Research Module A Comprehensive Guide

RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH PROCESS
Overview
Doing research can have a huge impact on your life as a student, even if
you don’t realize it. As you embark in your journey of conducting your own
research, it is important for you to be equipped with the basics of research.
Through this, you will be able to appreciate the value of research in your
chosen field.
This chapter contains the comprehensive description of the following:
 Meaning and importance of research
 Characteristics of research
 Types of research
 Research process
Objective
At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:

1. Discuss the meaning and importance of research.
2. Identify the characteristics of research.
3. Enumerate the types of research.
4. Explain the research process.
Lesson 1 - Meaning and Importance of Research
Pre-discussion
In the K-12 curriculum, wherein you are part of it, you have experienced
conducting research particularly in Senior High School. Can you still recall your
experiences? How is your experience related with the comics below?
CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 1
Figure 1. Graduate student experience in their thesis.
What to expect?
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Define research.
2. Explain the importance of doing research.
3. Appreciate the impact of research in life.
Lesson Outline
There are several definitions of research, proposed by famous authors and

scholars of their time. You will find out that the basic meaning and the context
of these definitions are same. The difference between these definitions lies
only in the way the author has undertaken research in his discipline.
- Research as a process is a systematic way of arriving at answers to

substantial and well-defined problems (Padua, 2000).
- Searching for theory, for testing theory or for solving a problem. It

means a problem exist and has been identified and that the solution of
the problem is necessary (Sevilla, 1992).
- Research comprises “creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in

order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of man,
culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise
new applications” (OECD, 2002).
- Scientific research is a systematic way of gathering data, a harnessing

of curiosity. This research provides scientific information and theories
for the explanation of the nature and the properties of the world. It
makes practical applications possible. Scientific research is funded by
public authorities, by charitable organizations and by private groups,
including many companies. Scientific research can be subdivided into
different classifications according to their academic and application
disciplines. Scientific research is a widely used criterion for judging the
standing of an academic institution, such as business schools, but
some argue that such is an inaccurate assessment of the institution,
because the quality of research does not tell about the quality of
teaching (these do not necessarily correlate totally) (Armstrong and
Sperry, 1994).
- A broad definition of research is given by Shuttleworth (2008) – “In the

broadest sense of the word, the definition of research includes any
gathering of data, information and facts for the advancement of
knowledge”.
- Another definition of research is given by Creswell who states that –

“Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information
to increase our understanding of a topic or issue”. It consists of three

steps: Pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present
an answer to the question (Creswell 2008).
- Importance of Research
Finding reasons why research is important may seem like a no-brainer, but
many would rather avoid getting involved in the research. The lazy, if not
mentally drained, student could say, "Not again." And a disinterested academic
could just be doing it for promotion purposes. Yet, for those who like to learn -
whether or not they are members of a learning institution - doing research is
not just an imperative, but a need. What reasons could drive one to appreciate
the research and engage in doing it?
There are different reasons why research is important, as listed below.
1. A Tool for Building New Knowledge and Solve Societal Problems

Research is significant because it serves as a tool generate new
knowledge. Padua (2000) stated that if there are more users of knowledge than
producers of knowledge, there would be more world problems that will be left
unsolved, thus confounding the miserable state of human existence. In order to
solve real-world problems, experts must work together to make it happen.
2. An Aid to Business Success and Job Search

Research has a vital role in business. Many successful companies, such as
those that produce consumer goods or mass-market items, invest in research
and development or R&D. Different business industries with science and
engineering processes like agriculture, food and beverage, manufacturing,
healthcare and pharmaceuticals, computer software, semiconductor,
information and communication technology, construction, robotics, aerospace,
aviation, and energy have high R&D expenditure because it is critical to product
innovation and to improving services.
The unemployed can also benefit from doing research. Through this
process, not only will they increase their chances of finding potential
employers either through job posting sites or employment agencies, but it can
inform them if work opportunities are legitimate. Without research, the gullible,
yet hopeful jobseeker may fall prey to unscrupulous headhunters who might be
involved in illegal recruitment and/or human trafficking.
3. Means to Understand Various Issues

Television shows and movies ooze with research - both on the part of the
writer(s) and the actors. Though there are hosts who rely on their researchers,
there are also those who exert effort to do their own research. This helps
them get information that hired researchers missed, build a good rapport with
the interviewee, and conduct a good interview in the process.
For their part, some film and TV actors would take time to interview
detectives, boxers, scientists, business people, criminals, and teachers,
among others. Others would even immerse themselves in situations that would
make them understand social and personal issues like living behind bars or in
a drug rehabilitation center. Many would read literature, biographies, or
journals to have a better view or context of the story.
4. A Way to Prove Lies and to Support Truths

Scientists also deal with research to test the validity and reliability of their
claims or those of other scientists'. Their integrity and competence depend on
the quality - and not just quantity - of their research. Nonetheless, not
everything scientists come up with get accepted or learned by everyone,
especially when factors like religion, state suppression, and access to
resources and social services (e.g., education and adequate health programs)
either feed the poor majority with lies or deter them from knowing truths to
preserve the status quo.
5. A Seed to Love Reading, Writing, Analyzing, and Sharing Valuable

Information
The research entails both reading and writing. These two literacy functions
help enable computation and comprehension. Without these skills, it is less
likely for anyone to appreciate and get involved in the research. Reading
opens the mind to a vast horizon of knowledge, while writing helps a reader
use her/his own perspective and transform this into a more concrete idea that
s/he understands.
Apart from reading and writing, listening and speaking are also integral in
conducting research. Interviews, attending knowledge-generating events, and
casual talks with anyone certainly aid in formulating research topics. They can
also facilitate the critical thinking process. Listening to experts discuss the
merits of their studies helps the listener to analyze a certain issue and write
about such analysis.
As literacy is integral in improving a person's social and economic mobility
and in increasing awareness, research then hones necessary basic life
skills and makes learning a life-long endeavor.
6. Nourishment and Exercise for the Mind

Curiosity may kill not just the cat, but the human as well. Yet, it is the same
curiosity that fuels the mind to seek for answers. Research and doing research
encourage people to explore possibilities, to understand existing issues, and to
disclose truths and fabricated ones. Without research, technological
advancement and other developments could have remained a fantasy.
Reading, writing, observing, analyzing, and interacting with others facilitate an
inquisitive mind's quest for knowledge and efficient learning. Research serves
as an instrument to achieve that goal.
7. Review policies that must be revised and programs of actions that

demand modification.
A researcher should also communicate the results of the study in a
non-academic community such as the law-makers through the policy brief. It is
a short summary of what is known about a particular issue or problem. The
main purpose is to succinctly evaluate policy options regarding a specific issue
for a specific policy-maker audience. Policy makers need to make practical
decisions under time-constraints, so the brief should provide evidence and
actionable recommendations.
8. Improve Living Conditions.

Basic research has led to some of the most commercially successful and
life-saving discoveries of the past century, including the laser, vaccines and
drugs, and the development of radio and television. It is undeniable that the
researchers’ creativity, tenacity and passion lead to tackling and solving big
challenges such as climate change, food security, life-threatening diseases
and artificial intelligence improving our way of living.
Summary
Research is a systematic investigation (i.e., the gathering and analysis of

information) designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge.
Research is important because it serves as a tool for building knowledge and
solve societal problems; an aid to business success and job search; means to
understand various issues; a way to prove lies and to support truths; a seed to
love reading, writing, analyzing and sharing valuable information; nourishment
and exercise to mind; review policies and improve living conditions.
Assessment
1. List down 20 keywords that you can think when you encounter the word
“research”. Make a brief discussion using the keywords with emphasis on the
meaning and importance of research.
Enrichment
1. Creativity and innovation have been highlighted as essential skills for the
21st century. These skills are important when doing research. Watch the video
of Ilona Stengel on Ted.com entitled: The role of human emotions in science
and research using the link: https://www.ted.com/talks/ilona_stengel_
the_role_of_human_emotions_in_science_and_research#t-664. Write your
reflection of the video using this format: brief summary of the video and
insights about it.
Lesson 2 – Characteristics and Types of Research
Pre-discussion
It was highlighted in the speech of Ilona Stengel that a researcher should

be creative and innovative. Have a self-reflection of your positive attitudes that
you believed is significant in conducting different types of research.
What to expect?
1. Explain the characteristics of a good research.
2. Differentiate the types and classification of research.
3. Discuss action research.
Lesson Outline
Characteristics of Good Research

Every research study, irrespective of its type, should meet some criterions
so that it can be classified as good research as enumerated by Singh (2015).
1. One of the important characteristics of a good research is about solving

problems. It was emphasized by Henson and Soriano (1999) that
research aims to find answers to problems raised.
2. A research should be systematic (procedures adopted to undertake an
investigation follow a certain logical sequence through data collection,
analysis and interpretation).
3. A research is critical. The process adopted and the procedures used
must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.
4. A research is empirical. Conclusions drawn are based upon hard
evidence gathered from data collected from real life experiences.
5. A good research has clearly defined purpose. A research study with
clearly defined purpose finds a wider acceptance and acknowledgment
within the research community.
6. A research has clearly defined method with sufficient detail. This will
allow the repetition of the study in future for further advancement, while
maintaining the continuity of what has been done in the past.
7. A research has limitations and assumptions made by the researcher
during the course of the study. This will support the findings of the
research study, in case someone tries to validate the study findings.
8. A research has a well-planned research design in order to generate
objective results. This will provide an easier understanding about the
findings of the research.
9. A research has sufficient data to investigate the problem. The
researcher should carefully check the reliability and validity of the data.
10. A good research depends a great deal on the integrity and commitment
of the researcher.
- Types and Classification of Research
A common question that researchers get from students and the general
public is "what is your research good for?" To answer this question, it is best to
establish the difference between basic (fundamental) and applied research.
1. Fundamental or basic research - Basic research is an investigation on

basic principles and reasons for occurrence of a particular event or process or
phenomenon. It is also called theoretical research. Study or investigation of
some natural phenomenon or relating to pure science are termed as basic
research. Basic researches sometimes may not lead to immediate use or
application. It is not concerned with solving any practical problems of immediate
interest. But it is original or basic in character. It provides a systematic and deep
insight into a problem and facilitates extraction of scientific and logical
explanation and conclusion on it. It helps build new frontiers of knowledge. The
outcomes of basic research form the basis for many applied research.
2. Applied research - In an applied research one solves certain problems

employing well known and accepted theories and principles. Most of the
experimental research, case studies and inter-disciplinary research are

essentially applied research. It was also emphasized by Hechanova and
Hechanova (2002) that applied research is practical in nature. It may come from
a desire to gain knowledge for useful ends using/applying the theories derived
from pure research. Figure 2 briefly describes the difference between basic and
applied research
Types of Applied Research
There are 3 types of applied research. These are evaluation research,

research and development, and action research.
 Evaluation Research
Evaluation research is a type of applied research that analyses existing

information about a research subject to arrive at objective research
outcomes or reach informed decisions. This type of applied research is
mostly applied in business contexts, for example, an organization may
adopt evaluation research to determine how to cut down overhead costs.
 Research and Development
Research and development is a type of applied research that is focused on

developing new products and services based on the needs of target
markets. It focuses on gathering information about marketing needs and
finding ways to improve on an existing product or create new products that
satisfy the identified needs.
 Action Research
Action research is a type of applied research that is set on providing

practical solutions to specific problems. It involves the health practitioners,
educators or businessmen conducting systematic enquiries in order to help
them improve their own practices, which in turn can enhance their working
environment and the working environments of those who are part of it –
clients, patients, students, users and others. Typically, action research is a
process of reflective inquiry that is limited to specific contexts and situational

in nature.
Figure 2. Difference between basic and applied research
Basic and applied research, further divided into three types of research
bearing some characteristics feature as follows:
1. Quantitative research
Quantitative research deals with data that are numerical or that can be
converted into numbers. The basic methods used to investigate numerical
data are called ‘statistics’. Statistical techniques are concerned with the
organization, analysis, interpretation and presentation of numerical data
(Williamson & Johanson, 2018).
In the market research world, numbers give insight into consumer
behavior, but quantitative research can and is used to explain other kinds of
performance, as well. Scientists and analysts in both the social sciences and
the natural ones use numerical data to apply significance to any number of
different kinds of phenomena.
Quantitative data includes close-ended information such as that found to
measure attitudes (e.g., rating scales), behaviors (e.g., observation checklists),
and performance instruments. The analysis of this type of data consists of
statistically analyzing scores collected on instruments (e.g., questionnaires) or
checklists to answer research questions or to test hypotheses.
2. Qualitative research
Qualitative research is a type of social science research that collects and
works with non-numerical data. As defined by Denzin and Lincoln (2000),
qualitative research involves studying certain phenomenon in a people’s
natural setting, attempting to make sense of or interpret the local meanings
they attach to it. The data produced in qualitative research provide a narrative
description of the way of life of the people (Munhall 2001).
Qualitative data consists of open-ended information that the researcher
usually gathers through interviews, focus groups and observations. The
analysis of the qualitative data (words, text or behaviors) typically follows the
path of aggregating it into categories of information and presenting the
diversity of ideas gathered during data collection.
3. Mixed research – It is a methodology for conducting research that involves

collecting, analyzing and integrating quantitative (e.g., experiments, surveys)
and qualitative (e.g., focus groups, interviews) research. This approach to
research is used when this integration provides a better understanding of the
research problem than either of each alone.
One of the most advantageous characteristics of conducting mixed
methods research is the possibility of triangulation, i.e., the use of several
means (methods, data sources and researchers) to examine the same
phenomenon.
Summary
A good research is clearly defined with clear and detailed methods,

limitations and assumptions are highlighted, research design is well planned
and sufficient data to investigate, conclusions made are confined to the data
gathered by a committed researcher. There are two main classes of research
namely fundamental or basic research and applied research. Applied research
is categorized as evaluation research, research and development, and action
research. Research is also divided into three types namely quantitative,
qualitative and mixed research.
Assessment
1. Refer to the word collage of the traits of a good researcher as shown

below. Choose two words and discuss how these words are related with the
characteristics of a good research.
2. Identify the similarities and differences of basic and applied research using
the Venn diagram. Write the similarities of the two types of research in the
overlapping portion of the circles.
3. If you will be working with a research project, which type of research do you
prefer to conduct? Is it qualitative, quantitative or mixed? Justify your answer.
4. Think of concerns that you have in your daily life that would fall under the
major groupings of research. Choose only one grouping and discuss briefly.
Enrichment
1. Look for a research article related to your field of specialization. Write the
APA reference of the article and brief summary. Also discuss how it is useful in
your own field of expertise.
Lesson 3– The Research Process
Pre-discussion
You have learned in the previous chapters the importance of research

including the characteristics of a good research. This chapter will help you
further understand the big picture of a research method by experiencing the
whole research process. Can you still recall your past experience in doing
research? Can you enumerate the steps of the research process?
What to expect?
1. Explain research process.
2. Compare research process with scientific method.
3. Differentiate linear from iterative research process.
4. Perform the basic steps of research process.
Lesson Outline
- The Research Process

Understanding the research process is an important step towards
executing a thorough research or study. It will help you identify the similar
features that occur in the different fields, and the variety in the purpose and
approaches to some studies. It also enables you to understand the implication
of deviating from a systematic approach to research, as well as the associating
consequences of ineffective and ineffectual research.
Research is different than other forms of discovering knowledge (like
reading a book) because it uses a systematic process called the Scientific
Method. The Scientific Method consists of identifying the problem and creating
a hypothesis about relationships in the world. A hypothesis is an informed and
educated prediction or explanation about something. Part of the research
process involves testing the hypothesis, and then examining the results of
these tests as they relate to both the hypothesis and the world around you.
When a researcher forms a hypothesis, this acts like a map through the
research study. It tells the researcher which factors are important to study and
how they might be related to each other or caused by a manipulation that the
researcher introduces (e.g. a program, treatment or change in the
environment). With this map, the researcher can interpret the information
he/she collects and can make sound conclusions about the results (Figure 3).
Figure 3. The scientific method
Adopting the proposed model by Rummel and Ballaine (1963), there are
six steps involved in the research process. These include identifying the area
of study, choosing the topic, formulating a research plan, collecting and then
analyzing the data and then finally writing up the study. These steps can be
represented in three phases, namely the planning phase and the research
phase and then finally the presentation phase. This is illustrated in Figure 4.
Progression through a project is generally made by stepping through all
the highlighted steps where careful compliance with the model improves the
prospects of completing the project successfully. Frequent revision of earlier
steps can be a sign that these initial steps have been inadequately carried out.
Research viewed this way can be seen as a series of linked activities. This
process is regarded as a linear process.
Research can, however, also be iterative, whereby new activities that arise
from the linear process can be incorporated back into previous steps. For
example, data collection follows on to analysis steps, which then guides further
data collection. Research planned in this way follows a more cyclical process.
Figure 4. Linear process of research
The iterative technique can be used in analyzing qualitative data. The five
major techniques which the researcher applied to analyze the qualitative data
is shown in Figure 5. These techniques are the following: data organization
(Best & Kahn, 2006), generation of unit of meanings, construction of
categories, developing themes and writing the theory (Cohen et al., 2011;
Newby, 2010).
Figure 5. Iterative process of research
Basic steps in research process
The following steps outline a simple and effective strategy for writing a
research paper. Depending on your familiarity with the topic and the
challenges you encounter along the way, you may need to rearrange these
steps.
Step 1: Identify and develop your topic

Selecting a topic can be the most challenging part of a research
assignment. Since this is the very first step in writing a paper, it is vital that it be
done correctly. You can select a topic of personal interest to you, where you
can find manageable amount of information, an original concept that might
stand alone with others, or you can seek advice from your instructor.
Step 2: Do a preliminary search for information

Before beginning your research in earnest, do a preliminary search to
determine whether there is enough information out there for your needs and to
set the context of your research. Look up your keywords in the appropriate
titles in the library's Reference collection (such as encyclopedias and
dictionaries) and in other sources such as our catalog of books, periodical
databases, and Internet search engines. Additional background information
may be found in your lecture notes, textbooks, and reserve readings. You may
find it necessary to adjust the focus of your topic in light of the resources
available to you.
Step 3: Locate materials

With the direction of your research now clear to you, you can begin
locating material on your topic. There are a number of places you can look for
information. Use the library's electronic periodical databases to find magazine
and newspaper articles. Choose the databases and formats best suited to your
particular topic or you may ask the librarian in your school. Use search engines
(Google, Yahoo, etc.) and subject directories to locate materials on the
Internet.
Step 4: Evaluate your sources

You are expected to provide credible, truthful, and reliable information and
you have every right to expect that the sources you use are providing the same.
This step is especially important when using Internet resources, many of which
are regarded as less than reliable.
Step 5: Make notes

Consult the resources you have chosen and note the information that will
be useful in your paper. Be sure to document all the sources you consult, even
if you there is a chance you may not use that particular source. The author, title,
publisher, URL, and other information will be needed later when creating a
bibliography.
Step 6: Write your paper

Begin by organizing the information you have collected. The next step is
the rough draft, wherein you get your ideas on paper in an unfinished fashion.
This step will help you organize your ideas and determine the form your final
paper will take. After this, you will revise the draft as many times as you think
necessary to create a final product to turn in to your instructor.
Step 7: Cite your sources properly

Give credit where credit is due; cite your sources. Citing or documenting
the sources used in your research serves two purposes: it gives proper credit
to the authors of the materials used, and it allows those who are reading your
work to duplicate your research and locate the sources that you have listed as
references. The MLA and the APA Styles are two popular citation formats.
Failure to cite your sources properly is plagiarism. Plagiarism is avoidable!
Step 8: Data Gathering and Analysis

After writing the three (3) chapters of your paper, namely the Introduction,
Review of Related Literature and Methodology, it is time to gather data
depending on the type of research you preferred. Once data are available, you
have to analyze it using statistical method if you are working with a quantitative
research or analyzed it qualitatively.
Step 9: Writing results, conclusion and recommendation

Once data is analyzed, you have to look for more available sources
supporting or providing explanation of the data you have gathered. Make sure
to locate credible information and authors are properly cited.
Step 10: Writing your references

A good research paper has used a lot of available information related with
the research of interest, and this is reflected in the last part of your research
paper, the references. Go back to the discussions in step 7 for proper
referencing, which will be further discuss in the succeeding chapters of this
module.
Step 11: Proofread

The final step in the process is to proofread the paper you have created.
Read through the text and check for any errors in spelling, grammar, and
punctuation. Make sure the sources you used are cited properly. Make sure
the message that you want to get across to the reader has been thoroughly
stated.
Remember, the guidelines presented are just the process of writing your
research. Conducting research does not ends in this process, results of your
research should be shared to the experts or to the stakeholders who can use
the data you gathered for their benefit.
Summary
Regardless of types and classes, research follows a systematic process

similar with scientific method. Research follows a linear or iterative process.
The former includes identifying the area of study, choosing the topic,
formulating a research plan, collecting and then analyzing the data and then
finally writing up the study. Iterative process wherein new activities that arise
from the linear process can be incorporated back into previous steps. Writing
research paper is also similar with the linear process and the researcher
should put in mind that reliable information should be obtained in order to

come up with a good research paper.
Assessment
1. How is research process related with scientific method?
2. Compare and contrast linear and iterative research process.
3. What do you think is the most challenging part in the research process?
Justify your answer.
Enrichment
This sample activity is important for you to be able to see the big picture in
doing research. To start, search one (1) research article online of the topic of
your interest. Read the article and answer the following questions. If you
cannot find answers to the given questions, simply write Not mentioned but
you have to made some justifications.
1. What is the research problem?
2. What is the hypothesis?
3. What are the variables?
4. What method was used?
5. What data were collected?
6. How the data were analyzed?
7. What are the results?
8. How did the results of the research were shared?
References
Accad, A.S., & Accad, M.F. (2016). Qualitative Methods of Research.

Kampana Publishing House, Inc.
Armstrong, J.S., & Sperry, T. (1994) Business school prestige: Research

versus teaching, Interfaces 24: 13–43.
Basic Steps in the Research Process. (2019). Retrieved September 16,

2020, from https://www.nhcc.edu/student-resources/library/doinglibrary
research/basic-steps-in-the-research-process.
Best, J. W., & Kahn, J. V. (2006). Research in education (10th ed.). Boston,
USA: Pearson Education Inc.
Creswell, J.W. (2008). Educational Research: Planning, conducting, and

evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle
River: Pearson.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2011). Research methods in education
(7th ed.). Abingdon, Oxon, NY: Routledge.
Denzin, N.K., & Lincoln, Y. (2000). Introduction: The discipline and practice of
qualitative research. In: Denzin NK, Lincoln Y (eds). Handbook of
Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage.
Hechanova, R.F., & Hechanova, R.S. (2002). Analysis of Variance with

Emphasis on Mean Separation. Blas Edward’s Incorporated.
Munhall, P.L. (2001). Nursing Research: A Qualitative Perspective. Jones and

Bartlett, Sudbury, MA.
Newby, P. (2010). Research methods for education. London, UK: Pearson

Education. Patton.
OECD. (2002). Frascati Manual: proposed standard practice for surveys on

research and experimental development, 6th edition. Retrieved 27 May
2012, from www.oecd.org/sti/frascatimanual.
Padua, R. (2000). Elements of Research and Statistical Models. Cagayan de

Oro City. MSPC Publishing House.
Rummel, J.F., & Ballaine, W.C. (1963). Research methodology in business.

Harper & Row.
Sevilla, C.G., Ochave, J.A., Punsalan, T.G., Regala, B.P. & Uriarte, G.G. (1992).
Research Methods. Revised Edition. Quezon City. Rex Printing Company.
Shuttleworth, M. (2008). Descriptive Research Design. Retrieved

September 20, 2020, from Explorable.com:https://explorable.com/desc
riptive-research-design.
What is applied research? + (Types, Examples & Methods). Retrieved:

October 05, 2020, from https://www.formpl.us/blog/applied-research
Zarah, L. Six Reasons Why Research is Important. Retrieved: July 15, 2020,
from https://www.airsassociation.org/airs-articles/six-reasons-why-
research-is-important.
CHAPTER 2
THE ETHICAL CONTEXT OF RESEARCH
Overview
It is undeniable that doing research is important especially in finding

solutions to the problems. But a researcher should be guided with moral
principles in conducting and reporting research. Research ethics have become
a central issue in educational research and no research can be conducted
without due regard to ethics. Regulatory frameworks and regulatory bodies
have been established to manage and approve research ethics protocols.
Hence, data gathering for an educational research project can only begin once
ethical clearance has been sought, approved and a certificate of ethical
clearance has been issued. For most research conducted in higher education,
ethical clearance applications are managed and processed through dedicated
structures within the institution.

