however, he forgot to bring the book I had lent him.

CLAUSESOF REASON
Examples
because They don't talk to each other, because they have hada fight.
as clause |Ididnt know where to turn as l'd forgotten my map.
since Since you're a vet, you can have a look at my canary.

because
due to
of +
noun/ ing form They wanted nothing to do with him because of his rude behaviour.
Due to her allergy, she never touches daisies.
due to the fact that+ clause |Due to the fact that they knew each other so well, they decided to share a flat.

CLAUSESOF PURPOSE
positive purpose Examples
to They visited us to announce the good news.
So as to She told im to come along so as to introduce him to her
infinitive friends.
in order to I'm learning Portuguese in order to
go to Brazil next year.
can/may/will + infinitive f o r present/ They're going to Africa so that they can study the gorillas.
sothat future We thought of staying home for the
whole week, so that we couid
could/might/would +infinitivefor past rest.
with a view to/withthe aim of+-ing form She started training hard with the aim of winning the tennis cup.
incase+ presenttensefor present/future Take an anorak in case it rains.
in case+pasttense for past We always had an extra tyre in the
car, in case we got a flat tyre
for -ing form She uses that needle for
sewing.

negative purpose Examples

so as not to The thief was wearing a mask, so as
toinfinitive not to be recognisable.
inorder not She tied her key around her neck in
order not to lose it.
can/may/will not infinitive
sothat for present/future They reminded me I had a class, so that I wouldn't
forget.
could/might/would + not+ infinitive for past

for fear/lest+ subject+ might/should+ infinitive She closed the door for fear it
might be broken by the wind.
for fear of + noun/-ing form She was wearing long boots for fear of snakes.
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 Grammar Review

AUSES OFRESULT
Examples
too+ adi/adverb (+for sb) + to+ infinitive do.
That exercise was too diflicuit for me to
notadi/ladv+enough (+for sb) to+ infinitive The sea isn't warm enough for us to swim in.
so+ adj/adv +that+clause weather was so cold yesterday that nobody
dared to go Out
The
noun+verb+ so+ adj/adv The tunnel was so low that had to craw
we
we didn't know
what to do.
sotmuch/many/little/few +noun + that+clause We had so much spare time that
so+adj+a/an+ noun t was so hot a day that we decided to go swimming.
.Such (a/an) (+adj) t was such a scary place that I wanted to get possible
out as fast as

such a lot of + noun+ that+ clause She's lost such a lot of weight that I hardly recognised her.

It's such an extraordinary animal!

NOTE such
so Your baby is so cute!
are used in exclamatory sentences.
how How interesting!
what What a surprise to meet you here

Dnit 12 Conditionals

TVPEI=REAL SITUATIONSIN THE PRESENT/FUTURE

If-Clause Main Clause Use
future tense real/probable situations in the
learns Spanish, she'l visit Spain. present/future
Present Simple If Paula
can/may/might/should+ infinitive
(or Progressive) If you have finished eating, you can/may watch TV.
If+ Present Perfect Simple present simple general truths

if the action has If you mix red and blue, you get purple.
already finished) Imperative instructions/commands
If you go out, turn the lights off.

If-clauses either precede or follow the main clause. When they precede, we separate them with a commna.
if you can hear me, give me a sign.
(no comma)
G/ve me a sign if you can hear me.if there is a slight possibility of something happening.
if-clause
We can use should in the the mechanic to have it checked first.
you should buy that car, take it to
before the subject (inversion).
Sometimes if is omitted and should the mechanic to have it checked first.
comes

Should you buy that car, take it to

TYPEZUNREAL SITUATIONSIN THEPRESENT/FUTUR

Main Clause Use
If-Clause
would/could/might +presentinfinitive unreal/imaginary
If he were a planist, he could get a job in the Orchestra. situations in the present
t l became a millionaire, I would buy a house with a swimming events that are unlikely to
If+PastSimple happen in the future
(or Progressive) pool.
shoes, I would talk to my parents. to give advice
IfI were in your

2 conditional
(formal). Sometimes if is omitted and were comes before the subject
Us instead of was in type
She were more polite, people would
lIike her more. (inversion)
"
Were he more careful, he would avoid such awkward
situations
TYPE3 UNREAL SITUATIONSINTHEPAST
Main Clause
Use
M-Clause would/could/might+ perfect intinitive for actions that didn't
on the banana peel, she would have had an happen
If she had stepped
If+Past Perfect accldent.
Simple or Continuous) better care of my teeth, I wouldn't have had this to express criticism/regret
fl had taken
t e r r i b l e toothache.