 Meaning and importance of research ethics
 Ethical principles of research
 Making ethical decisions
 Participants informed consent.
Objectives: At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
1. Explain the ethics in conducting and writing research.
2. Examine the code of ethics in doing research.
3. Appreciate the importance of ethics in research.
Lesson 1 – Meaning, Importance and Ethical Principles of Research
Pre-discussion
What does ethical consideration in research mean in practice? How can
people who participate in research projects be protected? This chapter will
help you understand the meaning and importance of research ethics. You will
also be guided with the guidelines of the research ethics.
What to expect?
1. Define the meaning of research ethics
2. Explain the importance of research ethics.
3. Enumerate the guidelines and principles of research ethics.
Lesson Outline
Research Ethics
Ethics is defined by most people as a rule for distinguishing between right
and wrong such as the Golden Rule, Do unto others as you would have them
do unto you"), a code of professional conduct like the Hippocratic Oath, "First
of all, do no harm". One may also define ethics as a method, procedure, or
perspective for deciding how to act and for analyzing complex problems and
issues.
The Oxford Dictionary defines ethics as: ‘moral principles that govern a
person’s behavior or the conducting of an activity [… or] the branch of
knowledge that deals with moral principles’. This definition focuses on moral
principles and guidelines for human behavior. However, such definitions tell us
very little about ethics related to the daily activities of researchers. In fact, the
work of some researchers proceeds unnoticed, and it is only with hindsight that
they become aware of decisions made that could have done harm in some way.
Therefore, ethics in research should focus on creating awareness among
researchers about how their daily decisions could potentially harm human
beings and the environment.
Importance of Research Ethics

There are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical norms in
research.
1. Norms promote the aims of research, such as knowledge, truth, and

avoidance of error. For example, prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or
misrepresenting research data promote the truth and minimize error.
2. Since research often involves a great deal of cooperation and coordination

among many different people in different disciplines and institutions, ethical
standards promote the values that are essential to collaborative work, such as
trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness. For example, many ethical
norms in research, such as guidelines for authorship, copyright and patenting
policies, data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer review, are
designed to protect intellectual property interests while encouraging
collaboration. Most researchers want to receive credit for their contributions
and do not want to have their ideas stolen or disclosed prematurely.
3. Many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held
accountable to the public. For instance, government policies on research
misconduct, conflicts of interest, the human subjects protections, and animal
care and use are necessary in order to make sure that researchers who are
funded by public money can be held accountable to the public.
4. Ethical norms in research also help to build public support for research.
People are more likely to fund a research project if they can trust the quality
and integrity of research.
5. Many of the norms of research promote a variety of other important moral

and social values, such as social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare,
compliance with the law, and public health and safety. Ethical lapses in
research can significantly harm human and animal subjects, students, and the
public. For example, a researcher who fabricates data in a clinical trial may
harm or even kill patients, and a researcher who fails to abide by regulations
and guidelines relating to radiation or biological safety may jeopardize his
health and safety or the health and safety of staff and students.
Ethical Guidelines of Research
Many different disciplines, institutions, and professions have standards for

behavior that suit their particular aims and goals. These standards also help
members of the discipline to coordinate their actions or activities and to
establish the public's trust of the discipline. For instance, ethical standards
govern conduct in medicine, law, engineering, and business. Ethical norms
also serve the aims or goals of research and apply to people who conduct
scientific research or other scholarly or creative activities. There is even a
specialized discipline, research ethics, which studies these norms.
The Nuremberg Code is one of the most influential documents in the
history of clinical research. Created more than 70 years ago following the
notorious World War II experiments, this written document established ten (10)
ethical principles for protecting human subjects. The Nuremberg Code aimed
to protect human subjects from enduring the kind of cruelty and exploitation the
prisoners endured at concentration camps. The 10 elements of the code are:
1. Voluntary consent is essential.
2. The results of any experiment must be for the greater good of society.
3. Human experiments should be based on previous animal experimentation.
4. Experiments should be conducted by avoiding physical/mental suffering
and injury.
5. No experiments should be conducted if it is believed to cause
death/disability.
6. The risks should never exceed the benefits.
7. Adequate facilities should be used to protect subjects.
8. Experiments should be conducted only by qualified scientists.
9. Subjects should be able to end their participation at any time.
10. The scientist in charge must be prepared to terminate the experiment
when injury, disability, or death is likely to occur.
The Nuremberg Code is one of several foundational documents that

influenced the principles of Good Clinical Practice, which is an attitude of
excellence in research that provides a standard design, implementation,
conduct and analysis. More than a single document, it is a compilation of many

thoughts, ideas and lesson learned throughout the history of clinical research
worldwide. Several documents further expanded upon the principles outlined in
the Nuremberg Code, including the declaration of Helsinki, the Belmont Report
and the Common Rule.
Ethical Principles of Research

In one of the private Universities in the Philippines, Ateneo de Manila
University, Code of Ethics in research was established in 2007. It sets forth
general principles of ethical conduct to guide the researchers, which is in
consonance with the school’s values and mission. Below is some of the
excerpts of the code of ethics.
I. The Principle of Integrity and Honesty
A. Competence in the conduct of research

1. Conduct all research activities in accordance with the accepted standards of
discipline.
2. Refrain from accepting or undertaking research assignments requiring
competencies not possessed by the researcher unless collaborating with or
being supervised by a more knowledgeable scholar.
3. Avoid claiming or implying a degree of research competency possessed by
the researcher in proposals, job applications or resumes.
B. Accuracy of research data and reports

1. Ensure the accuracy of all gathered data.
2. Ensure that only the correct data, information, and research results shall be
reported in journals, conferences, and reports to clients in case of
commissioned research.
3. Take reasonable steps to rectify significant errors found in the
published data, via the issuance of erratum, retraction, or correction of the
data.
4. Avoid misleading statements or declarations and vague assertions that could

be subject to misinterpretation.
5. Avoid making exaggerated claims that are not warranted by the results of the
research inquiry.
C. Acknowledgment of sources of data/information or other contribution

to the research
1. Not to plagiarize; that is, to present portions of another’s report or data as
your own, even if the other work or data source is cited occasionally.
2. Cite clearly all sources of information and data that were used which are not
the results of our own research.
3. Give proper acknowledgment and credit to resource/funding sources of
research.
4. Grant and limit authorship to those who made a significant contribution to the
research endeavor.
D. Openness and responsibility in the conduct and presentation of

research
1. Keep detailed and complete records of research undertaking.
2. Be transparent in the use and disbursement of the research resources.
3. Declare promptly any conflict of interest in the research engagement and
presentation of research results.
4. Ensure that research results are accessible to the public once the research is
concluded or as soon as is reasonable.
5. Respect the confidentiality of sources by not using or releasing data and
information revealed to the researchers as confidence.
II. The Principle of Justice and Fairness
A. Extension of due regard and collegiality towards fellow researchers

1. Render respect to peers, colleagues, students, and research participants.
2. Provide assistance to other researchers, especially if you are uniquely
qualified to do so by your expertise.
3. Respect the confidentiality and proprietary rights of your peers, colleagues,

and students whose material is reviewed for publication, presentation, or
funding by a grant.
4. Take diligent care of equipment, material resources, and results.
B. Credit of others’ contribution, resources, and materials utilized in

research
1. Grant authorship in accordance with the significance of collaborators’
contribution in the research. (Any researcher who contributes substantially to a
research project or paper needs to get credit. This holds true even if the
researcher is a student. This is usually done by naming him/her as an author
on the final paper. It is best to have this discussion before writing the research
paper. That way, everyone involved can have their say. A person should not be
included as an author because of his/her position in the institute. For example,
the head of a department should only be included as one of the authors of the
paper, if he/she did substantial work for the paper.)
2. Appropriately attribute and credit to others their accomplishments and
research results which may have utilized in your own research.
3. Acknowledge the material contribution of others in your research
undertaking.
4. Utilize, distribute, or share material resources and equipment in accordance
with the conditions set by the source or benefactor.
C. Recognition of intellectual property rights (i.e., copyright, patents)

1. Discuss among stakeholders (i.e., the author or inventor, the University, the
funding source or benefactor) the fair distribution of legal ownership of the
research and/or its products.
2. Distribute fairly the legal ownership of the research and/or its products
among the stakeholders.
III. The Principle of Safety and Beneficence
A. Responsible dissemination of scientific knowledge to the public
1. Call the attention of the public and the authorities to any hazard you observed
that threatens human and environmental safety
2. Inform the community of scientific knowledge pertaining to human practices,
attitudes, events, and other phenomena that present unequivocal and
significant risk or benefit to human welfare.
3. Avoid making misleading or exaggerated statements, or publicizing
equivocal research findings as fact.
B. Safe and responsible conduct of research

1. Observe safety practices in all your research activities.
2. Avoid deliberate violation or circumvention of regulations governing
research.
3. Refrain from causing harm, stress or pain to any animal in any experiment
that does not contribute any substantial benefit to human society that has not
been discovered already. For experiments on animals which cannot be
avoided, it is our duty to treat them humanely, minimize the pain and to
undertake curative measures thereafter.
4. Ensure that laboratory wastes are properly disposed or treated, and your
research activities do not result in environmental degradation.
5. Point out to your clients potential dangers or threats to their interest.
C. Promotion of the interests of the community

1. To the extent that is applicable or possible, conduct research that serves the
needs and promotes the best interests of the community or persons who will be
affected by the research.
2. To the extent that is applicable or possible, seek the involvement of the
community in the determination of their best interests and how to address them
in the research.
IV. The Principle of Respect for Human Rights and Dignity
A. Extension of equal treatment and respect towards research

participants and consumers
1. Respect cultural, individual, and role differences among research

participants and consumers, including those based on age, sex, gender
identity, sexual orientation, nationality, ethnicity, disability, language, or
socio-economic status.
2. Eliminate from your research practices and reports any biases that are based
on the aforementioned factors.
B. Humane and respectful treatment of human participants in research*

1. Desist from subjecting persons to any experiment or research procedure that
is known beforehand to cause harm, stress, or pain with no overwhelming
benefit.
2. Take immediate and appropriate steps to alleviate any physical or
psychological harm that may have been inflicted on a participant because of
your research procedures.
3. Use deception only when justified by the study’s significant prospective
scientific, educational, or applied value and where effective non-deceptive
alternative procedures are not feasible. In these cases, the participant should
be informed of the true nature of the study as soon as is feasible and is
permitted to withdraw his or her data.
4. Provide participants with the opportunity to obtain information about the
design, procedures, results and conclusions of the research.
C. Guarding participants’ confidentiality and autonomy rights

1. Protect your participants’ right to privacy and confidentiality.
2. Ensure that informed consent is obtained from all human participants of your
experiments or studies. That is, participants are free to decide on their
involvement only after we have provided them with information that is relevant
to that decision.
3. Maintain the autonomy of participants, especially students and subordinates,
by refraining from offering inducements that may serve to coerce them into
participating.
4. Safeguard the rights and welfare of persons and communities whose status
and vulnerabilities may impair autonomous decision-making.
Summary
Research ethics serves as a guide for the researchers in conducting

research that would limit the harm caused to human beings and their
environment. Research ethics is important because it promotes authenticity of
facts, it promotes collaboration, ensures the researcher’s public accountability,
build public support for research, and promotes variety of important moral and
social values.
Ethical guidelines of research were established especially in the health
research, which started with the Nuremberg Code with emphasis on protecting
human subjects. It was further expanded by several documents such as the
declaration of Helsinki, the Belmont Report and the Common Rule.
In the Philippines, various universities and other institutions established
Code of Ethics such as Ateneo de Manila University guiding their researchers
that includes the Principle of Integrity and Honesty, Principle of Justice and
Fairness, Principle of Safety and Beneficence, Principle of Respect for Human
Right and Dignity.
Assessment
A. Picture Analysis: Examine the picture below pertaining to the Code of Ethics.
Choose among the words that captures your interest. Write your insights about
it in the space below.
Figure 6. Research and Publication Ethics
Enrichment
1. Case Analysis. Answer the questions after reading the case study.
A. Case Study: The Tuskegee Syphilis Study (Formally known as the U.S.
Public Health Service Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis) (A true story
obtained from nwabr.org)
From 1932 to 1972, the U.S. government conducted a study that focused
on understanding the long-term effects of untreated syphilis, a sexually
transmitted disease caused by bacteria. The original intent of the study was to
show that the disease was “potentially…the same in African Americans and
Caucasians.” The government claimed it wanted to study the effects of the
disease so that it could develop programs to help treat syphilis in the local
community.
The Tuskegee Syphilis Study, named after a college for black people
called the Tuskegee Institute, took place in Macon County, Alabama. The
study involved the active recruitment of poor, black, male sharecroppers. The
researchers conducting the study told the men that they would be treated for
“bad blood,” a term that was used in the local community to describe the
symptoms of syphilitic disease—fatigue, fever, sores, and muscle aches. The
study, which was supposed to last up to nine months, continued for more than
40 years. Initially the study was approved by the Alabama state government
with the expectation that the men would be treated for the disease.
Researchers treated the men with the standard use of mercury and bismuth.
These highly toxic remedies were sometimes fatal, and were only slightly
effective since the cure rate was less than 30 percent and the treatment lasted
several months.
Of the 600 men who enrolled and who consented, 399 men had syphilis
and 201 did not have the disease. Although the men gave their consent, they
were never informed about the research itself or that some of them actually
had syphilis. In exchange for their cooperation, the men were promised free
medical care, free meals, free travel to and from the clinics, and insurance for
burials so that their families would not need to worry about the cost of their
deaths.
In 1947, penicillin became available and was widely distributed as a highly
effective treatment for syphilis; it became the standard of medical care for this
disease. Although the researchers were aware that penicillin was effective
against syphilis, they wanted to observe the consequences of the disease over
time. The infected men in the study were never made aware of nor offered
penicillin treatment.
In 1972, the study ended when a reporter wrote about the research in The
New York Times. An advisory committee was formed to look into the study and
strongly advised the researchers to stop the study. The men and their families
received $10 million in a settlement, and received healthcare for their wives
and children. More than 100 men in the study died from syphilis-related
complications, and some of the patients’ wives and children also contracted
syphilis, which is sexually transmitted and can be passed to the fetus during
pregnancy. The patients and their families did not receive a formal public
apology from the U.S. government until President Bill Clinton apologized in
1997.
1. What good came out of the research? What was the importance of the
study?
2. What things were not fair or are questionable about the research or its
process?
3. Was everyone involved fully aware of and did they agree to be part of all
aspects of the research?
4. How did social issues (e.g. poverty, education, religion) influence the case?
5. What values were in conflict in this case?
Lesson 2 – Making Ethical Decisions
Pre-discussion
Deciding if research conforms to the Code of Ethics is a difficult process. It

involves feedback from various experts. Interview two (2) persons and let them
decide if the sketch below follows the ethical standards.
Figure 7. Informed Consent Cartoons
What to expect?
1. Examine how the Ethics Review Committee in the Philippines make
ethical decisions in reviewing the research proposal.
2. Review research article if it adheres to the guidelines of Ethics Review
Committee such as responsibilities to participants (Informed Consent),
stakeholders, community and researchers.
Lesson Outline
The Ethics Review Committee in the Philippines
The National Ethics Committee was created through the DOST Special
Order 84-053 series of 1984, an initiative of the then Executive Director, Dr.
Alberto G. Romualdez, Jr. to promote ethics review in health research. Tasked
to ensure that all biomedical researches involving human participants conform
to international ethical principles and standards towards respect for the sanctity
of life and dignity of person, NEC put together the first set of national guidelines
for the conduct of biomedical research in 1985. In 2010, the NEC was
temporarily phased out (DOST Special Order # 383) only to be reactivated on 9
December 2013 because of the pressing need for a national body to review
researches which are of national importance. Its functions were clarified as
follows:
a. Ethics Review of research proposals that:
 are referred by other agencies especially government-funded
researches that are to be conducted in institutions that do not yet
have their own Research Ethics Committees (REC);
 directed to NEC by the Philippine Health Research Ethics Portal
(PHREP);
 the NEC may deem appropriate to review.
b. Assist Institutional RECs in the resolution of difficult ethical issues.
c. Provide input to the Philippine Council for Health Research and
d. Development (PCHRD) and other government agencies including
Philippine Food and Drug Administration (FDA), regarding ethical issues in
relevant studies.
e. Provide applicable information to PHREB in the formulation of policies and
guidelines in health research.
f. Network with other national ethics bodies (i.e. National Bioethics Advisory
Committee (NBAC), National Transplant Ethics Committee (NTEC),
Philippine Genomics Center - Ethical Legal Social Issues Program
(PGC-ELSI) in contributing to the development of an ethical research

environment.
As of September 8, 2020, there are 101 research ethics committee
accredited by the Philippine Health Research Ethics Board (PHREB) in the
country. In Region XII, there are two (2) institutions with level 1 accreditation
namely Cotabato Regional and Medical Center – Research Ethics Committee
and Mindanao State University General Santos City Institutional Ethics
Review Committee.
Making Ethical Decisions
The Ethics Review Committee (ERC) or also known as Institutional

Review Board (IRB) is a group made up of a diverse group of people (with
varying views, backgrounds, and areas of expertise). The purpose is to
monitor and review studies involving human participants so that the safety,
rights, and welfare of the human participants are protected. An ERC or IRB
may approve a study to proceed, stop a study from going ahead, or request
changes the board must approve before researchers may move forward.
Every institution has laid down their specific guidelines and protocol in
reviewing researches. You can check their website on the process and
requirements for the researchers to secure the ethics certificate. Some
institutions also cater to researchers whose institution has not established
their Ethics Review Committee.
For example, the University of Mindanao Ethics Review Committee
(UMERC) evaluates the faculty and graduate student researchers and grant
ethics certification prior to the conduct of their research. Researchers must
submit their research proposal and fill up the required forms like Application
for Initial Review, Research Summary Sheet, Protocol Submission Form,
Letter to Conduct and Informed Consent. They will review the documents and
the researches are required to edit their proposal as required by the board.
Once all the documents are in order, the researchers can start gathering data
and have to submit to UMERC sample of the Informed Consent obtained
during the data gathering activity and also report results to the board.
In reviewing the ethics application, UMERC assess the research in terms

of the voluntary participation, privacy and confidentiality, Informed Consent
process, recruitment, risks, benefits, biosafety, plagiarism, fabrication,
falsification, Conflict of Interest (COI), Focus Group Participant Identification,
deceit, observation, permission from organization or location, technology
issues, and authorship.
Participant’s Informed Consent

Informed consent is a key principle of research ethics. It is important that the
person who is invited to be part of the research understands both the benefits
and the risks involved. They must have all the information that could affect their
decision to participate. Each potential research participant should know the
following:
 Overview and purpose of the study.

 Study procedures.
 Potential risks and discomforts.
 Potential benefits to participants and/or to society.
 Confidentiality.
 Participation and withdrawal.
 Investigator’s contact information.
 Rights of research participant.
Make sure that in obtaining the Informed Consent, let the participants read
the document and have given a chance to ask questions and they were
satisfied with the answers. A signed copy of the Informed Consent is provided
to the participants and they were assured that they can withdraw their consent
at any time and discontinue their participation without penalty.
Summary
In doing research, it is a norm to promote the aims of research such as

knowledge, truth and avoidance of error. A researcher should promote the
standard values in collaborative work such as trust, accountability, mutual

respect, and fairness. A researcher should also be accountable to the public
especially if it is a funded research. Research should also promote important
moral and social values.
There are also ethical principles in research such as honesty, objectivity,
carefulness, openness, intellectual property, confidentiality, responsible
publication, responsible mentoring, respect for colleagues, social responsibility,
non-discrimination, competence, legality, animal care, and human subject
protection.
Assessment
A. Look for a research article and evaluate the paper based on the assessment
points in reviewing a paper in terms of its Ethical considerations. After
assessing the article, write your insights. The Assessment Point was adapted
from the University of Mindanao Ethics Review Committee (UMERC). Include
the title of the article, authors and abstract.
Assessment Point YES N/A Discussion in
the Article
1. Voluntary Participation. Willingness of
human participants to be involved in the
investigation after fully knowing the purpose
of the study
2. Privacy and Confidentiality.
Review of measures or guarantees to
protect privacy and confidentiality of
participant information
3. Informed Consent Process. Review of
application of the principle of respect for
persons, who may solicit consent, how and
when it will be done
4. Recruitment. Appropriateness of
identified recruiting parties
5. Risks. Review of level of risks and
measures to mitigate these risks (including
physical, psychological, social economic),
including plans for adverse event
management
6. Benefits. The potential to yield

generalizable knowledge about the
participants’ condition/ problem;
non-material compensation to participant
(education or other creative benefits)
7. Biosafety. Sample collection, processing
and proper disposal of infectious and or any
biological hazards
8. Plagiarism. No trace/evidence of
misrepresentation of someone else’s work
as his/her own (the researcher). Use of
Grammarly or Turnitin software and/ or
Plagiarism Detector is in place.
9. Fabrication. No trace/evidence of
intentional misrepresentation of what has
been done. No making up of data and/or
results, or purposefully putting forward
conclusions that are not accurate. No
inconsistency with the existing literature
among the information included in
manuscript.
10. Falsification. No trace of purposefully
misrepresenting the work to fit a model or
theoretical expectation. No evidence of over
claiming or exaggerations.
11. Conflict of Interest (COI). No trace of
COI, (i.e. Disclosure of COI) COI is a set of
conditions in which a professional judgment
concerning primary interest such as the
participants’ welfare or the validity of the
research tends to be influenced by a
secondary interest such as financial or
academic gains or recognitions.
12. Focus Group Participant
Identification. Addressing the fact that the
information discovered within the group
becomes common knowledge among those
in attendance; thus, there must be a
provision in the consent form reminding
participants to keep the information
discussed confidential.
13. Deceit. Evidence that the benefit of
misleading the respondents outweigh any
potential harm to them.
14. Observation. Provisions to address an
ethical issue when observing people in
public or quasi public place, e.g. to have
notices placed at the entrance of the store
indicating that the researchers will be
operating in this area at specific times.

15. Permission from Organization/
Location. Has expressed getting a written
permission from the organization in which
the research is being undertaken or the
location in which the data are being
collected. When getting written
permission, the person to talk to must have
the authority to give the permission sought
and that the activities are organized well in
advance.
16. Technology Issues. Provisions as to
the use of online panels, collection of data
online, and how one views the information
being communicated in an online
environment, are put in place and are made
understandable to the participants.
17. Authorship. Provisions on authorship
must be made clear, e.g. authorship
qualifications, i.e. authorship credit should
be based only on substantial contributions
to conception and design, or acquisition of
data, or analysis and interpretation of data;
drafting the article or revising it critically for
important intellectual content; and final
approval of the version to be published.
References
Code of Ethics. Ateneo de Manila University. Retrieved: September 18,

2020, from https://www.ateneo.edu/code-ethics-research.
Jarmusik, N. (2019). The Nuremberg Code and Its Impact on Clinical

Research. Retrieved: September 18, 2020, from https://www.imarc
research.com/ blog/bid /359393/ nuremberg-code-1947.
National Ethics Committee. Retrieved: September 19, 2020, from

http://nec.pchrd.dost.gov.ph/.
Research Ethics and Misconduct: What Researchers Need to Know. (2019).