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Grammar Review
the subject (inversion)
Sometimes if is omitted and had comes before
allowed to enter the
dIsco.
Had he been older, he would have been
Conditionals)
(Mixed
to the context
eWe
can have combinations accordingarrived by now. (types 2,3)
they left early, they would have
if
If we hadnt got lost. we would be there now. (types
3,2)

other expressions
(instead of i )
be introduced with
conditionals can
she apologises to me.
won't talk to her unless
unless (=if not) |I
(that)/as long as he invites me.
as long as/provided/providing (=only i) |1 go to his party provided

IH take an umbrella in case it rains.

in case
I'l let you go without punishment.
on condition (that) (=provided) On condition you' ve told the truth,

But for her help, I would have failed my

exam.
but for (=it it wasn't/hadn't been for)
or else (=it not/otherwise) |Do as I tell you, or else /'l get angry.
suppose/supposing (=imagine it) Supposing you won the lottery, what would you do?

only if I1 work with you only if you promise not to talk all the time.

even if She wouldnt change her mind even if you proved her wrong.

We use the future "will" only after the expression or else.

Unit 13 Unreal Past

Unreal Past= unreal situations stated with Past Tenses

PRESENT OR FUTURE REFERENCE

Use
Examples
If+PastTense type 2 Conditional Ifl could go on a holiday, I would go to Peru.
imagine/ suppose / supposing present/future imaginary situations Supposing you were an animal, what would
+Past Tense you choose to be?
wish/if only we wish a present situation were
different |/ wish I had a pet.
+Past Tense Cif only is stronger than wish) If only I were in Jamaica!
wish/ if only to express annoyance, irritation, I wish/if only you would
dissatisfaction stop shouting.
would+ infinitive to makea wish
concerning a present I wish days would go by quicker!
situation that is unlikely to change (Thee
subject of would must be different from
that of wish)
wish/ if only make a wish/express regret about
+COuld+ infinitive He wishes he had a
sth we cannot do at present motorbike.
as if/as though untrue situations in the
Past Tense present (were is She walks as if she were
used instead of was) a dancer.
it's (about / high) time to indicate that time has come
for sb to It's time we left this
+PastTense do sth
It's time you told place.
.to express criticism/complain about It's high time
them the truth.
sth that should have already been done you quit this job!
It's time for him to
(It'stime+infinitive the right time for
= ask for a raise.
sb to do sth) (It's
about/high time are
stronger expressions)

PAST REFERENCE
lse
 Gramm

Examples
Use Paul.
marrled
wish I had
wish/if only express sorrow/regret about sth in the hadn't lorgotten my passport
If only I
Past Perfect past she had not
seen anything.
She behaved as if
as if/as though unreal situations in the past
+Past Perfect would
to the beach,
Imagine you hadn't gone
imagine l supposel imaginary situatlons in the past
brown now?
you be
supposing
+Past Perfect

WOULD RATHER CIwOULD PREFER

If the subject of would rather is the same as the subject
Present/ Future reference
Past reference
of the verb:
l'd rather have a crepe.
would rather (not)+ present bare tomorrow.
He'd rather not take the test
infinitive
Would rather (not)+ perfect bare infinitive We'd rather have rented a jeep.
the dinner
'd rather not have eaten so much at
party yesterday.

verb:
if the subject of would rather is different from the subject of the

Present/ Future reference would rather+subject+ Past Simple | r'd rather you didn't bring your dog along on
our trip.
Past reference would rather+ subject+ Past Perfect | He would rather she hadn't cut her hair so
short.

NOTE Would rather+ bare infinitive+than + bare .Wouldsooner is used in the same way as would rather
infinitive rd sooner go to the East than to America.
I'drather sleep than watch TV.

EXPESSING PREFERENCE
prefer+ -ing/noun+ to+-ing/noun Iprefer fishing to hunting.

prefer+full infinitive + rather than + bare infinitive He prefers to play chess rather than play scrabble.

general reference)
Would prefer +full infinitive+ rather than+ bare She would prefer to have an orange juice rather than have a
(preference in a particular situation)
infinitive cup ofcoffee.

HADBETTER(-SHOULD)
expresses strongadvice/warning/threat. It is stronger than should/ought to. Its subject is the same as that of the verb
had better +(not)+ present bare
Present/ Future reference
infinitive| You'd better take a torch with you.
It would have been better if+ Past
Past reference Perfect|t would have been better if she had admitted
her guilt.