Retrieved: July 17, 2020, from https://www.enago.com/academy/principles
-of-ethical-research/.
Shamoo, A., & Resnik, D. (2015). Responsible Conduct of Research, 3rd ed.
New York: Oxford University Press.
Shawa, L.B. (2017). Ethics in Educational Research. Retrieved:

September 18, 2020, from https://www.researchgate.net/publi
cation/312069857_Ethics_in _educational_research.
Shuttleworth, M. (2008). “Definitions of Research”. Retrieved August 14, 2020,

from Explorable.Explorable.com.
The Science and Ethics of Human in Research. Grades 7-12. Northwest

Association for Biomedical Research. Retrieved: September 21,
2020.https://nwabr.org/sites/default/files/NWABR_Humans_in_Research6.
13.pdf.
Williamson, K. & Johanson, G. (2018). Research Methods Information,

Systems and Contexts. Chandos Publishing.
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH PROBLEM
Overview
Research writing is a significant part of all academic curriculum and the

students must write a research paper during their educational period. Before
anyone can write their research paper, the researcher should choose the right
topic. You should select a topic which is interesting to you to make the entire
research process straightforward. This will help you to save your time from a
deep research. It is also important to make use of great books related to the
topic, academic publications, magazines and internet resources such as
educational websites and blogs of educational institutions and government
authorities.
 Meaning, elements and sources of research problem
 Criteria of good research problem
 Guidelines in writing statement of the problem and research title
1. Discuss the basic concepts of research problem.
2. Examine the guidelines in writing statement of the problem and
research title.
Lesson 1 – Research Problem
Pre-discussion
Examine the figure below and come up with three questions that the
picture triggers in your mind. Did you find formulating questions easy or
difficult?
Figure 8. Majestic view of Lake Holon, Mt. Parker Range, T’boli, South
Cotabato (Photo credits: R. Cudera)
What to expect?
1. Define research problem.
2. Enumerate the elements of research problem.
3. Identify the sources of research problem.
4. Explain the criteria of a good research problem.
Lesson Outline
Definition and Purpose of a Research Problem

A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to
be improved, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in
scholarly literature, in theory, or in practice that points to the need for
meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. In some social science
disciplines the research problem is typically posed in the form of a question. A
research problem does not state how to do something, offer a vague or broad
proposition, or present a value question.
Selecting the Topic

It is a daunting and difficult task to select a certain topic. It is said that the
main problem of research paper is to identify the problem. Therefore, it is best
to read extensively on the topic, until the specific problem is discerned and
finally chosen.
Here are some practical tips in selecting a topic to investigate:

a. A thorough analysis of the present situation should be done. The issues,
concerns, or even questions at hand can lead to a very feasible topic to
investigate.
b. It is said that the researcher himself/herself is the first person who benefits
from his/her research. Therefore, he/she has to look into himself/herself, his/her
own experiences as a student, son, sibling, friend, etc., without losing track of
his/her own area of professional interest.
c. Reading literature can further confirm a topic or even open up a new one.
d. The use of the internet is a powerful tool to look into a topic which is new or
rarely explored.
e. A habit of visiting a school library can be a beneficial to a researcher.
f. A discussion with classmates or even with teachers and other professionals
can yield new ideas and insights.
Sources of Research Problem

Cristobal and Cristobal (2017) mentioned that research problems may exist
in various settings such as schools, houses, restaurants, clinics, or any places
in the community. They are commonly found in areas where there is/are:
1. A feeling of discomfort like during recitation or in making projects;
2. Perceived difficulties in the management and leadership of the class
president or the adviser;
3. A gap between theory and practice;
4. A daily experience of a person that requires further inquiry especially if
improvements are desired;
5. A procedure that requires technologically advanced equipment which
needs to function properly;
6. A pattern of trend such as classmate’s failing in a lesson, increasing
tardiness in English class or misbehavior during PE class;
7. A phenomena experienced by everyone such as the COVID-19
pandemic;
8. Research agenda of the university or other agencies such as the
Department of Science and Technology that is composed of various
thematic areas such as Food and Nutrition Security (SAPAT
Program-Pagkain para sa lahat), Health (Likas Program – Likas Yamn
sa Kalusugan), Sustainable Communities/ Natural Resources
Management (SAKLAW Program – Saklolo sa Lawa), Inclusive
Nation-building (ATIN Program – Ang Tinig Natin), Climate change
adaptation and disaster risk reduction (CCA-DRR), Industry, and
emerging Technology;
9. A literature review. An article read in the library of from the internet can
be a source of an interesting issue, new terminology, or possible
conflicts. Even findings in the research can give rise to another problem.
Replication study is allowed when parts of a previous study are to be
enhanced or elements will be added like other variables, new locale,
different study participants, or even recently devised tools.
These instances can give students an idea that something is researchable:

1. Solutions are available but not yet tested and not known by the
practitioner.
2. No solutions are available to answer the gap or problem assessed.
3. Answers, solutions, or results are seemingly not tested or are factually
mandatory.
4. A phenomenon exists which requires explanation.
5. There are several possible and plausible explanations for the existence
of an undesirable condition.
Criteria in the Selection of Research Problem

Like in any undertaking, selecting the best topic among numerous
alternatives is problematic. There is a need to define the bases or criteria in
formulating a research problem to come up with the ideal one. Barrientos-Tan
(1997) identified different criteria for choosing research problem:
A. External Criteria
1. Novelty – the topic must not have been used by many researchers; the
newness of a topic and its variables will inspire a researcher or other fellow
researchers.
2. Availability of subjects – since this is practical research, it is suggested that
you think of study participants who are within your reach (i.e. your classmates,
teachers, neighbors). These people could easily be approached and their
cooperation could easily be gained.
3. Administrative support – refers to the aid or assistance that can be solicited
from the school or extended by the community.
4. Availability and adequacy of facilities and equipment – devices such as
computer, telephones, WIFI, etc. used in undertaking the research must be
considered.
5. Ethical considerations – ensure that all activities to be undertaken are
acceptable and are done in accordance with what is legal and morally right.
B. Internal Criteria
1. Experience, training and professional qualifications – constitute the
researcher’s knowledge, expertise, and experience in order for him/her to cope
with the research demands.
2. Motivation, interest, intellectual curiosity and perceptiveness of the
researcher – these are essential attitudes that bring anticipated satisfaction or
enjoyment in the completion of research tasks.
3. Time factor – considers the facts that studies must be pursued in a given time
frame.
4. Cost and returns – these factors matter in choosing a research problem.
Research is an expensive undertaking. The amount of funding necessary,
depends on the size of the sample, the place where the research is to
conducted, the research design and the treatment of data.
5. Hazards, penalties and handicap – are determined by the researcher’s
physical and intellectual capacity and moral judgment.
Summary
A research problem is the specific issue, contradiction, or gap you will

address. It gives your research a clear purpose and justification. Determining
the research problem you want to explore is a bit challenging. Some
researchers preferred exploring problems based on their interest or expertise.
Some preferred to find solutions to current problems they experienced which is
guided by the research agenda of some government organizations like DOST,
CHED, DepEd and etc. In selecting a research problem, you have to
determine the external criteria (novelty, availability of subjects, administrative
support, availability of facilities, and ethical considerations) and internal criteria
(experience, training and professional qualifications; motivation, interest,
intellectual curiosity and perceptiveness; time factor; cost and returns; and
hazards, penalties and handicap).
Assessment
Instructions: Work individually or with your partner in order to identify the topic
you will explore for your thesis.
1. Identifying the problem.

- Think of a problem in your daily life particularly in the field of your
specialization. List down the three (3) topics that you have identified below.
Topic 1: _______________________________________________________
Topic 2: _______________________________________________________
Topic 3: _______________________________________________________
2. Visit online the different government agencies such as DepEd, CHED,

DOST, Department of Agriculture, National Commission for Culture and the
Arts, Local Government Units and other government and non-government
organizations in both local and international levels. Check on their research
agenda and identify which of the research agenda your topic belongs.
Topic Agency Research Agenda
3. Read research articles, books, theses or dissertations, television, news,

magazines or do patent search. After your preliminary research, try to answer
the checklist as proposed by Acad and Acad (2016).
No. Indicators Topic 1 Topic 2 Topic 3

Yes No Yes No Yes No
1 Are you interested in the problem?
2 Does the question in your mind have
no answer yet?
3 Do the articles online do not specify
solutions?
4 Are the solutions not yet tested in
the local setting?
5 Are solutions or answers to the
problem still factually contradictory?
6 Are there occurrence or incidence
which require explanation?
7 When the problem is studied, can it
benefit a group of people?
8 Is it new and fresh?
9 Can it be completed in a defined
period of time?
10 Can you develop guide questions to
use in gathering data?
11 Can it help refine or improve existing
ideas or facts?
12 Can it help improve the system or
program?
13 Can you do it with the help of experts
you know?
14 Can you complete the study with the
budget that you have?
15 Are you really determined to finish
the study
4. Identify which of the topic has majority of the questions are answered YES.
That would be the best topic that you can explore.
Enrichment
Read five (5) recently published research articles (for the period of
2016-2020) in peer reviewed journals. Write a brief statement about the article
particularly the problem being explored or its objectives, significance, brief
findings and recommendation. See example below:
Example:
Article (APA Reference):

Cerado E.C., Falsario, M.J.S., Estrellan, J.C. & Paculanan, A.R.M. (2020).
Enhancing higher education programs through a graduate survey.
International Journal of Current Research, 12, (07), 12680-12692.
About the article:
A graduate survey is a critical tool to track the employment condition of the

alumni in any academic program. Remarkably, the employability of the
graduates serves as a significant index of program effectiveness of higher
education institutions (HEIs). This study described the demographic and
employment characteristics of the graduates of Sultan Kudarat State
University in the different baccalaureate programs among nine (9) campuses
from 2016 to 2018. A descriptive type of research was employed in the study
which involved a sample of 1,115 graduates. Results showed that the
graduates are highly employable as evidenced by a 90.67 percent
employment rate. The majority of them are on casual or temporary status and
now working as professionals within the region that are related to their college
degrees. They found their first job in at most two (2) years by responding
largely to advertisements. Salary and benefits are the main reasons for
accepting, staying on, and even in changing their first jobs. Communication
and human relation skills emerged as the top competencies learned in college
that are regarded as very useful to their job.
Lesson 2 – Statement of the Problem
Pre-discussion
In color psychology white is the color of new beginnings, of wiping the slate
clean, so to speak. It is the blank canvas waiting to be written upon. While white
isn’t stimulating to the senses, it opens the way for the creation of anything the
mind can conceive. White can represent a successful beginning and is why it is
used to represent the beginning of our process. White contains an equal
balance of all the colors of the spectrum, representing both the positive and
negative aspects of all colors (in our process). Its basic feature is equality,
implying fairness and impartiality, neutrality and independence. Like the
Problem Statement, white is totally reflective, awakening openness, growth and
creativity. You can’t hide behind it as it amplifies everything in its way.
What to expect?
1. Examine the guidelines in writing statement of the problem.
2. Compare and contrast statement of the problem and objectives.
3. Write research title.
Lesson Outline
Stating the Research Question
The reason for stating the research problem is to advise the reader what to
expect after the study is completed. It is the expected outcome because it
states the purpose of conducting the investigation. It is the description of the
aim or goal of the study and is the guide to determine if the target has been met.
It is the statement of which the research should follow to come up with the
findings. It should manifest or exhibit an issue or problematic situation which
can be better understood through the study.
Research questions are categorized into general or specific statements.
The general problem is also called main problem, while, the sub-problem is
called specific problem. It is similar with the term “general objectives and
specific objectives”. The general statement is simply a repetition of the title of
the study. While the minor questions or specific objectives are a breakdown of
the tasks to be performed.
It was reiterated by Cristobal and Cristobal (2017) the important elements

in the statement of the general problem that as follows:
1. Main task – they satisfy the question, “what to do” with the major
variables such as to associate, to relate, to assess, to measure, to
determine, etc.
2. Main or major variables
3. Participants: subjects or respondents
4. The specific setting
5. Coverage date of the conduct of the study
6. For developmental research, the intended outputs such as the
intervention program, module, and policies, among others.
Guidelines in stating the sub-problems or specific objectives
1. It must be completely researchable. Researchable questions are

questions of value, opinions, or policy raised to gather data. The basic
form of a research question involves the use of question words such as
who, what, where, when, why and how.
2. It is arranged in logical order from factual to analytical order or from
simple to complex following the flow in the research paradigm.
3. It should be specifically, correctly, and grammatically worded in the
language of research.
4. It should not duplicate or overlap the other sub-problems.
5. It is not answerable by yes or no such as “Will the students from a
broken family prove their worth in the community?
Example of the Statement of the Problem
The following is an example of a statement of the problem based on the

unpublished quantitative research study conducted by Cudera (2017) entitled
Probabilistic Measure of Microbial Quality of Vending Machine.
This study aimed to conduct a probabilistic measure of the vending

machine in the University of Mindanao, Matina Campus, Davao City in order to
make recommendations for the sanitary maintenance or improvement of the
vending machine. Specifically, it sought to answer the following questions:
1. What are the microbes present in the vending machine nozzles in the
University of Mindanao, Matina Campus, Davao City.
2. What is the frequency of use of the vending machines in the University
of Mindanao?
3. What is the average nozzle temperature in the vending machine?
4. What is the level of microbial growth in the vending machine nozzles in
the University of Mindanao, Matina Campus, Davao City when grouped by:
4.1 Location
4.2 Session of the day
5. Is there a significant difference in the level of microbial growth in vending
machines when grouped by:
5.1 Location
6. Do the frequency of use and temperature significantly related to the level
of microbial growth in vending machines?
Below is an example of the statement of the problem for qualitative

research, unpublished research by Lorio and Cudera (2019) entitled
Experiences and Coping Mechanisms of Pregnant College Student.
This study aims to describe the experiences of college students who are
enrolled in various campuses of Sultan Kudarat State University for the school
year 2018-2019. Specifically it seeks to answer the following questions:
1. What is the profile of pregnant college students in terms of:
a. Age;
b. Course;
c. Marital Status;
d. Family Status;
e. Status of pregnancy; and

f. Way of living?
2. What are the experiences of pregnant college students?
3. How do these pregnant college students cope with their situation?
4. What are the insights of the college pregnant students?
Difference between the Statement of the Problem and the Objectives
In social research, researchers generally use the term statement of the

problem while in experimental and developmental researches, they use
objectives. Other institutions use both statement of the problem and objectives.
Anyway, the difference is usually the kind of sentence. Statement of the
problem is in the form of interrogative sentence while the objective is in
declarative sentence. Some writers vary in their art of question statements,
however; both state them to give an idea that this is the desired or expected
outcome to achieve in the study.
Example:
Statement of the Problem
1. What is the socio-economic characteristics of the participants?
Objectives
1. Describe the socio-economic characteristics of the participants.
Preparing a Research Title
After identifying your research problem and your statement of the problem,
it is time to write your research title. Generally, the title should:
1. summarize the main idea of the paper;
2. be a concise statement of the main topic;
3. include the major variable/s;
4. show the relationship of the main variables of the study;
5. include the main task of the researcher about the major variable under
study; and;
6. mention the participants in a general manner and the setting.
The researcher must be reminded of the following:

1. In formulating the title, the researcher should avoid using the words that
serve no useful purposes and can mislead indexers. The words methods,
results, investigations and study appear redundant when used in the thesis
title.
2. In many cases, the general problem or even the specific question that the
researcher intends to answer, when rewritten in a statement form, can serve
as the title.
3. The title must have 10 – 15 words.
4. The title must be catchy and interesting.
5. The title must have international character – this means that the words used
are universal or can be understood in other countries.
6. The title must accurately reflect the most important results or objectives.
Example
In the research conducted by Lorio and Cudera (2019), the title is revised
twice as shown below based on the comments of the experts during the SKSU
In-house review.
First Title: College Students Pregnancy: An Action Research as Basis for

Institutional Programs
Revised Title: Experiences and Coping Mechanisms of Pregnant College

Students
Comments:
1. The revised title is shorter than the first title.
2. The revised title indicates the scope of the study as well as the
important result or objectives, experiences and coping mechanism of
pregnant students
3. No abbreviation is present in the title.

4. The two titles were written in unique styles. The first title is a double
sentence and the revised title is a continuous sentence. Both styles can
be used depending on the choice of the researcher.
Summary
The research problem should be stated in a manner that the reader will
easily understand the problem you are investigating. It is categorized into
general or specific statements. The general statement is simply a repetition of
the title of the study. While the minor questions or specific objectives are a
breakdown of the tasks to be performed.
Once research problem is identified, you can now formulate your research
title that should follow the guidelines such as not using words without meaning,
catchy and interesting, with 10-15 words only, with international character and
it reflects the important results or objectives.
Assessment
1. Compare and contrast statement of the problem and objective.
2. Many researchers find it difficult to make research titles. What can you
suggest in drafting the title?
Enrichment
1. In the previous lesson, you were able to identify your research topic. After
conducting a thorough research of your topic, this time create your own
general and specific statement of the problem.
2. This time, you can write your preliminary title (look at the keywords you have
used in your statement of the problem and form your title from these. Suggest
three (3) titles.
3. Now that you have identified your research problem, this time you have to
seek guidance from the experts. In coordination with your subject teacher,
write the name of your research adviser and two (2) panel members who can
help and guide you finalize your statement of the problem and title during the
title defense.
8. Coordinate with your subject teacher for the scheduled Title Defense once
the Title Defense Application Form was approved.
Reference
Accad, A.S. & Accad, M.F. (2016). Qualitative Methods of Research. Kampana
Publishing House, Inc.
Cerado, E.C., Falsario, M.J.S., Estrellan, J.C. & Paculanan, A.R.M. (2020).
“Enhancing higher education programs through a graduate survey”,
International Journal of Current Research, 12, (07), 12680-12692.
Cristobal, A.P. & De La Cruz-Cristobal, M.C. (2017). Practical Research for

Senior High School. C&E Publishing, Inc.
Kwan M. Effective Problem Statement. Retrieved: September 22, 2020, from

https://examples.yourdictionary.com/problem-statement-examples.html.
CHAPTER 4
INTRODUCTION
Overview
Now that you have identified your research problem and come up with a
research title, this time you have to explore the first chapter of your research
paper. This section should capture the attention of your reader, providing them
a glimpse or background of your research topic.

 Background of the Study
 Conceptual and Theoretical Framework
 Hypothesis/Assumption
 Significance of the Study
 Scope and delimitation of the Study
 Definition of Terms
*Note: Although statement of the problem is separately discussed, it is still part
of the Introduction.
1. Elaborate the basic concepts in writing the background of the study.
2. Develop the Conceptual and Theoretical Framework of the study.
3. Identify the Hypothesis or Research Assumption.
4. Determine the benefits and scope and delimitation of the study.
5. Define the terms used in the research.
6. Write Chapter 1 of the research proposal.
Lesson 1 – Background of the Study
Pre-discussion
What is your favorite movie character? Search background information of
the famous artist. What do you like most about that person? How can you
relate this activity to the topic of the lesson?
What to expect?
1. Discuss the essential elements of the background of the study.
2. Formulate the background of the study.
Lesson Outline
The Background of the Study
This section is very important in establishing the cognitive setting of the

research and it involves (a) discussing why there is a need to study the
problem, (b) clarifying the important terminologies for the reader to easily
understand what the research is about, and (c) establishing the degree of
seriousness of the problem which has prompted the researcher to look for
solutions.
The following questions will aid the researcher in formulating the

introduction:
1. What is the rationale of the research problem?

This question is answered by sharing with the beneficiaries the reasons
why the researcher has decided to look for solutions to the problem. A
narration of the researcher’s experience that has driven him/her to conduct the
study is commonly done.
Examples: Include one’s personal experience, an article read, a scene

witnessed, news heard, a theory that needs to be clarified, etc. The research
proponent should describe the existing and prevailing problem situation based
on his/her experience. The scope may be local, national or international.
2. What is the setting of the research problem?

The setting forms part of the delimitation of the problem, as it defines the
geographic boundaries of the study and implies certain demographic
characteristics. This describes to the reader the place where the research is
conducted since the setting has a significant bearing on the variables being
studied.
In describing the setting focus on the peculiarity or uniqueness of the
setting to make the reader more interested in reading the paper.
Example: If the setting is a school, discuss its vision-mission, special

clientele, unique mode of student transport, etc.
3. What is the basic literature foundation of the study?

This is different from the review of related theories, conceptual literature,
and research literature. This part defines or clarifies the terms or variables
used in the study. The terms and variables must be clear to the researcher so
that he/she can make his/her reader understand them as well. This
backgrounder assists the researcher in determining the boundaries of the
study.
4. How serious is the chosen research problem?

Why there is a need to look for solutions to the problem? In this aspect, the
researcher must see the intensity and magnitude of the problem. When the
gravity of the problem has already been determined, the researcher may take
action and work on the problem. He/She also looks for statistical or quantitative
evidence to assess the weight of the problem.
5. What is the general objective of the research problem?

This is derived from the general statement of the problem and should be
the basis of the enumerated statements of specific problems.
6. What is overall purpose of the research problem?

It must be stressed that the researcher should totally aware of the purpose
of the research problem. He/She must know how the research findings will
help his/her classmates or fellow students.
Example 1: Cultural and Ecological Significance of Odonata (Insecta) to the

T’boli of Lake Sebu, Mindanao Philippines (Cudera et al., 2020).
At present, 300 million indigenous peoples occupy one-fourth of the

Earth’s surface, wherein 80% of their territories belong to the global priority
area (Sobrevila 2017). Indigenous people’s lives are profoundly intertwined
with nature as it serves as their primary source of life support. The market
value of indigenous traditional knowledge is estimated to cost $43 billion in
1985 (Principe 1989). Drug companies and food industries have utilized and
marketed products traditionally used by the indigenous peoples such as the
rosy periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus) to cure diabetes and Stevia rebaudiana
to sweeten drinks, coffee, and tea (Posey and Dutfeld 1996).
However, the documentation of indigenous knowledge and the uses of
insects are still under-studied despite being promoted by the Food and
Agricultural Organization (van Huis et al. 2013). Although information on edible
insects are available in some Asia Pacific countries, the data remain
fragmented (Yen 2015). Published data in Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, and
Taiwan are limited (Johnson 2010), and knowledge gaps still exist in Australia,
Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, and Vietnam.
In many cultures, the importance of insects is portrayed in the different
aspects of people’s lives. Indigenous peoples in Australia use insects as baits,
medicines, poisons, adornments, toys, indicators of meteorological and other
ecological phenomena, and in technology (Turpin et al. 2013). In some regions
of Australia, insects are featured in their mythology, songs, ceremonies, and
names of places and persons. As such, Hercus (1989, 1992) remarks that the
collection and preparation of insect species were shrouded by mystery and
prohibitions.
Evidently, insects are an important source of food in many cultures.
Entomophagy or the practice of eating insect as food is the most familiar use of
insects in Latin America, Africa, and Asia (Raheem et al. 2018). Globally, the
most commonly eaten insects belong to the orders of Coleoptera (beetles,
often the larvae) (31%), followed by the Lepidoptera (caterpillars) (18%),
Hymenoptera (larval and pupal stages of wasps, bees, and ants) (14%),
Orthoptera (adult crickets, grasshoppers, and locusts) (13%), Hemiptera (true
bugs) (10%), Isoptera (termites) (3%), Odonata (dragonflies) (3%), Diptera
(flies) (2%), and others (5%) (van Huis et al. 2013). As shown in the data,
Odonata, the focus of this research, is the least consumed. The shift to
Westernized diet and urbanization resulted to the decline in insect
consumption among countries, such as the Philippines, with a long-standing
history of entomophagy (van Huis 2013).
The Order Odonata of Class Insecta is divided into two suborders namely
Zygoptera (damselflies) and Anisoptera (true dragonflies). This group spends
its time both in water and on land during its life cycle making it an important link
between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems (Kalkman et al. 2008). Its
sensitivity to environmental conditions makes Odonata an excellent indicator

of wetland health and diversity (Klym and Quinn 2003). Furthermore, Odonata
provides diverse and wide-ranging ecosystem services and benefits. It plays a
role in the decomposition and nutrient cycling (Macadam and Stockan 2015). It
also serves as both prey and predator, thus maintaining the balance of trophic
levels in the food chain (Das et al. 2012). This is elaborated in the study of
Jacob et al. (2017) suggesting that the Odonata larvae might control the
population of other insects such as mosquitoes. Aside from its ecological
importance, the value of Odonata is expressed through its cultural functions. It
is said to have inspired artistic expression through paintings and poetry and
depicted good omens or protection against death in some societies (Simaika
and Samways 2008; May 2019).
In the Philippines, the Odonata studies started almost two (2) centuries
ago with the description of Trithemis aurora. The expeditions of Dr. Carl
Gottfried Semper (1859-1865) and Dr. Med. G. Boettcher (1913-1918)
including the local collection in the University of the Philippines (1920-1930s)
led to the rich taxonomical knowledge on the Philippine dragonfly fauna
(Hämäläinen and Müller 1997). Filipino entomologists including Gapud and
Recuenco (1993), Plateros (Unpublished data 1972), and Barrion (1979) have
made significant contributions to Odonatology. Recently, in Mindanao, works
on Odonata focus on the dragonfly’s morphological variation (Demayo et al.
2011; Tabugo et al. 2011), while biodiversity studies on Odonata was provided
by Villanueva (Villanueva and Mohagan 2010; Villanueva and Cahilog 2012a,
b; Jomoc et al. 2013; Mapi-ot et al. 2013; Quisil et al. 2013; Villanueva et al.
2013; Caparoso et al. 2016). Despite the aforementioned scientific
explorations, however, available data on the utilization of Odonata by the
indigenous people in Mindanao are still limited; thereby prompting the
researchers to conduct this study.
This study aims to document the indigenous knowledge, systems, and
practices on Odonata of the T'boli, one of the ethnolinguistic groups in Lake
Sebu, South Cotabato. The study examines the people’s utilization of Odonata
as food and medicine and the insects’ symbolic significance to T'boli culture
and literature. In doing so, this study seeks to contribute to the existing
literature on Odonata in general and fill the gaps in the documentation of the
rich culture of T'boli in particular.
In the published article of Cudera et al. (2020), the first and second
paragraph focused on the rationale of the research problem. The setting of the
research problem is mentioned in the sixth paragraph. The basic literature
foundation of the study and the seriousness of the chosen research are found
in the first to sixth paragraph. While the general objectives of the research
problem and the overall purpose of the research problem is found in the
seventh paragraph.
Summary
The introduction establishes the cognitive setting of the research and

involves discussing the need to study the problem, clarifying important
terminologies and establishing the degree of seriousness of the problem. The
following should be determined to come up with an effective introduction: the
rationale of the problem, the setting of the problem, the basic literature
foundation of the study, the seriousness of the chosen problem, the general
objective of the problem and the overall purpose of the problem.
Assessment
Read the examples of the background of the study of some of the
researchers of Sultan Kudarat State University. Identify the essential elements
of the background of the study.
Research article 1.
Enhancing Lake Resources in Mindanao, Philippines to Support Green

AgroIndustry (Ortuoste, 2017).
Green technology evokes images of pristine waters, clean air, productive

soils, and lush vegetation. Green technology is a dynamic process that aims to
achieve all these, by generating technologies that are least impactful and most
regenerative to natural resources, organisms and environment in general. It
encompasses sustainability, source reduction, innovation, and viability
(Burgos, 2013).
Lake Buluan is the third largest lake in Mindanao, with a surface area of
6,500 ha. It lies southeast of Buluan town and east of Municipality of Tacurong,
Sultan Kudarat within the territorial jurisdiction of Buluan, Maguindanao and
Lutayan, Sultan Kudarat. A large portion of the lake (nearly 90%) lies in Buluan
while the rest lies in Lutayan and is bordered by thirteen lakeshore barangays.
Lake Buluan is a shallow, eutrophic lake (depth of 3-6meters) characterized
by high primary productivity which favor the growth of abundant littoral
vegetation and dense plankton population. Although Baluyot (1982) reported
an estimated first yield of 1,600 kg/ha, the fish catch has been declining due to
heavy siltation and sedimentation caused by denudation of the watershed area.
The shallowing of the lake is aggravated by the over growth and dominance
of littoral vegetation such as Eichornia crassipes (water hyacinth), Ipomea
reptans, Ipomea acquatica (swamp cabbage) Nymphaea nouchalii (water lily)
and Pistia striates.
Among its aquatic vegetation, water hyacinth is the most abundantly
thriving and seriously affecting on the lake’s productivity. When not controlled,
water hyacinth will cover large areas for fishing, block navigations, smother
aquatic life by deoxygenating the water, and reduces nutrients and sunlight
penetration for algal production. They also serve as habitats for vectors of
diseases.
The removal of water hyacinth by chemical and biological control pose risks
to the environment and have met limited success. Currently, the most effective
control method remains the control of excessive nutrients and prevention of the
spread of this species. A water hyacinth infestation is seldom totally eradicated
but it can be continually manage by finding ways to benefit from this resource.
In some areas, uses have been found for this invasive species for cattle’s
food and biogas production. Waste water treatment and recently, for handicraft
production. Restoring the productivity of Lake Buluan must begin in dealing
with the control and judicious utilization of its aquatic vegetation.
Enrichment
To help you formulate an effective Introduction of your proposed study,
exhaustively answer the following items with proper referencing.
1. State the rationale of your research problem. Start from the international
context down to the local or personal circumstance.
2. Describe the setting where your study is to be conducted.
3. Indicate the terms or concepts that need to be defined, clarified or described

to your reader.
4. Search for related literature that you can use to define the main concepts of
your study. Collect at least three (3) references per variable. Write down the
definitions.
5. Determine the seriousness of your research problem. Show the statistical

evidence of its gravity. Give the complete details of the references.
6. State the general objectives of the research study.
7. After the research has been conducted or the problem has been solved,
identify the people or entities that will benefit from the research and the direct
benefits they will get from it
Lesson 2 – The Conceptual / Theoretical Framework
Pre-discussion
Sir Isaac Newton is a son of a farming family and is hailed as one of

the most influential scientists in history. He is associated with the quotation “If I
have seen further, it is by standing upon the shoulder of giants.” This quote is
from a letter written to fellow scientist, Robert Hooke in February 1675. The
phrase is understood to mean that if Newton had been able to discover more
about the universe than others, then it was because he was working in the light
of discoveries made by fellow scientists, either in his own time or earlier. How
is the quotation related with the Theoretical Framework of the study?
Figure 9. Famous quote of Isaac Newton.
What to expect?
1. Identify the research variables.
2. Formulate the conceptual / theoretical framework of the study.
3. Construct a diagram representing the conceptual / theoretical
framework of the study.
Lesson Outline
Research Variables
After crafting the statement of the problem, you can also start identifying
your research variables. A variable is any factor or property that a researcher
measures, controls, and/or manipulates. It is also the changing quantity or
measure of any factor, trait or condition that can exist in differing amounts or
types. It is also a logical set of attributes, characteristics, numbers, or
quantities that can be measured or counted.
Groups of Variables
1. Categorical variables – are variables with values that describe a quality
or characteristic of a data unit like “what type” or “which category”.
a. Ordinal variables – variables are logically ordered or ranked.
Example: academic grades such as A, B, C; clothing size such as X,
L, M, S; and measures of attitudes like strongly agree, agree,
disagree or strongly disagree.
b. Nominal variables – variables cannot be organized in a logical
sequence.
Example: Business types, eye colors, kind of religion, and types of
learners.
c. Dichotomous variables – variables representing only two categories.
Example: Gender (male and female), Answer (yes or no),
employment status (employed, unemployed)
d. Polychotomous variables - variables with many categories.
Example: Educational attainment (elementary, high school, college,
graduate and postgraduate), level of performance (excellent, vergy
good, good, satisfactory, or poor).
2. Numeric variables – variables with values that describe a measurable

numerical quantity and answer “how many” or “how much”.
a. Continuous variables – or also known as internal variables that
assume any value between a certain set of real numbers
Example: time, age, temperature, height and weight

b. Discrete variables – variables that assume any whole value within
the limits of the given variables.
Example: number of registered cars, number of children in the
family.
3. Experimental variables
a. Independent variables – variables that are manipulated in the
experiment
b. Dependent variables – variables that are affected by the
manipulation of the independent variables.
c. Extraneous variables – mediating or intervening variables. These
variables are already existing during the conduct of an experiment
and could influence the result of the study
Example: Title of Research: An Experiment on the Methods of
Teaching and Language Achievement among Elementary Pupils
Independent variable: Method of teaching
Dependent variable: Language achievement
Extraneous variable: Ventilation facilities, physical ambiance
4. Non-experimental variables
a. Predictor variables – these variables change the other variable/s in a
non-experimental study.
b. Criterion variables – these variables are usually influenced by the
predictor variables.
Examples:
Title of Research: Competencies of Teachers and Students’
Behavior in Selected Private Schools
Predictor variable: Competencies of teachers
Criterion variable: Student’s behavior
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
What is a Framework?
A framework is similar to a skeleton. It is a basic structure or frame of
reference which is designed to support or enclosed something. As a skeleton
gives shape, form, and strength to the body so it can stand erect, so do the
different concepts and theories. These concepts and theories serve as the
building blocks (or the “skeleton”) for the foundation of the study.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework which may be formulated from an existing
theory/ies serves as the foundation of the study. In such case, the paradigm
that is originally used by the theorist can be fully adopted in the present study. It
can also be adapted since that researcher can add or subtract variables from
the original framework, provided the whole theory is utilized.
The word “theory” is derived from the Greek word, theoria which means
“vision.” a theory is a conceptual idea that is used to describe, explain, predict,
or understand a certain phenomenon. It defines non-observable constructs that
are inferred from observable facts and events that are among variable for
purposes of explaining a current state or predicting future events. A theory,
therefore, is primarily concerned with determining cause-effect relationship.
Thus, a good theory expands vision and guides thinking, professional practice,
and research.
In the formulation of theoretical framework, relevant theories must be
provided. The researcher cites and discusses related theories that serves as
the foundation of the variables and their relationship to make the study more
scientific and understandable especially to the readers. The researcher
mention theories, including the name of the authors, titles of their theories,
theoretical principle, and their explanations. When this requirement has been
satisfied the concluding portion is the relationship of the used, established
theory to the present study.
Conceptual Framework
The explanation of the scope and range of a concept or construct can be

done even without a theory or, in some cases, with a combination of two or
more theories which lead to a researcher’s formulated framework. This is called
a conceptual framework. It is largely based on theories or parts of theory
combined with other parts of another theory, or an intellectual synthesis of the
various readings of the researcher. It guides the researcher by giving the clear
direction to the research.
Paradigm of the Study

The result of the conceptual or theoretical framework is a diagrammatic
presentation of the study called paradigm.
Merriam-Webster (2006) defines paradigm as a pattern, model, or set of
forms which contains particular elements. It is researcher’s scientific
imagination expressed graphically by drawings or sketches. In a scientific work,
the symbols must be specific in meaning. The usual figures used are regular
shapes (rectangles, circles, and squares), lines, and arrows. Irregular shapes
are sometimes utilized and there must be an acceptable rationale for them. The
paradigm is something like a visual representation of the entire thesis. It is
considered as the heart of the research paper. A title is needed to encapsulate
the whole paradigm.
The common paradigms or models of the study used are as follows:
1. IPO Model (input-process-output).

This model is largely used when the research attempts to isolate the factor
or major variable that causes the problem, subject, or phenomenon under
investigation. This model is used when the statements are all factor-isolating
questions.
Example: Sample of IPO Model Entrepreneurs’ Roles Toward Improved Work

Performance
2. IV-DV model (independent variable-dependent variable model). This

model is used in experiment-based studies. The questions raised are higher
order and classified as situation relating.
Example: Sample IV-DV Model for the Effects of Computer-assisted Instruction

and Demonstration Method on the Level of Performance of Grade 12 Students
3. PC model (predictor-criterion model). This model is used when relating

and assessing the influence between two or more variables. Studies that focus
on relationship, associated differences, and impacts will benefit from this
model.
Example: Sample PC Model for the Relationship of the Teaching Competence

of Senior High School Teachers to The Level of Performance of ABM Students
4. -P model. This model is used in research studies that propose a program or

any intervention measure. It fits situation producing level of questioning.
Example 1. Sample -P Model of the Proposed Program for Improved Quality

Service of Entrepreneurs
Example 2. Sample -P Model for Teaching Competence of Instructor and the

Level of Performance of Students Towards the Formulation of The Faculty
Development Program
Summary
Once the researcher has established the statement of the problem,

research variables should be identified. A variable is any factor or property that
a researcher measures, controls, and/or manipulates in a research study. The
different classifications of research variables are as follows: nominal can be
continuous or discrete), categorical (can be ordinal or discrete and
dichotomous or polychotomous), experimental (can be independent,
dependent or extraneous), non-experimental (can be predictor or criterion) and
variables according to the number being studied (can be univariate, bivariate
or polyvariate). These variables are important in crafting the conceptual and
theoretical framework of the study. There are varied paradigms that can be
used such as the IPO Model (input-process-output), IV-DV model
(independent variable – dependent variable model), PC model
(predictor-criterion model), and the -P model.
Assessment
A. Identify what type of variable the following examples below

1. Emotional Intelligence
2. Honor rolls
3. Width
4. Spiritual practices
5. Sex
6. Level of addiction
7. Absences
8. Values
9. Death rate
10. Degree of agreement
B. Read the title and identify what type of experimental variable is being
referred to.
Research Title Independent Dependent

Variable Variable
Reciprocal Peer Tutoring its Effect
on Mathematics Achievement and
Attitude of Engineering Science
Education Program Students
Effect of Types of Soil and Fertilizer
on the Growth of Papaya Tree
C. Read the title and identify what type of non-experimental variable is being
referred to.
Research Title Independent Dependent
Variable Variable
Profile of Parents and Family
Bonding: Their Influence on Study
Habits and Achievement Level
Types of Business and Managerial
Skill Towards Profitability Level of
Canteens
Enrichment
1. Work with your proposed study and identify different theory related with your
study. List down the three theories including the theorists, theory statements
and explanations. Make sure to include the references.
2. Write the proposed paradigm of the study with its explanation.
Lesson 3 – The Significance and the Scope and Delimitation of the Study
Pre-discussion
Why we do research? Most us are always informed that research could

provide us new knowledge and new discovery. Two (2) of our faculty
researchers in SKSU Kalamansig Campus namely Dr. Julie E. Albano and Dr.
Rande Dechavez together with other researchers in the country and abroad
have made a significant contribution by discovering a giant shipworm in the
Philippines. The shipworm is a not actually a worm at all, but a bivalve - like
mussels and clams - and has its own brittle, tusk-like shell. The discovery of
the giant shipworm, a species never before studied, marked the first time
scientists had live specimens in hand, according to an article published this
week in American journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
What to expect?
1. Write the hypothesis or assumption of the study.
2. Cite the potential benefits of the study.
3. Write the scope and delimitation of the study.
4. Define the important terms used in the study.
Lesson Outline
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a tentative prediction about the relationship between two or
more variables in a population under study as mentioned by Polit (2007). It
translates the research question into a prediction of expected outcomes. It is
commonly used in an experiment-type research, formulated particularly before
the conduct of an experiment-quantitative research. It is regarded as an
intelligent guess that occurs with at least two (2) variables: one is independent
and the other is dependent. It is only after the experimentation that the
researcher can finally assess if his/her guess is correct or not. When the result
of the experiment is the same as the hypothesis, then the hypothesis is
accepted. When the result of the study is the exact opposite of the hypothesis,
then the hypothesis is rejected.
The most common types of hypothesis is Null hypothesis. It is a hypothesis

formulated for the purpose of statistical analysis and is always expressed as a
negative statement. It is subjected to testing in which the decision is either to
accept or reject it.
Example: A hypothesis formulated in the study entitled Probabilistic Measure of

Microbial Quality of Vending Machine.
H01: There is no significant difference in the level of microbial growth in
vending machines when grouped by:
1.1 Location
H02: The predicting variables cannot significantly influence the level of
microbial growth in vending machines.
Propositions or Assumptions
Propositions or assumptions are used in qualitative research instead of
hypothesis. In other institutions, propositions are part of the introduction and
others consider these in the review of related literature since these are
generated after reviewing other related literature.
Assumption is also similar to hypothesis, it means the tentative answer,
wise guess or predictions of previously unknown data similar to hypotheses
but assumptions do not need statistical test to prove the relationship of the
cause and effect but is aimed to explain and strengthen the description. It does
not prove casuality or association and may necessarily be the basis for the
generalization or making conclusion.
Example:
Thematic assumption – Self-acceptance brings about openness to poverty and

optimism to surpass trials together with the family.
Significance of the Study

Since research is a time-consuming but worthwhile undertaking, its
significance must be clarified- i.e., how important is the problem being
investigated? It is a vital question that needs an answer or a solution? The
researcher should also consider these questions: Why should my study be
published? What significant scientific contribution is my study making to my
field of research? Importantly, the significance of the study should also be

written with a non-expert in mind.
When we speak of the significance of the study, we are identifying the
beneficiaries and the benefits it will give when the problem is solved. The
beneficiaries include the individuals like students, pupils, teachers, doctors,
principal, parents, and others; the government; non-governmental
organization; and even a private institution. It is also important to note that the
benefits these entities will receive from the research vary personal benefits to
multi-faceted benefits.
The sequence of the beneficiaries of the research starts from the most
benefited to the least benefited. The benefits must be specific and arranged
according to the degree of significance.
Tips in Writing the Significance of the Study

Here are the tips that may be helpful when writing the significance of the study.
These tips will tell you the basic components expected to be seen in the
significance of the study content.
1. Refer to the Problem Statement
In writing the significance of the study, always refer to the statement of the
problem. This way, you can clearly define the contribution of your study. To
simplify, your research should answer this question, “What are the benefits or
advantages of the study based on the statement of the problem?”
If you ask the question “How has the new packaging affected the sales of the
product?” then the contribution of your research would probably a packaging
style or technology that can help the store increase its sales. Your study should
demonstrate that the product’s packaging really influences the buyer’s
perception and affects their purchase decision.
2. Write it from General to Particular
Determine the specific contribution of your thesis study to society as well

as to the individual. Write it deductively, starting from general to specific. Start
your significance of the study broadly then narrowing it out to a specific group
or person. This is done by looking into the general contribution of your study,
such as its importance to society as a whole, then move towards its
contribution to individuals as yourself as a researcher.
Example:
Title: Number of Clinical Internship Hours: A Determinant of Student’s
Effectiveness and Skill Acquisition in the Hospital Area for Velez
College Students

The results of the study will be of great benefit to the following:
College of Nursing Dean. Data given will provide the dean with information
on how the number of duty hours in a week affects the student’s academic and
RLE performance. The results will enable the dean to improve the scheduling
of RLE and different academic subjects. Data gathered will help the dean
initiate collaboration among faculty and chairpersons to help plan the
advancement of nursing education in relation to the new curriculum.
Clinical Instructors. The results of the study will help the clinical
instructors evaluate the quality of care rendered by the nursing students,
academic performance, attitude and skills acquired in relation to the number of
hours given in a week. Results would also develop the clinical instructor’s
teaching-learning and evaluating strategies in enhancing knowledge, skills and
attitude to the students in the time frame given.
Students. This study will provide information regarding which time

arrangement is effective: 8-hr of clinical internship from the 5-hr clinical
internship with additional academic classes. This study will evaluate the
academic performance, the student nurse’s attitude and approach, the skills
learned in the clinical area and the quality of care rendered in the given time
frame. Data gathered will also help the students improve both academic and
clinical performance.
The Scope and Delimitation of the Study

The scope is the coverage of the study while delimitation pertains to the
boundaries of the study. You should set what should be the boundary or limit of
the issues or concerns, who are your target subjects or participants
(respondents), period or time covered, the place to focus and what data you are
going to use, quantitative, qualitative or combination of both.
In formulating the “scope and delimitation,” it is essential that a researcher
has already defined the major variables of the study which are contained in the
title of the research and in the general statement of the problem.
Setting clear the scope and delimitation aids the reader on the expected
output. Those which are not covered in the study shall remind the reader of
some constraints beyond the control of the researcher. Setting boundaries
cautions the reader not to expect beyond the coverage of the study.
Example:
Anti-poverty programs of Department of Social Welfare and Development and
the beneficiaries’ lives and challenges
This study deals with the anti-poverty programs of Department of Social

Welfare and Development and the beneficiaries’ lives and challenges.
Specifically it seeks to answer the following questions:

1. What are the anti-poverty programs of the Department of Social Welfare
and Development?
2. What are the changes in the lives of the beneficiaries after the program
implementation?
3. What are the challenges encountered during the implementation?
So based on the given statement of the problem, your scope and delimitation
looks like this….
This study covers the anti-poverty programs of Department of Social
Welfare and Development and how the lives of the beneficiaries are changed
after the implementation including the challenges encountered.
This will be conducted in selected communities in the municipalities of Sto.

Nino and Banga in the province of South Cotabato from December 25, 2015 to
February 14, 2016. Only those beneficiaries who have completed the program
are included in the target place if they are coming from other municipalities
benefiting from the same program prior to their transfer.
Definition of Terms
The most significant part which can guide the researcher in undertaking
the study is the concrete definition of term. In publishing the research,
definition of terms is not necessary. However, this is very important to clearly
define all your variables. These variables are the terms used in the study which
can create confusion because they have two or more meanings.
The defined terms help establish rule and procedure for the conduct of the
study. There are two types of definitions, the conceptual and the operational
definition of terms. Conceptual definition of terms is the process where the
definition is taken from the dictionary. Operational definition of terms is the use
of measurable characteristics set by the research to clearly illustrate the
meaning of the terms in the study. In research operational definition of terms is
used.
Example
1. Conceptual definition of the term briquette
Briquette – a compacted often brick-shaped mass of usually fine material
(Merriam-Webster Dictionary)
2. Operational definition of the term briquette

Briquette - flammable and brick-like in structure and are made from agricultural
waste that are commonly found and generated within the locality of Tacurong
City, Sultan Kudarat.
Here are some tips in organizing your operational definition of terms.

1. Examine your statement of the problem. Take all the terms used in the study
except the articles, from the general statement up to the specific problem.
2. Alphabetize and define them according to their function in your study.

3. In defining the terms, use introductory terms such as: “in this study”, “it
refers to” or simply use the hyphen (-).
4. Only the terms used in the title, in the statement of the problems and in the
methodology need to be defined.
Summary
In writing the Introduction, it is important to consider the research

hypothesis or assumption, significance of the study, scope and delimitation as
well as the definition of terms.
The significance of the study identifies the beneficiaries and the expected
benefits that will result from the study. While the scope and delimitation of the
study pertains to the boundaries of the study. And lastly, the researcher should
define operationally the terms commonly mentioned in the title, statement of
the problem or methodologies serving as a guide for both the researchers and
the readers.
Assessment
Task: Continue working with your proposed study and write the following:
1. Write a null hypothesis if you are proposing a quantitative research or
proposition if your study is a qualitative research. (Based it to your Statement
of the Problem).
2. Review and answer the checklist in preparing the significance of the study. If
“Yes” is the majority answer, then arrange them in a paragraph from and the
composition becomes significance of the study. After your evaluation, state the
significance of the study (state the beneficiaries and in what way they will
benefit from the research).
No Indicators of the Significance of the Study Yes No Later

1 Is it timely or current?
2 Can it contribute to the filling up of knowledge gaps?
3 Is it broad enough to touch the interest of varied
groups or social, economic and health issues such as
unemployment, income misdistribution, aggression,
etc.?
4 Can it help build, validate or refine prevailing theories?
5 Does it affect particular sectors of the community like
mothers, etc.?
6 Can it help solve the pressing issues of certain areas?
7 Can it be of help in refining concepts, improving
research instrumentation and methodologies?
8 Can it relate to other programs like poverty reduction
or climate change and other concerns?
9 Is it a concern or problem of top government officials,
medical doctors or other professionals?
10 Does it directly or indirectly contribute in a short or long
period of time to the welfare of people in the society as
a whole?
3. Write the scope and delimitation of the study.
4. Define operationally the terms used in the study. (Only those terms used in
the title and in the specific problem statements)
Enrichment
You are now expected to have an initial draft of Chapter 1 of your proposed
research. Encode your output in A4 bond paper, Font style and size: Arial 12,
Margin: Left: 1.5 in, Top: 1 in, Right: 1 in and Bottom: 1 in.
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Conceptual and Theoretical Framework
Statement of the Problem
Hypothesis / Assumption
Scope and Limitation of the Study
Definition of Terms
Reference

Cudera, R.B., Razon, B.C. & Millondaga KJI. (2020). Cultural and ecological
significance of Odonata (Insecta) to the T'boli of Lake Sebu, Mindanao,
Philippines. Biodiversitas, 21: 2536-2554.
Cueva, D. (2020). Significance of the Study Samples Writing Tips. Retrieved.

September 22, 2020, from https://topnotcher.ph/writing-the-best-
significance-of-the-study.
Ortuoste, J.D. (2017). Enhancing Lake Resources in Mindanao, Philippines to

Support Green AgroIndustry. Proceedings: The 3rd International
Conference on Green Agro-Industry (ICGAI). ISBN: 978-602-6248-26-8
Scientists find giant shipworm in the Philippines. Retrieved: September 22,

2020, from https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/scientists-find-giant-
shipworm-in-philippines.
Sir Isaac Newton. Retrieved: September 22, 2020, from https://www.bbc.co.uk/

worldservice/learningenglish/movingwords/shortlist/newton.shtml.
CHAPTER 5
THE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Overview
This chapter will guide you in reviewing related literature. Some authors
say that Review of Related Literature (RRL) is not just in one chapter, the
entire research is actually writing the RRL because we can attribute or cite
literature or references anywhere in our research. Literature can be creatively
cited even at the start as early as in introduction. It also bolster
recommendations at the end of the research. By citing literature, makes the
entire research valid and reliable as various literature now provide support to
the claims propounded and advanced by the research.

 The Review Process
 Standard Citation and Referencing Styles
 Writing Review of Related Literature
1. Explain the importance of the Review of Related Literature.
2. Familiarize the standard citation and referencing styles.
3. Discuss the guidelines in writing Review of Related Literature.
Lesson 1 - The Review Process
Pre-discussion
You have attended student orientation addressing the new normal situation
of the school because of the COVID 19 pandemic. The University President
had the chance to talk about the impact of the virus and the strategies
conducted to combat the disease. You are interested to focus on the impact of
COVID 19 to the learners as your research. The speech of the University
President is valid and reliable source of information. Can you consider it as a
valid literature for your research? Remember, an information that is not printed
can hardly be a literature. However, it is still useful by making it part of the
discussion in the main text with the proper attribution. Another is to wait when it
comes out printed off the press.
What to expect?
1. Explain the purpose of reviewing literature.
2. Identify the different processes of reviewing literature.
3. Select relevant literature.
4. Organize the selected literature.
Lesson Outline
Overview of the Literature Review

A literature review is a process of compiling, classifying, and evaluating
what other researchers have written on a certain topic. It can be a partial
component of a research undertaking but also it can stand alone as a
self-contained review of writings on a subject.
Purposes of Reviewing a Literature:

1. It builds the confidence of the researcher as he/she fully understands the
variables being studied.
2. It shows similar studies conducted which, in turn, become the springboard of
discussions as the researcher may agree or disagree with the current results.
3. Fellow researchers will see the objectivity of the study as they read a review
of literature and related sources similar in research or conceptual framework.
4. Reviewing a body of literature on the topics make the research study
empirical.
Once a topic is chosen, literature search follows. Any literature (theories,

conceptual framework, related studies) that carries topics, variables, and terms
that are related to the chosen study can be selected. After thorough reading,
the selection of literature to use is finalized.
Key points to consider in the review of related literature:
a. The related review is not a summary of literature read, but rather than an
exposition of background knowledge for further search.
b. The selected literature can be placed in various section of the research
study. Some can be placed in the introduction, while others can be included in
the literature review section or discuss of results.
c. An intelligence synthesis of the literature must be presented in the research
paper.
d. An effective and practical management of collected literature will facilitate
both the analysis and synthesis of the literature.
Structure of Literature Review
A researcher should demonstrate his/her intellectual ability to recognize

relevant information and synthesize or evaluate it according to the tentative
research questions. Some guide questions that can help in evaluating literature
and relates studies are as follows:
a. What are the main ideas and contribution that form the core of the literature?
b. Which papers are important and which ones are not?
c. Have there been controversies in the cited studies and how have they been
resolved?
d. What are the common assumptions made in the articles/books being
reviewed?
e. What are the current deficiencies/mistakes and unresolved issues?
f. Are there important connections to other topics?
g. Has the emphasis been more empirical or theoretical? Why it is so?
Conducting a Review of Literature
Conducting the review of literature involves several steps that as follows:

a. Looking for relevant materials
b. Skimming the literature

c. Reviewing the article
d. Literature organizing and stock-taking
A. Looking for relevant materials. Materials relevant to the research are

those that carry information about the topic or variables of the study. These
materials can be found in the library, on the internet, or even at home.
Systematic skimming can be conducted to identify related literature or studies.
Online literature sources can be used in finding references. This includes

the following:
a. Ulrichsweb – a directory of 300,000 journals
b. Google scholar
c. Web of Science
d. Scopus
e. Researchgate
f. PubMed
g. Directory of Open-Access Journals (DOAJ) (https://doaj.org/)
h. Campbell collaboration – free access to systematic reviews in the areas
of education, criminal justice and social welfare
i. Registry of Open Access Resources
j. WorldCat search facility for free papers
k. UN & FAO databases
l. WorldBank and ADB databases
m. Patent search
Once connected online, use search techniques for easy access of the
online literature using the list of the keywords related to your research question,
variables or synonyms and related terms. These techniques are as follows:
a. Phrase searching – allows you to use a string of words instead of a single
one. Many databases allow you to search for an exact phrase such as Climate
Change or Genetically Modified Organism. Results found will highlight the
phrase exactly as types. However, some databases will require the use of
inverted Commas while others will require the use of brackets. Check the HELP
section of each database to find the truncation character to use.
b. Wildcards – help you search for internal variations of spelling within your
search term and is useful in dealing American spelling variations. Example in
Web of Science is wom?m which will retrieve articles that mention women and
woman.
c. Proximity operators – way of narrowing your search using different

operators. It allows you to search for documents where you search terms must
be either in the same sentence or paragraph.
The operator SAME will only locate where your terms are in the same
sentence of an article, example, breast SAME cancer
The operator PARAGRAPH will locate those within the same paragraph,
example, breast PARAGRAPH cancer
The NEAR operator allows you to search for terms within a specified
distance of each other and in any order, example, Male NEAR.5 breast
The FBY operator enables you to search for terms specified distance of
each other, and in the specified order, example, Male FBY.5 breast
B. Skimming the literature. After your online search, you can start with
systematic skimming, a type of reading in which the articles or materials are
discerned if they can be included for analysis. This can be done in different
ways such as looking into the title of the book or the said article. If the title
carries one of the required variables or theme, it is more or less related to the
study. When the article’s title does not give a clue, the researcher can gloss
over the bold, underlined, or italicized terms in the first and middle paragraphs
as well as in the conclusion for the main idea or concept. The table of contents,
index, and bibliography pages of the book can also be skimmed for points of
interest.
C. Reviewing the article