Unit 14 Reported Speech

In Reported Speech we give the meaning o wnat soneOne sid WItn some changes and without
introduceReported Speech with the verdstenwneee aperson pronoun as an object) and quotation marks. We usually
pronoun as an object). That is optional. say (when there is no person
DIRECT
REPORTED
Present Simple Past Simple
She said, " like this film." She said (that) she liked
that film.
Present Progresslve Past Progressive
throw a big party."
Theysaid, "we are planning to They said (that) they were
Past Simple Past Perfect Simple
planning to throwa big party
Maria said, "T had a greattime yesterday" Maria said (that) she
had had a
great time the previous day.
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DIRECT REPORTED
Past Progressive Past Perfect Progressive
T was wandering in the woods, "

the boy said. The boy said (that) he had been wandering in the woods
Present Perfect Simple Past Perfect Simple
"We have already cleaned the car, Dad,"said Sam. Sam told his dad (that) they had already cleaned the car
Present Perfect Progressive Past Perfect Progressive
He said, "T've been trying to fix my bike all He said (that) he had been trying to fix his bike all day
day."
Will Would
7W tell you where I will be,
Tina,"said Mike. Mike told Tina (that) he would tell her where he would be.
Can Could
James said, "I can whistle very loudly." James said (that) he could whistle very loudly.
May Might
"He may be lost," said Alice. Alice said (that) he might be lost.
Must Had to (obligation)
'You must brush your teeth, Bruce, "said Mum Mum told Bruce (that) he had to brush his teeth
Must (deduction)
It must be late, "he said. He said that it must be late.
Must not Must not (prohibition)
"You mustn't touch this, "said Mark. Mark said that) I mustn't touch that.
Need Needed/ Had to
They said, "we need to have our house painted." They said (that) they had to have their house painted.
Needn't Needn't/ didn't have to (present)
She said, "you needn't eat all that food" She said (that) I didn't have to eat all that food.

Wouldn't Have to (future)

He said, "You needn't phone us tonight." He said (that) I wouldn't have to phone them that
night.

Would, could, might, should, ought to do not change.

now then
today/tonight that day/that night
yesterday the day before/the previous day
tomorrow the next/tfollowing day
last week (month, year, etc.) the previous week (month,
year etc.)/the week (month.
year etc.) before
next week (month, year, etc.) the following week (month, year etc.)
ago before
this/these that/those
here there

NOCHANGESARE MADEINTHEFOLLOWINGCASES
When the reporting verb is in the Present, Future or Present Perfect.
Steven says, "I have been looking for a good book all day > Steven says (that) he's been looking for a good book all day
When a general truth or sth unlikely to change is reported.
Theteacher said, "The Statue of Liberty Is in New York." The teacher sald (that) the Statue of Liberty is in New York.
The Past Perfect does not change.
Mary said, "I had prepared everything by midnight." Mary said (that) she had prepared everything by idnight.
The Past Progressive does not usually change; Past tenses in time clauses do not change.
"was speaking on the phone when the doorbell rang. "she sald She said (that) she was speaking on the phone when
the doorbell rang.
When sth is reported immediately after it is said
"John is a spoilt kid."said Paul. Paul said that John is a spoilt kicd
.When something, although sald earlier, will take place in the future.
John said, "Tm ftlying toRome tomorrow" Johnsaid (that) he is ftying to Rometomorrow. (it is still today)
.When there is a Conditional (type 2,3) or a sentence with wish/it only.
Ben said, "if l had a Cadillacit would be a pink one."Ben sald (that) if he had a Cadilac, it would be a pink one

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 Grammar Rev

OUESTIONE is the same as

in statements.
word order
etc. and the
with the verbs ask, wonder, want to know,
vestions a e repoited inquire,
Examples
Type Form on
Saturday?"
come over
"Can you over on
come
YES-NO questions Ifwhether+subject+verb know if I could
He wanted to
Saturday
stillhere?"
Why a r e you
Wh-questions | Wh-question word+subject+verb was still there.
She askedme whyl

Whether is used instead of if when there is a choice between two alternatives.(with them) or not.
NOTE She wondered whether I
was going
wel, are you coming or not?"

COMMANDS-REQUESTS-ADVICE

etc.
advise, forbid, warn, encourage,
They are reported with the verbs tell, ask, beg, order, command,
+object+full infinitive
concert.
Mum. Mum forbade me to go to the
You're not going to the concert," said football match.
said Gerry.Gerry begged his dad to let him go to the
football match."
Please. Dad. let megotothe
OTHER REPORTING VERBS
complain/explain/agree/claim/deny/
insist
accuse sb of/complain to sb about/ promise/threaten//warn (+ object)+
refuse/offer/promise (+objectd/
threaten (+object)/claim/agreeetc.+ on/admit
(to)/deny/apologise that clause
for+-ing form
full infinitive flat tyre," said
names,"said the "Sorry I'm late but I had a
Tm sorry I you called late
7 won't lend you my green dress,"said| for calling him Bill.Bill explained
that he was
to lend boyThe boy apologised
mysister.My sister refused because he had a flat tyre.
me her green dress. names.
playing a game of tennis.
that they play a game of tennis.
tennis." Lucy said. Lucy suggested
NOTE Let's play a game of game of tennis.
that they should play a