To effectively analyze the relevant reading materials, you have to highlight
it by using marks and symbols to facilitate the reading process. The marks aid
the researcher in discovering the similarities or contrast of ideas and
remembering the location of important key terms, phrases, sentences, and
paragraphs. You can use the marks discussed below if you are using printed
materials.
Legend: Underlined – important ideas

Boxed – words, phrases, or images that need further analysis
Question mark (?) – confusing passages, need further clarifications
Encircled – words, ideas, or images related to other concepts
Lines and arrows – show connections
Numbering – ideas in sequence
Two vertical lines – key portions of the paragraphs
Stars – particularly important ideas
You can also put your ideas, remarks and opinions during the analysis and
synthesis of related materials or sources, known as Annotations. They are
usually utilized when doing both analytical reading and comparative reading.
When using the pdf file of the article, you can use write your feedback by
clicking view icon and click comment then annotation.
Figure 10. Inserting annotation using pdf file
D. Literature organizing and stock-taking

Literature organizing is the skill of managing literature materials. However,
literature organizing alone is dangerous, it can divert into mere enumerated
literature. This is where stock-taking comes-in. Stock-taking is where the
researcher or writer takes opportunity in making use of the gathered literature,
putting them in some categories or classifications in preparation for some
storylines.
Single document information collation is essentially like making annotations
or a journal of a book, journal article or any pertinent literature. The researcher
writes in this journal the important ideas or messages from the literature. It is
important to write the full publication references of the literature – title, author
and other publication details.
Another way of organizing and taking stock of related literature is by
collating multiple literature into a matrix showing some key important features
such as the author, title, findings or recommendations, methodology and
publication details. Headings may change depending on what is needed by the
research. You can make use of excel or manual note-taking using index cards.
But the latter is time consuming.
Below is a snapshot of taking stock using excel. In the note-column, you
can write your actual analysis of the article. After considering an adequate
number of authors writing on the same topic, factors or variables, the authors’
commonalities and differences of views must be written in the note section as
well. Link of the article is also included to easily trace the article.
Figure 11. Organizing the research articles making matrix collation
Summary
Literature review is a process of compiling, classifying, and evaluating what

other researchers have written on a certain topic. Literature review is important
because it builds the confidence of the researcher as he/she fully understand
the variables being studied. To review the literature, you have to follow several
steps such as picking suitable research topic, selecting relevant source
materials, structuring the analysis and synthesis of related studies to be written
and ensuring that all important supporting facts for the review are taken note of.
In conducting the actual review, you should first assess the relevant materials,
do analytic and comparative reading, take some notes and organize it through
stock-taking, highlight important information and do annotations.
Assessment
1. Work with your proposed title and look for current references (minimum of ten
articles) related with your chosen topic in the internet or in the library. You can
print the article or you can use the pdf file. Do the highlighting and annotating of
the article. Take a snapshot of your outputs.
Enrichment
This time you will do organizing and taking stock of the article you reviewed
in the assessment section of this lesson. Use the suggested template below.
Lesson 2 – The Standard Citation and Referencing Styles
Pre-discussion
Have you experienced writing google.com or yahoo.com in your reference?

Then you can relate with the comic scrip below. Obviously google or yahoo are
just search engines used in finding the articles online. They are like librarians
providing you sources of information, and these information should be properly
cited in your Review of Related Literature to avoid plagiarism.
Figure 12. Citing the internet source
What to expect?
1. Differentiate the various styles of research citations.
2. Use the APA format for referencing.
Lesson Outline
Citation Styles
A citation style is a set of rules on how to cite sources in academic writing.
Whenever you refer to someone else’s work, a citation is required to avoid
plagiarism. Citation style guidelines are often published in an official handbook
containing explanations, examples, and instructions. The most common
citation styles include:
 MLA style in the humanities.
 APA style in psychology and education.

 Chicago notes and bibliography in history.
 Chicago author-date in the sciences.
Differences between citation styles

Different citation styles have different rules for in-text citations, reference
list entries, and (sometimes) the formatting of your paper. The differences can
be very subtle, so it’s important to carefully check the rules of the style you are
using.
Types of in-text citation
When you refer to a source (for example, by quoting or paraphrasing), you

have to add a brief citation in the text. There are three main types of citation:
 Parenthetical citation: You put the source reference in parentheses
directly in your text. This usually includes the author’s last name along
with the publication date and/or the page number.
 Note citation: You put the source reference in a footnote or endnote.
 Numeric citation: You number each of your sources in the reference
list and use the correct number when you want to cite a source.
Table 1. Overview of the systems used in the most common citation styles.
Citation Disciplines Type of citation

style
MLA Humanities Parenthetical

(author-page number)
APA Psychology, education, Parenthetical

social sciences (author-date)
Chicago A History, humanities Notes
Chicago B Sciences, social Parenthetical

sciences, humanities (author-date)
Turabian Humanities, social Notes or author-date

sciences, sciences
Citation Disciplines Type of citation

style
Harvard Economics Parenthetical

(author-date)
Vancouver Medicine Numeric
OSCOLA Law Notes
IEEE Engineering, IT Numeric
AMA Medicine Numeric
ACS Chemistry Numeric, Author-page

number or Notes
NLM Medicine Numeric
AAA Anthropology, social Numeric

studies
APSA Political science Parenthetical

(author-date)
Reference list entries
At the end of your paper, you include a list of all the sources you cited.
Each entry on the list corresponds to an in-text citation, and gives the reader
full publication information to easily find the source. Citation styles differ in the
naming of this list: in APA it is the reference page, in MLA it is the works cited,
and in Chicago A it is the bibliography. There are also differences in the order
of information and how you format each entry. The format often depends on
the type of source (e.g. book, website, or journal article). The easiest way to
create reference entries is to use a citation generator.
Choosing the Citation Style
First, always check the requirements of your university department or the

submission guidelines of the target journal.
a. Citation styles for journal submissions
Academic journals usually require you to use a specific citation style. For
example, the European Journal of Criminology uses the Harvard citation style,
whereas the Journal of Management and the Journal of Marketing use the APA
style. Some journals even have their own style guide. If you use a program
such as EndNote, Mendeley or Zotero to manage your references, then you
can simply select your target journal from a list, and the correct citation style
will loaded automatically.
b. Citation styles for student papers
University departments often mandate a specific citation style, but

sometimes you are allowed to choose which style you use. In this case,
consider your discipline and choose a style that gives the most relevant
information. For example, if you are writing a humanities paper with a lot of
quotations, MLA style is a good choice to cite page numbers without
interrupting the flow of your argument. If you are writing a scientific paper
where you cite a lot of studies, an author-date system like APA or Chicago B is
best so that your reader can immediately see the recency of your sources. In
SKSU, the commonly used style is APA style.
APA Citation and Referencing Guide
APA style was created by the American Psychological Association and was
originally used in psychology and social sciences. Today many other
disciplines also use it. APA citation style uses an author-date system of
parenthetical citation.
The APA in-text citation guidelines
a. An APA in-text citation consists of the author’s last name and year of
publication, for example: (Smith, 2020). When quoting, also include page
numbers, for example (Smith, 2020, p.170).
Here’s what an in-text citation looks like in a sentence:
 The author claims that “plagiarism is becoming a bigger problem”
(Smith, 2014, p. 170).
 As Smith (2014) has shown, plagiarism is a serious issue for

universities.
 In 2014, Smith found that plagiarism is becoming increasingly
widespread
b. Multiple author names are separated using a comma. Only the final name in
the list is preceded by an ampersand (“&”). Use “et al.” to shorten in-text
citations of sources with 6+ authors (first in-text citations) and 3+ authors
(subsequent in-text citations). Sources with three, four or five authors are
shortened after the first citation. From the second citation onwards, include only
the first author name followed by “et al.” (“and others”). Sources with six or more
authors are always shortened, including in the first citation. Refer to the table for
the example.
Table 2. Citation for APA format
Author type First in-text citation Subsequent in-text

citations
No author (“Title of the Work,” 2018) (“Title of the Work,” 2018)
1 author (Taylor, 2018) (Taylor, 2018)
2 authors (Taylor & Kotler, 2018) (Taylor & Kotler, 2018)
3 – 5 authors (Taylor, Kotler, Johnson, (Taylor et al., 2018)

& Parker, 2018)
6+ authors (Taylor et al., 2018) (Taylor et al., 2018)
Organization (Centers for Disease (CDC, 2018)

(identified Control and Prevention
through [CDC], 2018)
abbreviation)
c. Punctuation in APA in-text citations

 When using the abbreviation “et al.,” always include a period (“.”).
 Include a comma between “et al.” and the publication date (e.g. Taylor
et al., 2018).
 There should be no punctuation between “et al.” and the author’s name
preceding it.
 The period ending the sentence always comes after the citation (even
when quoting).
 Never use an ampersand symbol (“&”) in the running text. Instead, use
the full word “and,” example: Taylor and Kotler conclude … (2018).
d. Including the page number(s) in the in-text citation is required when quoting a
source. It is encouraged, but not required, when paraphrasing a source. Don’t
include page numbers when referring to a work as a whole, e.g. “the study
shows…”. If the quote or paraphrase covers just one page, use “p. 16.” If it
covers two or more pages, use a double ‘p’ followed by a page range (e.g. pp.
16-18). The in-text citation can be included in three different ways:
 This is also confirmed by the business plan: “creating an APA Citation
Generator is a lot of work but many students benefit from it” (Smith,
2014, pp. 14-15).
 Smith (2014) states: “making an APA Citation Generator is a lot of work
but many students benefit from it” (pp. 14-15).
 In 2014, Smith wrote: “making an APA Citation Generator is a lot of work
but many students benefit from it” (pp. 14-15).
Exceptions and missing information

The basic APA guidelines are not applicable to every source. Information
can be missing, confusing for the reader or simply different. The most common
exceptions are listed below.
a. No author
If the author is unknown, cite the first few words of the reference list entry
instead (usually the title). Enclose the title in double quotation marks when
citing an article, web page or book chapter. Italicize the title of periodicals,
books, reports and brochures.
 (“U.S. Flood Risk Could Be Worse Than We Thought,” 2015)
 (Thinking, Fast and Slow, 2017)
b. No date
For sources without a year of publication, use “n.d.” (no date) instead:
(Johnson, n.d.).
c. Multiple sources in the same parentheses
If you’re using multiple sources to support a statement, you can combine

the in-text citations and separate them using semicolons. Order the sources
alphabetically. If you’re using multiple sources from the same author, you don’t
have to repeat the author. Just add the other years and separate them with a
comma.
 Several studies show that … (Brown & Brody, 2009; Porter, 2004;
Swaen, 2015, 2017a, 2017b).
d. Multiple publications from the same author(s) in the same year
To differentiate between two publications from the same author published

in the same year, add a suffix after the publication year.
 Research by Swaen (2014a) shows that …
e. Repeated use of the same source
For citing the same source multiple times in a paragraph there are specific
APA guidelines. The first mention should include the author and publication
year. For subsequent mentions in the running text, you only have to include the
author’s last name, not the year. However, citations in parentheses should
always include the year.
 Research by Swaen (2016) shows that students think the APA Citation
Generator is a useful tool. Swaen also states that universities are
increasingly using the generator. Scribbr is therefore continuing to
develop the APA Citation Generator (Swaen, 2016).
f. Different authors with the same last name
To differentiate between two (or more) authors with the same last name,
include the initials. This rule applies even if the year of publication is different.
 Swaen (2017) states that … , as does G. H. Swaen (2008).
g. Citing a source within a source (secondary source)
If you want to cite a source that you found in another source, you can do
one of two things. First of all, you should try to find the original source (primary
source). If you’re able to find it you can use regular APA guidelines. If you are
not able to find the primary source, you should cite it through the source that
led you to it (secondary source). The in-text citation looks like this:
 Porter (as cited in Johnson, 2017) states that…
Note that you only need to include the publication year of the source you
consulted (here Johnson).
h. Personal communication
Personal communication such as phone calls, emails and conversations

are not cited in the reference list because they can’t be found anywhere.
However, you should still cite them using an in-text citation. Give the initials
and the last name of the person you communicated with and provide as exact
a date as possible.
 Sales are declining in the second quarter (P. G. Brown, personal
communication, June 13, 2018).
Creating Reference in APA format

Each reference must be structured according to the rules for that source
type. These rules vary between books, journal articles, internet articles and
more. You should include a reference for all sources you have cited in the text.
Don’t include sources you have only consulted. There are four types of source
that are never included in an APA reference page:
 Classical works such as the Bible
 Personal communication such as emails, telephone conversations and
chat messages
 Entire websites (always cite the page)
 Common knowledge
Reference APA Format
1. Printed Book
2. Electronic book
3. Book Chapter
4. Website
5. Journal
Summary
There are sets of rules on how to cite sources. The most common citation
styles include MLA, APA, Chicago. Each citation styles have different rules for
in-text citation and references. Citation styles also differ in the naming of
reference entries namely APA as reference page, MLA as works cited and
Chicago as bibliography. Different institutions and publications have different
citation styles, in SKSU, the preferred citation style is APA. A researcher
should be familiar of the guideline for the in-text citations and reference
formats particularly for APA style.
Assessment
1. Based on your field of specialization, what type of citation style you should
use. Justify your answer.
2. What type of references you should use and not use in your research?
Enrichment
Work with your research topic. Make a reference based on the literatures you
collected in the previous lesson using APA format.
Lesson 3 – Writing Review of Related Literature
Pre-discussion
In the movie Finding Forester (2000), a reclusive writer/author William

Forrester (played by Sean Connery) once advised Jamal Wallace (played by
Rob Brown) as his mentee: “Write your first draft with your heart; then re-write
with your head!” This should be the creed of every researcher and writer.
Substance comes first, format later. Passion comes first, styles later. Articulate
those ideas, then coordinate and synthesize everything into some structure.
What to expect?
1. Compare and contrast Review of Related Literature and Related
studies
2. Write the Review of Related Literature
Lesson Outline
Most of the time, your teacher introduces the two terms namely related
literature and related studies when you are working with Chapter 2 of your
paper. These concepts are always incorporated in the SKSU format. Before
you start writing the Review of Related Literature, let us first differentiate the
two terms.
Related Literature
Related literature is also called as conceptual literature. Gathering literature

related to the research is very important to clarify the different variables being
studied. The related literature removes any vagueness surrounding concepts
central to the study. If the review of related literature and studies are gathered
appropriately and adequately, the different research variables and delimitation
of the study are determined. The indicators per variables are likewise identified
and objectively established. All indicators are clearly based on read articles
from the different published materials like reference book, textbooks, manuals,
encyclopedias, dictionaries, bulletins, broadsheets, journals, periodicals, etc. In
addition to these printed sources, there are also electronic references from the
internet.
In this age of globalization, related literature should be found in the works of
experts as published in the refereed journals. Refereed journals are also known
as peer-reviewed journals. Expert readers or peers who are recognized
authorities on the topic are tapped to review the written works or researcher to
determine if they meet international standards that include reliability and
timeliness. Refereed journals are published nationally and internationally.
Related Studies
Determining whether the research is objective and empirically-based
entails surveying previous studies that involves similar variables. The
researcher should be reminded, however, that even if the same variables have
been used previously, similar studies may vary in the delimitation in terms of the
sub-variables investigated or in terms of focus or purpose.
In this regard, an adequate review of related studies is required. This
serves as the basis of the analysis of results because it enables the researcher
to compare and contrast his/her findings with those of past studies. The results
of a study are verified by the similar findings or negated by different findings of
previous researchers. The studies can be in the form of thesis, dissertation, or
journal article, among others. These are collectively called research literature.
The gathered are related to the present research when:
1. They use the same variables, sub-variables or construct; or
2. They have the same subject or topic of study.
In writing review of related studies, the following data must be indicated:

1. The name of the author, date and setting of the study
2. The title
3. The salient findings (which are the most important “ingredients” to

include since the discussion of the variables and their relationship/s will be
based on them).
Writing the Literature Review
In the previous lessons, you have already started searching relevant

sources for your research topic. Your sources were carefully selected and
evaluated. You have taken notes and cited sources and made annotated
bibliography. This time, you will start writing your literature review following the
steps below:
1. Identifying themes, debates and gaps
To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, you

need to understand the connections and relationships between the sources
you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:
 Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain
approaches become more or less popular over time?
 Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
 Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
 Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that
changed the direction of the field?
 Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that
need to be addressed?
This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if
applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.
Example of trends and gaps in reviewing the literature on social media and
body image, you note that:
 Most research has focused on young women.
 There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
 But there is still a lack of robust research on highly visual platforms like
Instagram and Snapchat – this is a gap that you could address in your
own research.
2. Outline your literature review’s structure
There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review.

You should have a rough idea of your strategy before you start writing.
Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of
these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but
each theme is discussed chronologically).
 Chronological
The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time.
However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and
summarizing sources in order. Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key
debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of
how and why certain developments occurred.
 Thematic
If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your
literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.
For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health
outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers,
cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.
 Methodological
If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a
variety of research methods, you might want to compare the results and
conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:
a. Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative
research
b. Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus

theoretical scholarship
c. Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources
 Theoretical
A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework. You

can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.
You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or
combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.
3. Write your literature review

Like any other academic text, your literature review should have an
introduction, a main body, and a conclusion. What you include in each
depends on the objective of your literature review
A. Introduction
The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the
literature review. If you are writing the literature review as part of your
dissertation or thesis, reiterate your central problem or research question and
give a brief summary of the scholarly context. You can emphasize the
timeliness of the topic (“many recent studies have focused on the problem of x”)
or highlight a gap in the literature (“while there has been much research on x,
few researchers have taken y into consideration”).
B. Body
Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide
the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time
period, or methodological approach. As you write, you can follow these tips:
- Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each
source and combine them into a coherent whole
- Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers—add your

own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in
relation to the literature as a whole
- Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
- Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic
sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts
C. Conclusion
In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken
from the literature and emphasize their significance. If the literature review is
part of your thesis or dissertation, show how your research addresses gaps
and contributes new knowledge, or discuss how you have drawn on existing
theories and methods to build a framework for your research.
Assessment
1. Compare and contrast related literature and related studies.
2. Writing Review of Related Literature is like making a storyline. Expound this

statement.
Enrichment
Work with your proposed research study and write the Review of Related
Literature. Don’t forget to include citation in your discussion. Also submit your
reference using APA format.
Reference
Amorado, R.V. (2015). Literati (Literature Review in Contemporary Purview).

Mutya Publishing House.

Gahan, C. (2020). APA reference page. September 23, 2020, from

https://www.scribbr.com/apa-style/apa-reference-page/.
Ganado, A.R.F. & Cerado, E.C. (2015). Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
(EBD) and Achievements of Grade 1 Pupils. Saudi J. Med. Pharm, Sci.1
(4):103-112.
Marcelino, J.P. & Diaz, E.V. (2016). Frond Pruning Enhanced the Growth and
Yield of Eight-Year-Old Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.). Annals of
Tropical Research, 38 (2).
McCombes, S. (2020). How to write a literature review. Retrieved:

September 24, 2020, from https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/literature
-review/.
Streefkerk, R. (2020). A complete guide to APA in-text citation. Retrieved

September 23, 2020, from https://www.scribbr.com/apa-style/
in-text-citation/.
CHAPTER 6
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Overview
After determining the focus of your study by identifying what specific
problem you will deal with, analyzing appropriate research methodology and
designs the next concerns and areas to be considered. Take note that excellent
research designs and methods are the keys towards accurate and reliable
data.
Methodology is the systematic, theoretical analysis of the methods applied
to a field of study. It comprises the theoretical analysis of the body of methods
and principles associated with a branch of knowledge. Typically, it
encompasses concepts such as paradigm, theoretical model, phases and
quantitative or qualitative techniques.
A methodology does not set out to provide solutions - it is, therefore, not the
same thing as a method. Instead, it offers the theoretical underpinning for
understanding which method, set of methods or best practices which can be
applied to specific case, for example, to calculate a specific result.
This chapter of the research process contains a comprehensive description

of the following:
 Research design
 Research approach
 Locale and Respondents of the Study
 Sampling technique
 Data Gathering Instrument
 Data gathering procedures
 The statistical tools and treatments
Objective
At the end of this chapter, the students can:
1. Identify the components of research methodology.
2. Discuss the contents of each part of the research method.
3. Distinguish quantitative and qualitative methods in researches.

4. Determine appropriate approaches to be used in conducting research.
5. Illustrate procedures in gathering data.
6. Write Chapter III of the research proposal.
Lesson 1 - Research Designs
Pre discussion
Thinking outside the box is more than just a business cliché. It means
approaching problems in new, innovative ways; conceptualizing problems
differently. You have to think outside the box when determining the research
design. The key is backward planning wherein you have to start with your
goals or the purpose of the research. Determining a research design requires a
careful plan on the most appropriate approach to carry out the objectives or
purpose of the research. To what extent can the design be a combination of the
different kinds of research approaches? Do the data gathered require
quantitative or qualitative analysis? How the researcher collects and analyze
the data. The plans or research design form the structure and the researcher’s
method of answering his questions and conducting studies.
What to expect?
1. Compare and contrast research design and research approach.
2. Discuss the procedure involved in each research design.
3. Apply research designs based on the identified problem.
Lesson Outline
Research Design vs Research Approach
Research design is the detailed outline of how a study or investigation

takes place. It typically includes how data or cases are collected, what
instruments are employed, how the instruments are used and the intended
means for analyzing data collected.
The research design sets the parameters of your project: it determines

exactly what will and will not be included. It also defines the criteria by which
you will evaluate your results and draw your conclusions. The reliability and
validity of your study depends on how you collect, measure, analyze, and
interpret your data. A strong research design is crucial to a successful research
proposal, scientific paper, or dissertation.
Research approach can either be quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative

approach deals with data that are numeric while qualitative data deals with data
expressed as descriptors or observations. Quantitative approach uses
questionnaires, tests, surveys while qualitative uses open-ended questions,
interviews or observations. Mixed-methods approach combines the two
afore-cited approaches.
Figure 13. The Methodology of research
The nature of the data dictates the methodology. If the data are verbal, the
methodology is qualitative; if the data is numerical, the methodology is
quantitative.
Theoretical triangulation involves the use of several frames of reference or
perspectives in the analysis of the same set of data. Data triangulation attempts
to gather observations through the use of a variety of sampling strategies to
ensure that a theory is tested in more than one way. Investigator triangulation is
the use of multiple observers, coders, interviewers, and/ or analysis in a
particular study. Methodological triangulation is the uses of two or more
methods of data collection procedures within a single study.
There are four principles in the application of methodological triangulation:

1. The research question must be clearly focused.
2. The strengths and weaknesses of each chosen method must
complement each other.
3. The methods should be selected according to their relevance to the
nature of the phenomenon being studied.
4. Continual evaluation of the methodological approach should be done
during the course of the study to monitor whether the first three
principles are being followed or not.
It may be observed that although there are overlapping characteristics in

quantitative and qualitative research, the results from the different theoretical
perspective about overall purpose of research in spite of these differences, the
two types are complimentary, and they may be combined in a single research
project. The two research perspectives also share from procedural aspects.
Quantitative and Qualitative researchers share concerns in problem-finding in
explaining, the relationships of data to claim, in theory, building and in
explaining particular cases in the light of established knowledge and theory.
Steps in Formulating Research Design
1. Consider your priorities and practicalities

For most research problems, there is not just one possible research design,
but a range of possibilities to choose from. The choices you make depend on
your priorities in the research, and often involve some tradeoffs – a research
design that is strong in one area might be weaker in another.
Examples
1. A qualitative case study is good for gaining in-depth understanding of a
specific context, but it does not allow you to generalize to a wider

population.
2. A laboratory experiment allows you to investigate causes and effects
with high internal validity, but it might not accurately represent how things
work in the real world (external validity).
As well as scientific considerations, you also need to think practically when

designing your research.
 How much time do you have to collect data and write up the research?
 Will you be able to gain access to the data you need (e.g. by traveling to
a specific location or contacting specific people)?
 Do you have the necessary research skills (e.g. statistical analysis or
interview techniques)?
If you realize it is not practically feasible to do the kind of research needed
to answer your research questions, you will have to refine your questions
further.
2. Determine the type of data you need
You probably already have an idea of the type of research you need to do
based on your problem statement and research questions. There are two main
choices that you need to start with.
Primary vs secondary data
Primary data
You will directly collect original data (e.g. through surveys, interviews, or
experiments) and then analyze it. This makes your research more original,
but it requires more time and effort, and relies on participants being available
and accessible.
Secondary data
You will analyze data that someone else already collected (e.g. in
national statistics, official records archives, publications, and previous studies).
This saves time and can expand the scope of your research, but it means you
don’t have control over the content or reliability of the data.
Qualitative vs quantitative data
Qualitative data
If your objectives involve describing subjective experiences, interpreting

meanings, and understanding concepts, you will need to do qualitative
research. Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible, allowing you to
adjust your approach based on what you find throughout the research process.
Quantitative data
If your objectives involve measuring variables, finding frequencies or

correlations, and testing hypotheses, you will need to do quantitative research.
Quantitative research designs tend to be more fixed, with variables and
methods determined in advance of data collection.
3. Decide how you will collect the data
Once you know what kind of data you need, you need to decide how,
where and when you will collect it. This means you need to determine your
research methods – the specific tools, procedures, materials and techniques
you will use. You also need to specify what criteria you’ll use to select
participants or sources, and how you will recruit or access them.
Research methods
Method What to consider
Surveys -How many respondents do you need and what

sampling method will you use (e.g. simple random
sampling or stratified sampling)?
-How will you distribute the survey (e.g. in person, by
post, online)?
-How will you design the questionnaire (e.g. open or
closed questions)?
Interviews - How will you select participants?

- Where and when will the interviews take place?
- Will the interviews be structured, semi-structured or -
unstructured?
Research methods
Method What to consider
Experiments - Will you conduct the experiment in a laboratory setting

or in the field?
- How will you measure and control the variables?
- How will you design the experiment (e.g.
between-subjects, within-subjects, double blinding)?
Secondary - Where will you get your sources from (e.g. online or a
data physical archive)?
- What criteria will you use to select sources (e.g. date
range, content)?
4. Decide how you will analyze the data
To answer your research questions, you will have to analyze the data you
collected. The final step in designing the research is to consider your data
analysis methods.
Quantitative data analysis
To analyze numerical data, you will probably use statistical methods.

These generally require applications such as Excel, SPSS or SAS.
Statistical methods can be used to analyze averages, frequencies, patterns,
and correlations between variables. When creating your research design, you
should clearly define your variables and formulate hypotheses about the
relations between them. Then you can choose appropriate statistical methods
to test these hypotheses.
Qualitative data analysis
Analyzing words or images is often a more flexible process that involves

the researcher’s subjective judgment. You might focus on identifying and
categorizing key themes, interpreting patterns and narratives, or
understanding social context and meaning.
When creating your research design, you should consider what approach
you will take to analyzing the data. The main themes and categories might only
emerge after you have collected the data, but you need to decide what you
want to achieve in the analysis.
For example, do you simply want to describe participants’ perceptions and
experiences, or will you analyze the meaning of their responses in relation to a
social context? Will your analysis focus only on what is said or also on how it is
said?
5. Write your research proposal

The research design is an important component of your dissertation or
thesis proposal. It describes exactly what you plan to do and how you plan to
do it, showing your supervisor that your project is both practically feasible and
capable of answering your research questions.
Summary
Research design is one of the most important thing a researcher should

consider in the planning the methods of the study. It is a very important
aspect of research methodology which describes the research approach
(qualitative or quantitative research), or if the researcher will use a specific
research such as descriptive, survey, historical, case or experimental.
Assessment
1. In two paragraphs, define the research design and the research approach.
Be sure there is a reference and explanation why such design and approach
are used.
Enrichment
1. State your title in Chapter 1 and formulate your research design. Answer the
following questions to guide you in crafting your research design.
a. What are your priorities and practicalities in your proposed study?
b. What are the types of data you need in your study?
c. How you will collect the data?
d. How you will analyze the data?
e. What references (APA format) did you use when you formulate your
research design?
Lesson 2 - Quantitative Research Methodology
Pre discussion
Many times those that undertake a research project often find they are
not aware of the differences between Qualitative Research and Quantitative
Research methods. Many mistakenly think the two terms can be used
interchangeably. Examine the figure below, what do you think is the
difference between Qualitative Research and Quantitative Research?
Figure 14. Difference between qualitative and quantitative methods
What to expect?
1. Compare the different quantitative research designs.
2. Select the best research design for the thesis.
3. Write the research design for the proposed research.
Lesson Outline
Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is premise on the assumption that variables be

mathematically measured and researches who adhere to this approach stress
that the data should be verified. Generally, the quantitative research approach
is considered to be objective; that is, “the scientific method.”
Quantitative research is categorized into two major designs, namely the
experimental and non-experimental designs. Nieswiadomy (2004) listed down
the types of experimental and non-experimental designs.
Table 3. Different types of experimental and non-experimental designs.

Experimental Designs Non-experimental Designs
True Experimental Design Survey Studies
Pretest-posttest control design Action Studies
Posttest only control group Comparative Studies
Solomon four-group Correlational Studies
Quasi-experimental Designs Descriptive Studies
Non equivalent Developmental Studies
Time series Evaluation Studies
Pre-experimental Designs Meta-analysis Studies
One shot case study Methodological Studies
One group pretest-posttest Needs assessment Studies
Secondary Analysis Studies
Experimental Design
Experimental research is concerned primarily with the cause and effect
relationships in studies that involve the manipulation or control of the
independent variables (causes) and measurement of the dependent variables
(effects). This design utilizes the principle of research known as the method of
difference. This means that the effect of a single variable applied to the situation
can be assessed and the difference can be determined.
In experimental research, there are variables that are not part of the study
but are believed to influence the outcome s. These are called the intervening or
extraneous variable. These variables are part of the study limitations. They are
labeled as threats to internal or external validity. Internal validity is the degree to
which changes in the dependent variable can be attributed to the independent
variable. External validity, however, is the degree to which the changes in the
dependent variable can be attributed to the extraneous variable.
A validity is defined as the ability of a certain tool to measure what it intends
to measure, it is, therefore, expected that an experimental research should
come up with accurate results. The accuracy of the results of an experimental

research is hindered internally and externally.
Non-experimental Design
Non-experimental research is usually descriptive or correlational, which
means that you are describing a situation or phenomenon simply as its stands,
or you are describing a relationship between two or more variables, all without
any interference from the researcher. Without this level of control, you cannot
determine any causal effects. While validity is still a concern in
non-experimental research, the concerns are more about the validity of the
measurements, rather than the validity of the effects.
Also non-experimental design deals with first hand data or already existing
knowledge taken from previous studies or student records. It seeks what is’ and
emphasizes on the discovery of ideas and insights that may affect the
development of generalizations, principles, or theories.
Types of Experimental Research Designs
1. True Experimental Research Design
True experimental research is the most accurate type, and may simply be
called experimental research. It manipulates a control group towards a group
of randomly selected subjects and records the effect of this manipulation.
True experimental research can be further classified into the following groups:
a. The pretest-posttest control group

1. Subjects are randomly assigned to groups.
2. A pretest is given to both groups.
3. The experimental group receives the treatment while control group
does not.
4. A posttest is given to both groups.
b. The posttest-only control group
1. Subjects are randomly assigned to groups.
2. The experimental group receives the treatment while the control

group does not receive the treatment.
3. A posttest is given to both groups.
c. Solomon four-group – the most reliable and suitable experimental

design. It minimizes threats to both internal and external validity.
1. Subjects are randomly assigned to one or four groups.

2. Two of the other groups (experimental group 1 and control group 1)
are pretested.
3. The other two groups (experimental group 2 and control group 2)
receive the routine treatment or no treatment.
4. A posttest is given to all four groups.
2. Quasi-experimental design
A design in which either there is no control group or the subjects are not
randomly assigned to groups.
a. Non-equivalent controlled group design

This design is similar to pretest-posttest control group design except
there is no random assignment of subjects to the experimental and control
groups.
b. Time series design

The researcher periodically observes or measures the subjects
3. Pre-experimental design
This experimental design is considered very weak because the researcher
has little control over the research.
a. One shot case study
A single study group is exposed to an experimental treatment and
observed after the treatment.
b. One-group pretest-posttest design
It provides a comparative description of a group of subjects before and
after the experimental treatment.
Types of Non-experimental Research Designs
1. Survey Studies
The investigations conducted through self-report. Survey research

methods can be derived based on two critical factors: Survey research tool and
time involved to conduct research.
The medium of conducting survey research:

a. Online/ Email: the most popular survey research methods today, the cost is
extremely minimal, and the responses gathered are highly accurate.
b. Phone: phone survey is useful in collecting data from a more extensive
section of the target population. There are chances that the money invested in
phone surveys will be higher than other mediums, and the time required will be
higher.
c. Face-to-face: face-to-face in-depth interviews is conducted in situations
where there is a complicated problem to solve. The response rate for this
method is the highest, but it can be costly.
Two methods of survey research:

a. Longitudinal survey research: involves conducting survey research over a
continuum of time and spread across years and decades. The data collected
using this survey research method from one time period to another is
qualitative or quantitative. Respondent behavior, preferences, attitudes are
continuously observed over time to analyze reasons for a change in behavior
or preferences. For example, suppose a researcher intends to learn about the
eating habits of teenagers. In that case, he/she will follow a sample of
teenagers over a considerable period to ensure that the collected information
is reliable. Often, cross-sectional survey research follows a longitudinal survey
research study.
b. Cross-sectional survey research: Researchers conduct a cross-sectional

survey to collect insights from a target audience at a particular time interval.
This survey research method is implemented in various sectors such as retail,
education, healthcare, SME businesses, etc. Cross-sectional survey research

can either be descriptive or analytical. It is quick and helps researchers
collected information in a brief period.
2. Action research – It is used primarily to solve a problem either in the

classroom or in an office. It can be done by one group or a group of
researchers. The findings through cannot be generalize to a larger group.
Action research can be used to develop new skills or new approaches and to
solve problems with direct application to the classroom or working world setting.
It is practical and directly relevant to an actual situation in the working world. It
provides an orderly framework. It is empirical; flexible and adaptive; and weak
internal and external validity.
Examples:
a. An in-service training program to help train teachers to teach more
effectively with various group of students.
b. To develop an exploratory program in drug addiction prevention in the
Community Service Center of Columban College.
3. Correlational Studies
The defining feature of correlational research is that neither variable is
manipulated. It does not matter how or where the variables are measured. A
researcher could go to a shopping mall to ask people about their attitudes
toward the environment and their shopping habits and then assess the
relationship between these variables. In this study, no independent variables
are manipulated.
4. Developmental Research
Developmental research seeks to create knowledge grounded in data
systematically derived from practice. It is a pragmatic type of research that
offers a way to test "theory" that has been only hypothesized and to validate
practice that has been perpetuated essentially through unchallenged tradition.
In addition, it is a way to establish new procedures, techniques, and tools
based upon a methodical analysis of specific cases. As such, developmental

research can have a function of either creating generalizable conclusions or
statements of law, or producing context-specific knowledge that serves a
problem solving function.
5. Evaluation Studies
Evaluation research is the systematic assessment of the worth or merit of
time, money, effort and resources spent in order to achieve a goal. Evaluation
research is closely related to but slightly different from more conventional
social research. It uses many of the same methods used in traditional social
research, but because it takes place within an organizational context, it
requires team skills, interpersonal skills, management skills, political
smartness, and other skills that social research does not need much.
Evaluation research also requires one to keep in mind the interests of the
stakeholders. Evaluation research is a type of applied research, and so it is
intended to have some real-world effect.
6. Descriptive Studies
Descriptive research is defined as a research method that describes the
characteristics of the population or phenomenon studied. This methodology
focuses more on the “what” of the research subject than the “why” of the
research subject. For example, an apparel brand that wants to understand the
fashion purchasing trends among New York buyers will conduct a
demographic survey of this region, gather population data and then conduct
descriptive research on this demographic segment. The study will then
uncover details on “what is the purchasing pattern of New York buyers,” but not
cover any investigative information about “why” the patterns exits. Because for
the apparel brand trying to break into this market, understanding the nature of
their market is the study’s objective.
Summary
Quantitative research is the process of collecting and analyzing numerical
data. It is categorized into two major designs, namely the experimental and
non-experimental designs. Experimental research is a study that strictly

adheres to a scientific research design. It includes a hypothesis, a variable that
can be manipulated by the researcher, and variables that can be measured,
calculated and compared. Most importantly, experimental research is
completed in a controlled environment. Non-experimental research is the label
given to a study when a researcher cannot control, manipulate or alter the
predictor variable or subjects, but instead, relies on interpretation, observation
or interactions to come to a conclusion.
Experimental research design is categorized into three namely: true
experimental research design, quasi-experimental design and
pre-experimental design. There are different types of non-experimental
research design such as survey studies, action research, correlational studies,
developmental research, evaluation studies and descriptive studies.
Assessment
A. Determine the type of research for each study whether it is experimental or
non-experimental.
1. Relationship between sleepiness and general health status
2. The use of mnemonic devices by Mathematics majors
3. The relationship between work stress and oral health status.
4. How different are the teaching competence of faculty users and non-users
of learner-centered teaching strategies?
5. Level of cognitive learning for vocabulary enhancement: a preliminary study
B. Compare and contrast experimental and non-experimental research design.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of these designs?
Enrichment
Work with your proposed study and discuss the research design that you
will use in your research if you will be working with quantitative or mixed
methods. Include citation and reference following the APA format.
Lesson 3 - Qualitative Research Methodology
Pre discussion
In the previous lessons, you have learned the basic approaches of

research namely quantitative and qualitative research methods. This time you
will explore the detailed concepts of qualitative research, which seeks to reveal
information related to or based on the non-numerical value or characteristics of
things, events, people, society and the reasons of everything
What to expect?
1. Discuss the importance of qualitative research.
2. Describe the main types of qualitative research.
3. Explain the characteristics of qualitative research.
4. Elaborate the typical methods of qualitative research.
5. Write the process of collecting qualitative data.
Lesson Outline
Importance of Qualitative Research
In the challenges of life, qualitative approach in research gives color and

meaning to every single event that numbers and figures could not meaningfully
describe. Fukofuka (2014) hopes that we study qualitative research because
we aim to know, appreciate, understand, figure-out, learn, influence,
experience, change and become humble. With the desire to establish research
based-information where data are not yet documented, qualitative research is
of great importance because it aids in the production in the culturally-based
and relevant information.
Main Types of Qualitative Research
The key operating principle to conducting qualitative research is

understanding people as they are, in terms of how they operate, live,
experience, and imagine. Qualitative research is a broad umbrella, with
various kinds of techniques and ways of conducting such research. What
follows is an explication of some of the most popular types of qualitative
methods:
1. Ethnography. This anthropological approach to conducting qualitative

research is one that allows the researcher to embed himself or herself in the
natural setting of the subject he or she tries to study. The researcher is
immersed in the living the lives just like the subject being studied, experiencing
and interfacing with them. Some classical anthropological studies have seen
researchers embedding themselves in a village or tribal hamlet, living and
researching the people inhabiting them, their customs and traditions, etc.
2. Ground theory. This approach to qualitative research is concerned with the

generation of theory. Instead of drawing on theory at the beginning of the
research, this approach derives theory from the data collected through
research. The theory is grounded in the data. For instance, your data would
allow you to code and classify it, leading to the development of theory.
3. Phenomenology. This approach to qualitative research studies phenomena,

or manifestations of things. It studies a particular phenomenon, in its many
angles and facets, adding to knowledge about the phenomenon. For example,
if you are researching the phenomenon of lightning, you look at information
that you could access on lightning as it is experienced.
4. Case study. The case study approach tries to study unit of any subject. It
tries to bring together all aspects and information about the unit under study,
contributing to explaining or describing something. This could be a country or a
company.
5. Historical. Synthetic collection and objective evaluation of data related to

past occurrences in order to test hypotheses concerning causes, effects, or
trends of these events that may help to explain present events and anticipate
future events.
Characteristics of Qualitative Research
Qualitative research begins with the assumption and the use of

interpretative/theoretical frameworks that inform the study of research
problems addressing the meaning of individual or groups ascribed to social or
human problem. The following are features of a qualitative research as
enumerated by Creswell (2013):
1. Naturalistic inquiry. Qualitative research does not contrive to set up an

artificial scenario. The study is focused on understanding its natural existence,
natural setting, together with its surrounding and how human beings interact
with them. Extensive use of unstructured observations and conversations
documented by detailed field notes form the basis for this type of research,
often considered the purest form of qualitative research. Naturalistic inquiry is
used when situations are unique or complex, when the level of uncertainty
about the questions to ask is high and when there is little or no theory to direct
the investigator.
2. Uses multiple methods. In gathering and interpreting data, the best method
is the combination of several methods like interview, observation,
documentation and pictorial analysis.
3. Have thick descriptions. Qualitative research requires elaborated

presentation and interpretations of data from interpreting and understanding
the process, the setting and the meaning of each part. It is well represented in
appropriate textual and graphical descriptions.
4. Self is the instrument. In qualitative research, the researcher himself is the

one who interprets, values and analyzes what is seen through his/her five
senses.
5. Has interpreter’s character. The interpretation of the data comes from the
perspective of the insider (researcher) and outsider (guest or outside
researcher).
6. Uses emergent design. The design in gathering and interpreting data is

flexible as it goes through the actual process. The initial plan for research
cannot be tightly prescribed, and, all phases of the process may change or shift
after the researcher enter the field and begins to collect data.
Typical Methods of Qualitative Research
1. Participant observation - the investigator becomes a part of the setting of

the process being studied.
2. Case Studies - are the preferred strategy when ‘how or why’ questions are
being posed, when the investigator has little control over events, and when the
focus is in a contemporary phenomenon within some real-life context. The case
study is especially appropriate when the boundaries between phenomenon and
context are not clearly evident. The case study copes with the technically
distinctive situation in which there will be many more variables of interest than
data points, and as one result relies on multiple sources of evidence, with data
needing to converge in a triangulating fashion.
3. Structure Observations of meetings. This involves attending meetings of

the group that you wish to research on. This can also be extended to
observation of individuals in their daily work routine or on special tasks. The
purpose of observing is to learn what is going on at the meeting and witness the
group dynamic in process. This can be a rich information source as it can give
researchers insight into the group.
4. Content Analysis of Documents. This is a non-intrusive form of research.

This involves reviewing documents, memos or other pieces of written
information for content and themes. By examining written word, the researcher
is studying one type of communication that occurs in the selected sample.
5. Collection and Analysis of other Archival, Administrative and

Performance Data. This method also is non-intrusive. Information that has
been previously collected, or secondary data, is reviewed to gain a better
understanding into the topic. This information is part of the organization’s
history and can be a valuable key to understanding the past.
6. Focus groups usually explore specific issues. The focus group brings
together individuals chosen to meet a specific profile. They may be
homogenous along some dimensions and heterogeneous along others and a
structured, yet informal, setting is used to explore a limited number of
questions. Focus groups, unlike individual interviews, provide the added
dimension of the interactions among members. Focus groups are often
combined with more quantitative approaches such as surveys that can be
administered at different points in the group discussion and even used as grist
for additional discussion.
7. Cognitive interviews. One-on-one interviews are conducted (with people

meeting the criteria for completing a particular survey) as the individuals
complete the instrument being tested. This method helps investigators
understand how people perceive and interpret language and their own
experiences as they refine the survey instruments.
8. Mail and Telephone Surveys are a method of collecting information by

sending surveys via email or postal email. Participants return completed forms
to the researcher or an outside vendor. Surveys for qualitative research allow
respondents to write their feelings or attitudes about a particular event or to
elaborate in more detail on an item, or to express suggestions, etc. detail on an
item, or to express suggestions, etc.
Main Types of Qualitative Data Collection
“Those who are not familiar with qualitative methodology may be surprised
by the sheer volume of data and the detailed level of analysis that results even
when research is confined to a small number of subjects”.
Table 4. Three main methods of data collection:

Interactive People asked to verbally describe their experiences of
interviewing phenomenon
Written People asked to write descriptions of their experiences of
descriptions by phenomenon
participants
Observation Descriptive observations of verbal and non-verbal behavior
 Analysis begins when the data are first collected and are used to guide
decisions related to further data collection.
 “in communicating-or generating-the data, the researcher must make
the process of the study accessible and write descriptively so implicit
knowledge may best be communicated through the use of rich, thick
descriptions.
Process of Conducting Qualitative Research

a. Define the phenomenon or problem situation of language to be described.
At the beginning of the study, the focus of research situation may not be
definite, however, as the investigation progresses, narrowing the scope of the
observations as regards what specific areas of the language activity to be
studied is essential.
b. Use qualitative methods to gather data

Data collection may range from observations, tapes, questionnaires,
interviews, case histories, and field notes. The variety of sources of data
provides insights not available in an experimental method. Moreover, it
facilitates validation and triangulation of data.
c. Look for patterns in the data

Data collected may not have been gathered based on specific research
questions or hypotheses; however, they must undergo careful examination to
identify the recurring patterns arising from them. Based on these recurring
patterns, the researcher establishes hypotheses, generates principles, or
develop paradigm to explain the findings.
d. Validate initial conclusions by returning to the data or collecting more data.

Once patterns have been established, the researcher must verify the
findings through triangulation, i.e. confirming the findings by re-inspection or
demonstrating the same findings through different sources. Replication of the
study will show whether there are variables in the initial investigation that might
have caused the language learning behavior different from what it would be if
not studied. Because subjectivity might have influenced the interpretation of the
data, these subjective factors may be controlled by triangulation.
e. Return to step 1 and repeat the cycle to redefine the area of focus based on the
first cycle.
Although the data have been analyzed in the initial stage, it is still
important ‘to redefine’ and to gradually narrow down the focus of the study. This
can be done by re-examining the data or collecting additional data utilizing the
same methods but ‘more focused methods.
Summary
In a qualitative research, data are verbal and not numerical. It is to be noted

that since qualitative researchers is concerned with process of activities or
events, they analyze data through inductive reasoning rather than by statistical
procedures.
In qualitative research, the method for data collection is participant
observing, interviewing, scanning records and files, using checklists and
conducting case studies. A qualitative researcher analyzes the data rationally
rather than statistically. As the qualitative approach is warm, then it could be

categorized that the quantitative approach is cold. It is personally experimental.
Assessment
1. In one paragraph, define qualitative research.
2. Give instances or situations that you may investigate the following:

a. Case study
b. Grounded theory
c. Ethnography
d. Historical
e. Phenomenology
Enrichment
Work with your proposed study and discuss the research design that you
will use in your research if you will be working with qualitative or mixed
methods. Include citation and reference following the APA format.
Lesson 4 - Locale, Sample and Population of the Study
Pre discussion
The sources of data are the key players of the study. They play a vital role
in the success or failure of the data collection. In order to ensure the clarity and
preciseness of the study respondents, the researcher has to explain how the
participants/respondents are selected and the place where they are taken. This
is what we call inclusive research as illustrated in Figure 14.
Figure 15. Inclusive criteria in selecting the participants in a research study.
What to expect?
1. Identify appropriate locale of the study
2. Determine the sources of data
3. Explain the relationship of population, parameters, samples, and
statistics
Lesson Outline
Research Locale
Research locale discusses the place or setting of the study. It describes in
brief the place where the study is conducted and the rationale behind its choice.
It is a term that refers to a specified area and/ or subject that is being studied in
a research project. It shows the target population and only important features
which have the bearing on the present study are included.
For example, in the study of Cudera et al. (2020), the map of the study area
was included. The map shows the exact location in relation to the community
and its neighboring towns. The study area was also described that includes the
geographical and GPS location as well as brief information about the place
related to the research problem (see the discussion below).
Study area
The study was conducted in Lake Sebu, South Cotabato, Mindanao,
Philippines (700 masl; 6°12'33.00" N 124°42'2.99" E) (Figure 16). Lake Sebu is
known as the Summer and Eco-Cultural Center of South Cotabato. The place
has scenic spots, such as Lake Lahit, Lake Sebu, and Lake Seloton that attract
thousands of visitors. Lake Sebu is a major producer of Tilapia (Oreochromis
niloticus) and forest products, like bamboo and rattan. It is also part of the
Allah Valley Watershed Forest Reserve under the Presidential Decree 2455 of
1985 and Republic Act 7586 (NIPAS or the National Integrated Protected
Areas System Act of 1992). Under NIPAS, the Department of Environment and
Natural Resources (DENR) is mandated to protect and maintain the natural
biological and physical diversities of the environment.
Figure 16. Map of Lake Sebu municipality showing the three (3) sampling sites
enclosed in the red line (Courtesy of the Lake Sebu Office of Municipal
Planning and Development Coordinator)
Sources of Data: Population and Samples
The Population
We are often required to assemble and evaluate information regarding
some common characteristics of a population. It must be stressed at this stage
that in the widest sense a population is more than just a collection of people. It
could refer to a large collection of objects or events which may vary some
characteristic(s).
Examples:
1. All the boys of Divine Word College of Calapan for example, who serve as
subjects for a student’s research into the ratio of height to weight, are a
population.
2. All the stopwatches used in the Asian Games are a population. A
population need not be very large, although the procedures set out in this text
generally assume the existence of extremely large or infinite population.
Characteristics of a population which differ from person to person or object

to object are called variables. Height, weight, age, intelligence, anxiety
differences, reading ability fitness, to name but a few, are examples of human
variables and to these variables we can assign numbers or values.
Once numbers or values are assigned to the population characteristics we

can measure them. The measures which describe population characteristics
are called parameters.
It is not always practical to obtain measures from a total population due to

factors such as expense, time, accessibility, and so the researcher has to
collect his information from a smaller group or ‘subset’ of the population,
assuming that the information gained is representative of the whole population
under study. This smaller group or ‘ subset’ is known as a sample.
Example:
Suppose the population of Divine Word College high school is 800. This is a
large number of subjects for even the most ambitious student researcher to
handle. He would probably settle for some part of that population, choosing a
representative sample involves the use an appropriate formula.
The measures taken from a sample describing the sample characteristics

are called statistics that the population parameters are estimated. The height
to weight ratios of the Divine Word College sample are used to predict the
Divine Word College population height to weight ratio parameter.
The relationship between populations, parameters, samples, and statistics

is represented in Figure 16. A simple way of remembering the relationship is
that statistics is to sample as parameter is to population.
Figure 17. Population, parameters, samples and statistics
Sampling Design and Techniques
Rule of Thumb!
When population is manageable, the entire population is considered; but,
when population is not, sampling technique is used.
Before the collection of data starts in any research project, the proportion of
the population to be used must have been determined already and the
computation of the sample must have been finished
The researcher has to write about the complete procedure he used in
determining his sample. Among the things that the researcher should explain
are:
 The size of the population;
 The study population
 The margin of error and the proportion of the study population used;
 The type or technique of sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster
sampling or a combination of two or more techniques;
 The actual computation of the sample; and
 The sample
The researcher must explain very clearly how he selected his sample. He
must be able to show that his sample is representative of the population by
showing that he used the appropriate technique of sampling. This is very
important because if it appears that his sample is not representative, his
findings and conclusions will be faulty and hence, not valid and reliable.
Essential Concepts and Steps in Sampling

1. Determine the population of individuals, or items, or cases where to find the
data needed. The target population or universe is the totality of possible
individuals, or items, or cases where can be obtained.
Example:
You want to get the perceptions of the clergy from certain churches about
issues of national development in the Philippines. The target population or
universe are all members of the clergy of selected churches in the Philippines.
2. Determine the kind of sample you want to have. Identify the basic units of the
population. This is the sampling element.
• An example of sampling element: a priest is the basic element of the
total target population of priests.
• If you cannot go directly to the sampling elements, identify the sampling
unit, which is the feature of the population where we can get our
sampling element.
• An example of sampling unit: the parish is where the priests can be
found.
• Make a listing of all the sampling units, or directly, of all sampling
elements. This is the sampling frame. For example: Listing all priests in
all parishes which will be selected.
3. Find out what is the appropriate size of the sample, that is, how many of the
sampling elements are needed as sources of data.
a. Compute the sample size. A sample size of at least 30 is needed for

statistical laws of probability to operate. Generally, a “large sample” is useful
when the population is small, and a “small sample” for a large population,
but there are other considerations as costs or research, resources available,
desired level of confidence, peace and other situations.
b. To determine the sample size of the population, a formula by Slovin (1960)
is applicable.
4. Error is the percentage allowable for non-precision since a sample is used

instead of a population.
There are some minimum acceptable sizes depending on the types of
research as follows:
a. Descriptive research: 10 percent of the population. For a smaller
population, a minimum of 20 percent may be required.
b. Correlational research: 30 subjects
c. Experimental research: 15 subjects per group. Some authorities believe
that 30 subjects per group should be considered the minimum for
experimental research.
d. Ex-post facto or causal research: 15 subjects per group
5. Having the desired sample size, get the samples from the sampling frame,
based on the sampling method that you want to use.
For example: Based on the computation for obtaining sample size, and
stratified sampling method, there will be a specified sampling method and there
will be a specific proportional number of priests from each of the churches
Two General Types of Sampling Designs/Methods

1. Probability Sampling:
o Each of the units in the target population has the same chance of being
included in the sample.
o Grater possibility of representative sample of the population
o Conclusion derived from data gathered can be generalized for the
whole population.
2. Non-Probability Sampling:
o No way has that each of the units in the target population had the same
chance of being included in the sample.
o No assurance that every unit has some chance of being included.
o Conclusion derived from data gathered is limited only to the sample
itself.
Types of Probability Sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling. This is the basic probability sampling design. It

means that we are giving every unit of the population an equal chance and
non-zero probability of being included in the sample. In simple terms, we allow
chance and the technique of allowing chance to operate to be the basis of
selection.
Ways of doing simple random sampling are:

1.1 The Lottery Method.
Names of each members of the population are written on different pieces
of paper; are placed in a box and mixed well; the pieces of paper are taken
one at a time until the total sample size is reached.
1.2 The use of a Table of Random Numbers.
Each sampling unit of the population is listed and given a number;
example from 1 to 50. There is a table of random number, from 1 to 50.
Numbers are drawn from this table-for example- 5,10,15. The selected
samples are those in the list numbered, 5, 10, 15 because these matched
the numbers drawn from the table.
2. Systematic Sampling. This is used when there is a ready list of the total
universe or population. The procedures in using this scheme are as follows:
2.1 Get a list of the total universe or population.
2.2 Divide the total population by the desired sample size to get the
sampling interval. Supposing the total population is 5,000 and the desired
sample size is 100, the sampling interval is equal to 5000/100=50.
2.3 Get number 50 in your list as your first sample and every 50th in your list
as your first sample and respondents are chosen out 5,000.
3. Stratified Sampling. This scheme is used to ensure that different groups of

a population are adequately represented in the sample. The procedure in using
this scheme are as follows:
3.1 Get a list of the universe. Determine the different groups according to
criteria.
3.2 Decide on the sampling size or the actual percentage of the universe
that should be considered as sample.
3.3 Get a proportion of sample from each group.
For example: 10 percent sample per group is desired.
500 students x 0.10 = 50
600 businessmen x 0.10 = 60
400 teachers x 0.10 = 40
500 farmers x 0.10 = 20
Total sample = 200
3.4 Select the 200 respondents either by simple random sampling or
systematic sampling.
4. Cluster Sampling. This is used in large-scale surveys.

a. The researcher arrives at the set of sampling units to be included in the
sample by first sampling larger grouping, called cluster.
b. The cluster is selected by simple or stratified sampling.
c. If not all the sampling units in the clusters are to be included in the sample,
the final selection from within the clusters is also carried out by a simple random
or stratified sampling procedure.
For example, a survey of urban households may need a sample of cities;

within each city that is selected, a sample of districts; and within each
selected district, a sample of households.
5. Multi-stage Sampling. This is usually used for national, regional,

provincial or country level studies. The selection of the sample is accomplished
in two or more steps. The steps used in this scheme are as follows:
5.1 Decide on the level of analysis that should be studied, such as
national, regional, provincial, city or municipal levels.
5.2 Determine the sample size per level-stage.
5.3 Obtain the samples per level-stage by random sampling or any
of the other previously discussed methods.
Example: 1st level 3 provinces/region = 3

2nd level 2 municipalities per province = 6
3rd level 2 barangays per municipalities = 12
4th level 5 respondents per barangay = 60
Types of Non-Probability Sampling

1. Accidental or Convenience Sampling. It is obtained when the researcher
selects whatever sampling units are conveniently available.
For example: you have decided on a sample size of 100. You can interview
the first 100 people that you meet.
2. Purposive Sampling. Under this scheme, the sampling units are selected
subjectively by the researcher, who attempts to obtain a sample that appears to
be representative of the population. The chance that a particular sampling unit
will be selected as the sample depends upon the subjective judgment of the
researcher.
3. Quota Sampling. In this method, the researcher determines the sampling

size which should be filled up.
For instance, if it is known that the population has equal numbers of
Catholics and Muslims, the researcher selects an equal number of Catholics
and Muslims in the sample. In quota sampling, researchers have an
assignment of a “quota” or a certain number that must be covered by the
research. It may also be specified how many will be included according to some
criteria such as gender, age, and social class, among others.
4. Snowball Sampling. This type of sampling that starts with the known
sources of information, who or which will in turn give other sources of
information. As this goes on, data accumulates. Snowball sampling is used
when there is inadequate information for making the sampling frame.
5. Networking Sampling. This is used to find socially devalued urban

populations such as addicts, alcoholics, child abusers and criminals, because
they are usually “hidden from outsiders.”
Guidelines for Determining Adequate Sampling
The size of a sample is usually determined before the conduct of any study.
There are no fixed rules in determining the size of a sample needed. However,
there are broad guidelines that should be observed in determining the size of a
sample.
Among these are:
1. When the universe or population is more or less homogenous and
typical, normal, or average is desired to be known, a smaller sample is
enough. However, if difference are desired to be known, a larger sample
is needed.
2. When the population is more or less heterogeneous and only the typical,
normal, or average is desired to be known, a larger sample is needed;
however, if only their differences are desired to be known, a smaller
sample is sufficient.
3. The size of a sample varies inversely as the size of the population. A
larger proportion is required of a smaller population and a smaller
proportion may do for a bigger population. For a population of 5,000 a
sample of 10 percent may do but for a population of five hundred, a
proportion of 30 percent may be required.
4. For greater accuracy and reliability of results, a greater sample is

desirable.
Computing Steps of a Sample Adequately

1. Determine the size of the study population. This is easily determined
from the scope and delimitation of the study.
2. Decide on the margins of error. As much as possible, the margins or
error should not be higher than 5 percent. Probably, 3 percent is an ideal
one.
3. Use the formula:
Where: n = the size of the sample

N = the size of the population
e = the margin error
4. If the sampling is multi-stage or if population is stratified, compute the

sample proportion (percent) by dividing the result in step no.3 by the
population.
5. Multiply the number of sampling units in each final sampling stratum by
the rate (percent) to find the sample from each final sampling stratum.
6. Add the samples from all the final sampling strata to find the total
sample.
Step 1. The population is 4,641
Step 2. The margins of error to be used is 3 percent.
Step 3. Using the formula:
n= 896.4825
n= 900
Step 4. The teachers are grouped into three categories, according to the
branch of science they are handling, so we used stratified sampling.
Sample Proportion (%) = n/N

= 900/4641
= 0.1939
= 0.20
= 20%
Step 5 & 6. Employ the results into tables.
Table 5. Three categories of Science Teachers.
Teachers Handling
Number % Sample
Science Subjects
Biological Science 2243 20 449

Chemistry 1406 20 281
Physical Science 992 20 198
TOTAL sample 4641 928
Note: The margin of error is set at 0.05 when the study is descriptive.
The smaller the margin of error, the larger is the sample size.
Summary
Research locale discusses the place or setting of the study. It describes in
brief the place where the study is conducted and the rationale behind its choice.
A map showing the exact location in relation to the community and its
neighboring towns and only important features which have the bearing on the
present study are included.
Characteristics of a population which differ from person to person or object
to object are called variables. Height, weight, age, intelligence, anxiety
differences, reading ability fitness, to name but a few, are examples of human
variables and to these variables we can assign numbers or values.
Sample are persons, events, places or things used as sources of data.
Population refers to a group of people, objects or events.

Sampling is the process of selecting a representative portion of the
population that can be the source of data to test the hypothesis.
The rule of thumb “when population is manageable, the entire population is
considered; but, when population is not, sampling technique is used.”
Assessment
1. Why is it important to obtain samples of the population and not the entire
population in your study?
2. Compare and contrast probability and non-probability sampling.
Enrichment
Work with your proposed research and answer the following questions. Include
citation and reference using APA format.
1. Describe the locale of the study and show the map of the area.
2. How will you describe the population and parameter of your study?
3. What will be the size of your sample? How will you arrive at this sample size?
4. What sampling method will you use? Why do you prefer this method?
5. How will you do the sampling? List down the steps.
6. What will be the qualifying criteria for the selection of your samples?
Lesson 5 - Data Collecting Techniques
Pre discussion
Once the researcher has conceptualized what data he/she hopes to come
up within his/her research, the next step is how to collect data. To carry out the
research study, the researcher should choose and consider the most
appropriate of fitted research instruments and procedures that will provide for
the collection, tabulation and analysis of data on which the hypotheses may be
tested.
The data gathering instruments that have proven to be useful in various
research investigations include psychological tests and inventories,
questionnaires, opinionnaires, checklist, rating scales, interviews, and
document analysis.
Some researchers use only of the research devises, while others employ a
number of them in combination. It is important that the researcher should make
an effort be familiar with the strengths and weaknesses of the research
instruments and develop skill in constructing and using them effectively.
What to expect?
At the end of the lesson, the students can:
1. Describe different data collection procedures.
2. Determine the type of data collection techniques suitable to the type of
data needed.
3. Develop data collection instruments according to their purposes and
uses.
Lesson Outline
Data Collection
‘Data’ means original information which is collected, stored, accessed,
used or disposed of during the course of the research, and the final report of the
research findings’.
Your research methods may include the collection of information (data)
which can be interpreted or analyzed to frame answers to your research
questions or increase knowledge of your research topic. You can collect this
information in a variety of ways (interviews, surveys, experiments,
observations, critical appraisal of texts, literature or works of art or other
artifacts).
Numerical or Quantitative information is obtained from research methods

such as surveys of populations or from repeated experimental procedures.
When recording the data, it is important to include detailed information (eg
dates and place of collections, methods of measurement, units of
measurement) to minimize confusion. Numerical data are usually recorded on
printed datasheets, then stored in spreadsheet format. Special statistics
software such as SPSS (Statistics Package for Social Sciences) can be used
for data analysis.
Qualitative (non-numerical) information may be recorded in written form
and stored on index cards or as Word files. This material may be coded for
themes using software programs (Nvivo) that search key for keywords or
strings, or it may be done manually. The transcripts may also be treated as
texts for analysis.
Methods of Collecting Data
A. Observations
This process or technique enables the researcher to participate actively in

the conduct of the research. The observation must be done in a quiet and
inconspicuous manner so as to get realistic data. This technique is flexible and
discovery oriented. It also provides the research direct information seeing
things in natural context.
Two types of Observation
Example: Observing participation in an after school program. You have to

determine who, what and when you will observe. To record your observations,
you might use a combination of the following: observation guide, observation
checklist, recording sheet, field note, and picture. Make sure to follow ethical
standards by observing data privacy and consent from the participants.
2. Interview
An interview is considered a research instrument when the respondent
answers orally and the researcher records the answers. In interviews, the
researcher may obtain responses to structured or open-ended questions.
Interviews differ from questionnaires in the sense that the researcher can
modify the data collection situation to fit the respondent’s replies. Additional
information may be obtained or a question can be rephrased.
There are certain guideline that should be observed when conducting the
interview and these are:
 Ask questions as worded
 Ask questions in order and do not lead respondents.
There are three (3) types of interview, namely structured, semi-structured

and unstructured. The table below discusses the advantage and disadvantage
of the three types of interview.
Table 6. Advantages and disadvantages of the three types of Interview.

Issues Structured Semi-structured Unstructured
Number of Involves large With large Involves small
participants number of number of number of
participants participants but is participants
more time
consuming
Amount of Large amount of Large amount of Only small
straightforward data is needed data is needed, amount of data is
data plus added data needed
Researcher’s Inexperienced Inexperienced Expertise of
expertise researcher researcher researcher is not
necessary but
needs control of
conversation
Data gathering Free flow of Free flow of data Yes with free flow
spontaneous data collection but only of data collection,

gathering in a controlled but guidance is
way & to limited needed to limit
extent the data
Notes needed Detailed data is Detailed data is Detailed data is
not necessary, not necessary, required
ticking the except for added
boxes is enough data
Piloting test Absolutely, the questionnaires need pilot testing
Analysis Whatever methods of questionings, as long as you keep
records and work methodically, analysis will be
straightforward.
3. Documentary Analysis
This technique is used to analyze primary and secondary sources that are
available mostly in churches, schools, public or private offices, hospitals or in
community, municipal and city halls. At times, data are not available or are
difficult to locate in these places and the information gathered tend to be
incomplete or not definite and conclusive.
4. Verbal Reports
Verbal reporting may be elicited through thinking aloud, introspection, and

retrospection.
a. Thinking aloud yield rich information kept in short term memory while the
learners are engaged in a particular language task since they are instructed to
say aloud everything they think.
b. Introspection requires the learners to observe and report how their minds
work while performing a particular task.
c. Retrospection investigates thoroughly the subjects for information after they
have performed a particular language task. The learners are asked to describe
their cognitive strategies and mind processes while they were performing the
task.
As experts have noted, some respondents may describe a reflection not
directly related to their cognitive process. Subjects may not be willing to
cooperate, students who are not used to verbalize their thoughts may find it
difficult to say aloud information desired. Or, the learners, wanting to please the
researcher, may provide information which they think the researcher wishes to
obtain. Hence, these problems raise some questions whether data gathered
are a true reflection of the actual processes.
To corroborate data obtained through verbal reports, researchers have
used questionnaires, or written responses for testing the reliability of the data.
Verbal reporting procedures may be used to provide clues to the underlying
mental processes and results should be interpreted carefully.
5. Physiological Measures
The technique applied for physiological measures involves the collection of

physical data from the subjects. It is considered more accurate and objective
than other data collection methods. However, skills and expertise are needed
to enable the researcher to use and manipulate the measurement devices.
Examples of instruments used to collect physiological measures include
thermometer, stethoscope, weighing scale and etc.
4. Questionnaire
It is the most commonly used instrument in research. Questionnaires

consist of pre-arranged questions requiring written responses from the
respondents of the study. It is less expensive, yields more honest responses,
guarantees confidentiality, and minimizes biases based on question-phrasing
models. This procedure is usually used with interviews and other procedures to
collect data on behavior not easily observed.
The questionnaires can be structured or unstructured. Open or
unstructured questionnaires will elicit more descriptive responses like essays
and narratives. The structured questionnaires require respondents to mark
responses or to select from among a number of choices. However, it is possible
to combine open and closed types of questions in the instrument.
Types of Questions
a. Yes or No Type. Items are answerable by “yes” or “no.”
Examples:
Do caregivers have the right to refuse calls? ( ) Yes ( ) No
a. Recognition Type. Alternate responses are already provided, and the

respondents simply choose among the given choices. It also contains
close-ended questions.
Example:
Educational qualifications
_____ Elementary Graduate _____ College Graduate
_____ High School Graduate _____ MA /PhD
_____ Technical Graduate _____ Others; please specify: ___
b. Completion Type. The respondents are asked to fill in the blanks with the
necessary information. Questions are open-ended.
Example:
When I see a misbehaving student, I will, as a teacher, _______________
______________________________________________________________
c. Coding type. Numbers are assigned to names, choices and other pertinent
data. This entails knowledge of statistics on the part of the researcher, as the
application of statistical formula is necessary to arrive at the findings.
Example:
On a scale of one (1) to ten (10), how will you rate the skills of your
manager?
d. Subjective Type. The respondents are free to give their opinions about an
issue of concern.
Example:
What can you say about teachers who are deeply committed to their work?
e. Combination type. The questionnaire is a combination of two or more types

of questions.
Wordings of Questions
To facilitate collection using questionnaire, the questionnaire includes the

following aside from the specific questions eliciting responses on the
phenomena observed and measured:
1. The purpose of the study- for what reason the data obtained will be used.
2. Statement affording protection to the confidentiality of the respondents’
responses.
3. Endorsement of the institution behind the research
4. Legitimacy of the researcher by identifying his name and position
5. Request for cooperation
6. Specific instructions on how the responses to the question may be
marked or answered.
7. State questions in affirmative rather than in a negative manner.
8. Avoid ambiguous questions e.g. those which contain words like many,
always, usually, few.
9. Avoid double-negative questions (e.g. Don’t you disagree with the idea
that minors be not allowed to drink liquors? Aren’t failing students be not
hindered to enroll for the coming years?)
10. Avoid double-barrel questions (e.g. asking two questions in one
question).
Examples: Do you want to run for the Student Council and aim to be
valedictorian?
Characteristics of a good data collection instrument
Well-chosen and well-worded questions represent the most efficient and

effective data-gathering method. The intent of the question and the nature of
the information sought must be clear to the respondent. Since questioning is
primarily a verbal interaction between the investigator and the respondent,
each statement must be linguistically complete and grammatically consistent.

The questions must be specific including the time period concerned, should
signify singleness of purpose to assure that each question seeks specific
response/s and must be free from assumptions and suggestions.
The following are the important points in using questionnaire in data
collection:
1. The questionnaires, as research instrument, require the respondent
either to write answers to questions about the topic or to answer orally.
2. The answers form is usually structured.
3. There are fixed choices or the form may be open.
4. The respondent can use his own words.
5. The key word in questionnaire construction is relevance.
6. It must be concise yet able to elicit the needed data. The length of a
questionnaire must be two to four pages and the maximum time of
answering is ten minutes. A desirable length of each question is less
than 20 words.
7. It seeks information which cannot be obtained from other sources like
documents that are available at hand.
8. Questions must be arranged in sequence, from simplest to complex.
9. It must be arranged according to the questions posed in the statement of
the problem.
10. It should pass validity and reliability.
11. It must be easily tabulated and interpreted.
Scales Commonly Used in an Instrument
1. Likert Scale. It is a common scaling technique which consists of several

declarative statements that express a viewpoint on a topic. The respondents
are asked to indicate how much they agree or disagree with the statements.
Example:
Table 7. Likert scale to measure attitudes towards Mathematics.
ITEMS LIKERT SCALE
1. I am interested in solving numbers and SA A D SD
equations.
2. I enjoy using calculators. SA A D SD
3. I am so engrossed in reading too many SA A D SD
instructions.
4. Symbols and numbers are visibly catchy. SA A D SD
5. I find it easy to memorize formulas. SA A D SD
Legend: SA – Strongly Agree A – Agree D – Disagree SD – Strongly
Disagree
2. Semantic Differential Scale. The respondents are asked to rate concepts in

a series of bipolar adjectives. It has an advantage of being flexible and easy to
construct.
Example:
Table 8. Description of the class president
Competent 5 4 3 2 1 Incompetent
Punctual 5 4 3 2 1 Not punctual
Pleasant 5 4 3 2 1 Unpleasant
Finalizing your Research Instrument and Collection of Data
Once the questions are developed and are taken from published
researches and books, Accad and Accad (2016) mentioned that it is not
advisable to adopt everything because of the following issues.
1. Look for best references. When you adapt everything from
professional/standardized tests, you have to pay the royalty of the copyright
owner. Use these as reference.
2. Think of intellectual property ownership. In the case of other researchers, the
copyright owner will allow you to use their questionnaires for free; however,
your results become a property of the said agency or institution.
3. Examine and revise questions available in open access journals and print
media. You can refer to the instruments used by other foreign authors but you
have to develop your researcher-made questionnaires to suit the objectives or
general focus of your study.
4. Construct your own questions. These are guides in an interview or

observation that fit your focus. You may use other sets of questions as guide.
You have to cite the author or source of such questions to give due credit to
your references.
5. Let it be validated. The comments, suggestions and the corrections given by
experts in connection with their area of specialization should be sought. It is
suggested that the questionnaires be submitted to the thesis/dissertation
adviser for comments, suggestions and corrections. The adviser may suggest
what items are not needed and removed.
6. Let it be pre-tested for reliability. The pretest is used to show if the
questionnaire is well-worded and clear. It is desirable to pretest the instrument
on people in the area where the survey is to be conducted. These are the
pseudo-respondents because they must possess the characteristics similar to
the target participants.
7. Reproduce. Have copies of the questionnaires, make sure to print extra
copies. You might encounter subjects that are available in the area or some
respondents might spoil the instrument, so extra copy is needed.
8. Administer the instruments. Observe properly the suggested procedure in
administering the instrument.
9. Gather the data and sort. In convenience sampling like telephone, email or
social media, you have to observe ethics.
10. Protect all data in both electronic and hard copy.
Summary
Data is defined as an original information which is collected, stored,

accessed, used or disposed of during the course of the research, and the final
report of the research findings. There are two types of data namely quantitative
or qualitative data. The frequently used data collecting techniques are
observation, interview, physiological measures, questionnaires and etc.
Questionnaire is the most commonly used instrument in research. It is
consist of pre-arranged questions requiring written responses from the
respondents of the study. It is categorized as structured or unstructured. The
types of questions include the yes or no, recognition type, completion type,
coding type, subjective type and combination type.
A good data collection instrument must be concise yet able to elicit the
needed data. The commonly used scales in the data collection instruments
include the Likert scale and the semantic differential scale. Questionnaires
should be reliable and valid. Reliability is defined as the degree of consistency
of the research instrument applied. On the other hand, validity is the state or
quality of a data-gathering tool or procedure that enables what it intends to
measure.
Assessment
1. What instrument/s will you use to gather data to answer your research
questions? Describe the instrument/s. Cite your references as well.
2 Why did you choose this/these instrument/s?
Enrichment
Develop your own data gathering instrument for your proposed title.
Lesson 6 - Statistical Treatment
Pre discussion
What is the first thing that comes in mind when we see data? The first
instinct is to find patterns, connections and relationships. Similarly, in research,
once data is collected, the next step is to get insights from it. Data analysis is
how researchers go from a mass of data to meaningful insights. There are
many different data analysis methods, depending on the type of research. In
this lesson, we will explore the statistical method of analyzing quantitative data.
What to expect?
At the end of the lesson, the students can:
1. Discuss the commonly used statistical tools in a quantitative research.
2. Identify an appropriate statistical treatment for the study.
3. Write the statistical treatment of the proposed study.
Lesson Outline
Statistics
It is the body of knowledge and techniques used in collecting, organizing,
presenting, analyzing and interpreting data. It is prerequisite in any research
that the researcher has sufficient knowledge of various statistical techniques.
Two Branches of Statistics

1. Descriptive Statistics. It involves tabulating, depicting and describing the
collected data. The data are summarized to reveal overall data patterns and
make them manageable.
2. Inferential Statistics. It involves making generalizations about the

population through a sample drawn from it. It also includes hypothesis testing
and sampling. Similarly, it is concerned with a higher degree of critical judgment
and advanced mathematical modes such as parametric (interval and scale)
and non-parametric (nominal and ordinal) statistical tools.
Levels of Measurement of Variables
1. Nominal Data. These are attributes that only name variables. These data
are considered at the simplest level.
Examples: Numbers on the uniform of basketball teams; naming the data for
Statistical purposes like “Male – 1” and “Female – 2”; and the students’ favorite
color.
2. Ordinal Data. These are attributes of variables that can be places as one is
higher than two. They can be used for ranking purposes. They are mostly used
in Likert scaling.
Examples: 1 – Very Good 4 – Very Satisfied
2 – Good 3 – Satisfied
3 – Fair 2 - Unsatisfied
4 – Poor 1 – Very Unsatisfied
3. Interval Data. These are attributes of variables where the distance from one
number to the other has meaning.
Examples: Scores of the tests; means; weighted means; the difference in the
temperature between 10 am and 12 pm, etc.
4. Ratio data. These are attributes of variables that has a natural zero.
Examples: weight, height, age, number of customers who complained for the
month, absence of money.
Table 7. Summary of Statistical Tools

Variables Levels of Measurement
Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio
Tables Frequency and Frequency Frequency Frequency
percentage and and and
percentage percentage percentage
Charts Pie chart and Bar graph Histogram,
bar graph stem and leaf
display and
box plot
Central Mode Mode and Mode and Mode and
Tendency median median median
Variations Index of Range and Range, SD, Range, SD,
dispersion interquartile variance, variance,
range coefficient of coefficient of
variation variation
Bivariate
Tables Crosstabs Crosstabs None None
Association Lambda and Gamma and Pearson’s r Pearson’s r
Tau Tau-c and and
coefficient of coefficient of
determination determination
It is also important that the researcher knows how to differentiate the data
he/she is to collect so he/she can choose the appropriate statistical test/s.
Common Statistical Tools
Descriptive Statistics
1. Frequency distribution. It is the record of the number of individuals or

cases located in each category on the scale of measurement.
2. Proportion. It is the total frequency divided by the number of cases in each

category. It can be derived from the frequency distribution.
3. Percentage. It is the proportion expressed in percentage (proportion x 100).
4. Measures of Central Tendencies. It indicates where the center of the

distribution tend to be located. It refers to the typical or average score in a
distribution.
a. Mode. It refers to the most frequently occurring score in a distribution.
b. Median. It is the middlemost value in a distribution below or above which
is exactly 50% of cases that are found.
c. Mean. It is the exact mathematical center of a distribution. It is equal to
the sum of all scores divided by the number of cases.
5. Variability or dispersion. It refers to the extent and manner in which the

scores in a distribution differ from each other.
a. Range. It is the difference between the highest value and the lowest value in
the given distribution.
b. Average deviation. It is the measure of variation that takes into
consideration the deviations of the individual scores from the mean.
c. Variance. It is the square of the standard deviation.
d. Standard deviation. It is the square root of the quotient of the total squared
deviation of the mean and the total number of cases.
Inferential Statistics
1. Parametric tests. These tests require a normal distribution. The level of
measurements must either be interval and ratio.
a. t-test. This test is used to compare two means: the means of two
independent samples or two independent groups or the means of two
correlated samples before and after treatment. It can be used for samples
composed of at least 30 elements.
b. Z-test. It is used to compare two means: the sample mean and the perceived
population mean. It can be used when the sample has 30 or more elements.
c. F-test. Also known as the analysis of variance (ANOVA), it is used when

comparing the means of two or more independent groups. One-way ANOVA is
used when there is one variable involved and two-way ANOVA is used when
there are two variables involved.
d. Pearson product-moment coefficient of correlation. It is an index of

relationship between two variables.
e. Simple linear regression analysis. It is used when there is a significant

relationship between the x and y variables. It is used in predicting the value of y,
given the value of x.
f. Multiple regression analysis. It is used in predictions. The dependent

variable can be predicted given several independent variables.
2. Non-parametric test. It does not require the normal distribution of scores. It

can be utilized when the data are nominal or ordinal.
a. Chi-square test. This is a test of difference between the observed and the
expected frequencies. The chi-square test has three functions:
i. Test of goodness of fit. It is a test of difference between the observed
and expected frequencies.
ii. Test of homogeneity. It is concerned with two or more samples with
only one criterion variable. This test is used to determine if two or more
populations are homogenous.
iii. Test of independence. The sample used in this test consists of
members randomly drawn from the same population. This test is used to
look into which measures are taken or if two criterion variables are either
independent or associated with one in a given population.
b. Spearman’s Rank Order Correlation Coefficient. This is the

non-parametric version of the Pearson product-moment correlation. This
measures the strength and direction of association between two ranked
variable.
The Role of Statistics in Research
With the advent of the computer age, statistics is now playing a vital role in
research. This is true especially in science and technology research.
The role of statistics in research is to function as a tool in designing
research, analyzing its data and drawing conclusions therefrom. Most research
studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be suitably reduced so
that the same can be read easily and can be used for further analysis. Clearly
the science of statistics cannot be ignored by any research worker, even though
he may not have occasion to use statistical methods in all their details and
ramifications.
What functions do statistics perform in research?
1. Statistical method help the researcher in making his research design,

particularly in experimental research. Statistical methods are always
involve in planning a research projects because in some way statistics

directs the research how to gather his data.
2. Statistical techniques help the researcher in determining the validity and
reliability of his research instruments. Data gathered with instruments
that are not valid and reliable are almost useless and so the researcher
must have to be sure that his instruments are valid and reliable.
3. Statistical manipulations organized raw data systematically to make the
latter appropriate for study. Unorganized data cannot be studied. No
inference nor deductions can be made from unorganized data. Statistics
organized data systematically by ordered arrangement, ranking, score
distribution, class frequency distribution or cumulative frequencies.
These make the data appropriate for study.
4. Statistics are used to test the hypothesis. Statistics help the researcher
determine whether his hypotheses are to be accepted or to be rejected.
5. Statistical treatments give meaning and interpretation to data. For
instance, if the standard deviation of the class frequency of a group is
small, we know that the group is more or less homogeneous but if it is
large, the group is more or less heterogeneous.
6. Statistical procedures are indispensable in determining the levels of
significance of vital statistical measures. These statistical measures are
the bases for making inferences, interpretations, conclusions or
generalizations.
Guidelines in the Selection and Application of Statistical Procedures:
1. First of all, the data should be organized using any or all of the following
depending upon what is desired to be known or what is to be computed:
talligram (tabulation table), ordered arrangement of scores, score
distribution, class (grouped) frequency distribution, or scattergram.
2. When certain proportions of the population based on certain variables such

as age, height, income, etc., are desired to be known, frequency counts with
their frequency percent may be used. For further analysis, cumulative
frequencies (up and down) with their respective cumulative frequency

percent (up and down) may also be utilized.
For example, a specific question is “How may the high school science
teachers of Province A be described in terms of sex?” The males were
counted and the females were also counted and their respective percent
equivalents were computed.
3. When the typical, normal or average is desired to be known, the measures

of central tendency such as the median, the mean or the mode may be
computed and used.
4. When the variables being studied are abstract or continuous such that they
cannot be counted individually such as adequacy, efficiency, excellence,
extent, seriousness (of problems), and the like, the weighted mean may be
computed and used if the average is desired to be known. The variable is
divided into categories of descending degree of quality and then each
degree of quality is given a weight. For instance, the question is “How
adequate are the facilities of the school?” Adequacy may be divided into five
degrees of quality such as “very adequate” with the weight of 5, “adequate”
with the weight of 4, “fairly adequate” with a weight of 3, “inadequate” with a
weight of 2, and “very inadequate” with a weight of 1. Then the weighted
mean is computed.
5. When the variability of the population is desired to be known, the measure of

variability such as the range, quartile deviation, average deviation or the
standard deviation may be computed and used. When the measure of
variability or dispersion is small, the group is more or less homogeneous but
when the measure of variability is large, the group is more or less
heterogeneous.
6. When the relative placements of scores or positions are desired to be

known, ranking, quartile or percentile rank may be computed and used.
These measures indicate the relative positions of scores in an ordered

arrangement of the scores.
7. When the significance of the trend of reaction or opinion of persons as a

group toward a certain issue, situation, value or thing is desired to be known
but in which there is a neutral position.
8. When the significance of the difference between the reactions, or opinions

of two distinct groups in which there is a neutral position is desired to be
known, the chi-square of equal probability, two-group, is computed and
used.
For instance, a group of 50 persons, 25 males and 25 females, were asked
to give their reactions to increase the number of curricular years in the
elementary school. Their reactions may be “strongly agree,” “agree,”
“undecided or no opinion,” “disagree,” or “strongly disagree.” If the persons
are considered as a group, the chi-square of equal probability, single group
is computed as in No. 7. However, if the significance of the difference
between the reactions of the males and those of the females is to be
studied, the chi-square of equal probability, two-group, is applied as in No.8.
9. To determine how one variable varies with another, the coefficient of

correlation is computed, as for instance, how the scores of a group of
students in a Mathematics test vary with the scores of the same group of
students in an English test. This is also used to determine the validity of a
test by correlating it with a test of known validity. When the coefficient of
correlation between the two tests is known and a prediction is to be made as
to what score a student gets in a test after knowing his score in the first, the
so-called regression equation is to be utilized.
10. If the significance of the difference between the perceptions of two groups
about a certain situation is to be studied, the computation of the difference
between means is to be made.
Example: Is there a significant difference between the perceptions of

the teachers and those of the students about the facilities of the school? To
answer this question, the significance of the difference of two means is to be
used. The statistical measure computed is called t.
• The t is also used to determine the usefulness of a variable to which one
group is called the experimental group is exposed and a second group
called control group is not exposed. For instance, the question is: “Does
guidance improve instruction?” Create two matched group to guidance
while the control group is not exposed to guidance. At the end of the
experimental period, give the same test to the two groups. Then compute
the t which will show if guidance is an effective aid to instruction.
11. To determine the relative effectiveness of the different ways of doing things
to which different randomized groups are respectively exposed to and only
a post test is given to the different groups, analysis of variance is
appropriate to use. For instance, a teacher wants to find out the relative
effectiveness of the following methods of communication: pure lecture,
lecture-demonstration, recitation-discussion, the seminar type of instruction
in science. Four groups of students are formed randomly and each
assigned to one method. The four groups study the same lessons and after
a certain period given the same test. By analysis of variance, the relative
effectiveness of the four methods will be revealed.
12. To determine the effects of some variables upon a single variable to which
they are related, partial and multiple correlations are suggested to be used.
For example, the question is: Which is most related to the passing of a
licensing engineering examination: college achievement grades, or
percentile ranks in aptitude tests, general mental ability test, vocational and
professional interest inventory, or National College Entrance
Examination? The process of partial and multiple correlation will reveal the
pure and sole effect of each of the independent variables upon the
dependent variable, the passing of the licensing examination.
13. To determine the association between two independent variables, the

chi-square of independence or chi-square of multiplication may be used.
The question answered by this statistical process is: Is there an association
between education and leadership? Or, the level of education and the ability
to acquire wealth? Or, between social ability and economic status?
Summary
The role of statistics in research serves as a tool in designing research,

analyzing its data and drawing conclusions therefrom. Descriptive statistics
concern the development of certain indices from the raw data, whereas
inferential statistics concern with the process of generalization.
The common statistical tools used in descriptive statistics are frequency
distribution, proportions, percentages, measures of central tendencies (mean,
median, mode) and variability of dispersion (range, average deviation,
variance, standard and standard deviation).
The common statistical tools used in inferential statistics are parametric
test (t-test, z-test, f-test, Pearson product-moment coefficient of correlation,
simple linear regression analysis) and non-parametric tests (chi-square test).
Assessment
Answer the following questions.

1. What is the importance of statistics in research?
2. What functions do statistics perform in research?
Enrichment
Using your approved title, complete the entries in the research methodology of
your study. Discuss in the following:
1. Research design
2. Locale of the Study
3. Respondents of the Study
4. Sampling technique
5. Data Gathering Instrument
6. Data gathering procedures (Include ethical considerations -refer to the
previous lesson on ethics)
7. The statistical tools and treatments
Refer to the samples of research studies conducted by the faculty researchers

of Sultan Kudarat State University.
Sample 1. Example of the methods of the qualitative research study conducted

by Accad et al. (2015) entitled: Tribal Flags and their Significance to the Culture
and Traditions of Maguindanaon Tribes in the Philippines
This study utilized a descriptive research design. Qualitative approach to the

various authentic and modernized tribal flags was also employed to determine,
describe and compare the color, design, sewing technique in such ornamental
material with emphasis on ethical standards by Groenewald (2004) and
Munhull (1988).The respondents of this study are the elders, makers of the flag
and flaglets, as emphasized by Rubin & Rubin (2005), to generate personality,
perspectives and idiosyncrasies .The sensitivity of inquiry (Lee and Renzetti
1993) is triangulated with the Tourism Council of Cotabato City and senior
Maguindanaon cultural enthusiasts and tribal elders. Other respondents are
identified using snowball technique. The process of moving from raw interviews
to evidence-based interpretations (Rubin & Rubin 2005) helps to elicit
information on the cultural significance of tribal flags.The study was conducted
in the different communities of Cotabato City using interview schedule of ninety
minutes or 2-3 hours, 3 session interviews (Hermanowicz, 2002; Seidman,
1998) , 1 ½ to 2 hours transcripts: 15,000-20,000 words (Eliot, 2001) , to ten
(10) key informants (Morse, as cited in Mason 2010).. The locale is the only
producer of traditional Maguindanaon flags. Another approach used was
observation for which validated semi structure observation checklist was used.
An analysis on color, dimensions and design was done using actual
photographs and each sample subject was analyzed in common aspects since
validity is more important instead of reliability through credibility, transferability,
dependability and conformability of data (Kalof, Dan & Dietz, 2008).
Sample 2. Example of the methods of the qualitative research conducted by

Cristobal (2020) entitled: Modular-Based Approach and Students’ Achievement
in Literature
METHODS
This study was conducted at the Sultan Kudarat State University
particularly in the College of Teacher Education, ACCESS, EJC Montilla,
Tacurong City, Sultan Kudarat, Philippines.
Research Design
This study used the comparative-experimental research design to
determine the effectiveness of the Modular-Based Approach in Teaching
Mythology and Folklore in terms of its content, relevance and mechanics.
Based on the performance of the experimental and control groups and on the
evaluation of the expert validators.
Respondents of the Study

The participants of this study were the Third Year Bachelor of Secondary
Education (BSED) students major in English during the Second Semester
School Year 2015-2016. The respondents were grouped into control and
experimental groups. The groupings were based on their GPA during the
previous semester. The first group of students with the highest GPA did not
utilize the module thus, the Control Group. The experimental group utilized the
module in teaching Mythology and Folklore. Based on the students’ general
point average (GPA) of their grades on the first semester, they were grouped
into control and experimental. Students with GPA of 85 and be-low were the
prime respondents. The experimental group was taught by the researcher
himself, using the developed module for three (3) months; while, the control
group was taught in the conventional way for the same period of time.
Research Instrument
The instruments for this research were the module in teaching mythology
and folklore, the test instrument, and the validation instruments which were
accomplished by a panel of evaluators composed of 5 English instructors from
Sultan Kudarat State University (SKSU), Department of Education (DepEd),
and from Notre Dame of Tacurong College (NDTC), who were experts in their
field of specialization.
A fifty-item pretest was conducted to both groups. The pretest items were
based on the module emphasizing the Greek, Roman, Egyptian, Norse and
Filipino Mythologies. Additionally, comparative-experimental research design
was employed in the study. On the other hand, BSED students assessed the
module in terms of acceptability, reliability, validity and usability.
The indicators were tailored after the criteria set in evaluating instructional
materials adapted from the study of Falsario (2011). A five-point scale type of
questionnaire was employed with the corresponding interpretation.
Data Gathering Procedure

The researcher formulated a survey questionnaire which was divided into
two parts; Part 1 contained an item that deals the profile of the respondents,
while the Part 2 contained an item that dealt on the content, relevance and
mechanics of the module.
The questionnaires were gathered and the results were tallied and
tabulated. It employed statistical analysis; the mean was determined and its
interpretation was based on the Likert’s Scale with the assistance of statistician
for valid and reliable results.
Statistical Treatment
The mean scores were used in evaluating the effectiveness of the
developed module in terms of content, relevance and mechanics and its
acceptability, reliability, usability and validity based on the learning
achievement of the students in the control and experimental groups during the
pretest and post-test.
The t-test was used in determining the significant difference on the scores
between students in the control group and from the experimental group during
the Pretest and Post-test.
References
Accad, M.F., Nor, A.K.N. & Accad, A.S. (2015). Tribal Flags and their
Significance to the Culture and Traditions of Maguindanaon Tribes in the
Philippines. IMPACT: International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts
and Literature (IMPACT: IJRHAL) 3 (6). 61-70.
Ambayon, C.M. (2020). Modular-Based Approach and Students’ Achievement

in Literature. International Journal of Education & Literacy Studies,
8(3):32-36.
Aquino, G.V. (1971). Essentials of research and thesis writing. Manila:

Alemar-Phoenix Publishing House.
Bueno, D.C. (2016). Educational research writing made easy. Quezon City:
Great Books Trading
Calderon, J.F. (2000). Methods of Research and thesis writing. Manila: Rex
Book Store.
Creswell, J. (2013). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design. Choosing

among five traditions. Thousand Oaks. CA:Sage.
David-Paras, W. (2018). Book and Workbook on Educational Research.

Mutya Publishing House Company.
Descriptive Research: Definition, Characteristics, Methods, Examples and

Advantages. Retrieved: September 24, 2020, from https://www.question
pro.com/blog/descriptive-research/.
Fokufoka, S. (2014). Qualitative Methods of Research. Philippine Association

of Institutions in Research Conference. Cagayan de Oro City.
McCombes, S. (2020). How to create a research design. Retrieved:

September 24, 2020, from https://www.scribbr.com/research-process/
research-design/.
Nieswiadomy, R. (2004). Foundation of Nursing Research. 4th Ed. Upper

Saddle River; New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Raghunath, P. Types of Qualitative Research. Retrieved: September 25,

2020, from https://www.editage.com/insights/types-of-qualitative-research-
methods?refer=scroll-to-1-article&refer-type=article.
Richey, R. (2005). Developmental Research Methods: Creating Knowledge

from Instructional Design and Development Practice. Journal of
Computing in Higher Education, 16(2). 23-38.
CHAPTER 7
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Overview
This chapter presents analyzes and interprets the data gathered out of the
instruments used in the study presented according to a specific problem. This is
the reiteration of the research problems by way straight presentation of results
vis-à-vis research hypothesis and research questions. The presentation of the
findings should be based on each of the problems.
This is the process of organizing data into logical, sequential, and
meaningful categories and classification to make them amenable to the study
and interpretation. Analysis and presentation put data into proper order and in
categories reducing them into intelligible forms and interpretation so that the
relationships between the research specific questions and their intended
answers can be established.
Finally, the summary, conclusions, and recommendations are the last
chapter of the thesis and the most important part because it is here where the
findings, and the whole thesis for that matter, are summarized; generalizations
in the form of conclusions are made; and the recommendations for the solution
of problems discovered in the study are addressed to those concerned.

of the following:
 Analysis, presentation and interpretation of the data
 Summary, conclusion and recommendation
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
1. Write the analysis, presentation, and interpretation of data.
2. Break down the data into constituent parts to answer the research
questions or test the research hypothesis.
3. Write the findings of the research study.
4. Employ the guidelines in writing a summary of findings, conclusions, and

recommendations.
Lesson 1 – Data Presentation
Pre-discussion
These days, we’re inundated with information. Everyone’s suffering from

data overload, and many people feel like they’re drowning in information.
Compared to what people in the 1980s had to deal with, we receive 5 times
more information – the equivalent of 174 newspapers per day. When we take a
closer look at our brain, we see that it has a highly visual nature. Indeed, 90%
of the information transferred is visual. Likewise, studies show that people
remember 80% of what they see and do, but only 30% what they read. Visuals
are processed 60,000 times faster than text. Thus, researchers have to
organize data visually for the readers to easily grasp the results of the study.
Figure 18. Visual can easily capture the audience.
What to expect
1. Prepare the graphs, tables, and figures of the gathered data.
2. Write the data in a tabular, graphical or textual in a prescribed form.
3. Describe the data in proper order or categories and reduce the data to
forms that are intelligible and interpretable.
Lesson Outline
Presentation of Data
After the collection of data and treating them with appropriate statistical
formula, the presentation follows. The commonly used tools of data
presentation are figures, tables and graphs. These are tools to clearly and
easily present one or more sets of data series to the reader. It also shows the
result of the data analysis through statistical methods.
Graphs
A graph is a chart representing the quantitative variations or changes of a

variable itself, or quantitative changes of a variable in comparison with those of
another variable or variables in pictorial or diagrammatic form.
Purpose of Graphing
1. It attracts attention more effectively than do tables, and, therefore, is less
likely to be overlooked.
2. The use of colors and pictorial diagrams make a list of figures in business
reports more meaningful.
3. It gives a comprehensive view of quantitative data.
4. Graphs enable the busy executive of a business concern to grasp the
essential facts quickly and without much trouble.
5. Their general usefulness lies in the simplicity they add to the presentation
of numerical data.
Limitations of Graphs
1. Graphs do not show as much information at a time do as tables.
2. Graphs do not show data as accurately as the tables do.
3. Charts require more skill, more time, and more expense to prepare than
tables.
4. Graphs cannot be quoted in the same way as tabulated data.
5. Graphs can be made only after the data have been tabulated.
Types of Graphs
1. Column – this graph shows the differences in individual values
vertically. It can be used to show the differences between values in
different time periods or other data groupings. This graph works best
with one to three data series.
Figure 19. Sample Column Graph
2. Line – This graph is a good device to show variations of values over

successive periods of time. It is usually best to have equal tie intervals
along the horizontal axis of the graph.
Figure 20. Sample Line Graph

3. Pie – This graph shows the comparison of the proportional sizes of the
component parts that make up the whole, the whole being made
equivalent to 100%.
Figure 21. Sample Pie Graph
4. Area - This graph shows the relationship of different parts to a whole

over time. Examples are the enrollment statistics of a school for the last
5 years or the sales marketing by region for the year. This is best used
for four to six data series.
Figure 22. Sample Area Graph
5. Box Plot – Is also called box-and-whisker plots or box-whisker plots. It

gives a good graphical image of the concentration of the data. They also
show how far the extreme values are from most of the data. A box plot is
constructed from five values: the minimum value, the first quartile, the
median, the third quartile, and the maximum value. We use these
values to compare how close other data values are to them.
Figure 23. Sample of a box plot (Dalayap et al., 2011)
6. Scatter Plot - A scatter plot (aka scatter chart, scatter graph) uses dots
to represent values for two different numeric variables. The position of
each dot on the horizontal and vertical axis indicates values for an
individual data point. Scatter plots are used to observe relationships
between variables.
Figure 24. Sample of a scatter plot (Dalayap et al., 2011)
Key Graph Elements
1. Colors. Make sure that there is enough contrast between the background
color and the color of each data series so that the information is clearly seen by
the readers. These colors should also be consistent with the overall color
scheme of the slides so that the graph does not look out of place.
2. Depth. The depth of the graph refers to whether the graph is 2D or 3D.
Selecting between the two is simply an aesthetic choice.
3. Axes. Graphs excluding the pie graph have two axes. One is for data values
and the other is for the time scale or how the data is separated. Make sure that
axis labels indicate values and are clearly displayed.
4. Data Labels. When the data value in a graph needs to be more clearly
indicated, a data label can be used. This is a text box that contains the actual
data value. Make sure the text is legible with the color contrasting the
background.
5. Title. The title should focus on the interpretation of the data and not on the
data themselves.
6. Legend. If there are more than one data series on a graph, text labels should
be added to indicate each series instead of using a legend on the graph.
Tables
Tables provide exact values and illustrate results efficiently as they enable
the researcher to present a large amount of data in a small amount of space.
The data, usually shown as specific numerical figures, are arranged in an
orderly display of rows and columns to aid in comparison.
Elements of Tables using the APA Format

1. Number. Each table should have a number, preferably in Arabic for
reference purposes.
2. Title. The title should tell about the following:
a. The subject matter that said table deals with;
b. Where such subject matter situated, or to what entity or persons in belongs

or from whom the data about subject matter were gathered;
c. When data about such subject matter were gathered or time period when
such data were existent; and
d. Sometimes how the data about such subject matter are classified.
3. Headings. Keep headings clear and brief. The heading should not be much
wider than the widest entry in the column. Use of standard abbreviations can
aid in achieving that goal. There are several types of headings:
 Stub headings describe the lefthand column, or stub column, which
usually lists major independent variables.
 Column headings describe entries below them, applying to just one
column.
 Column spanners are headings that describe entries below them,
applying to two or more columns which each have their own column
heading. Column spanners are often stacked on top of column headings
and together are called decked heads.
 Table Spanners cover the entire width of the table, allowing for more
divisions or combining tables with identical column headings. They are
the only type of heading that may be plural.
4. Body. The body is the main part of the table, which includes all the reported
information organized in cells (intersections of rows and columns). Entries
should be center aligned unless left aligning them would make them easier to
read (longer entries, usually). Word entries in the body should use sentence
case. Leave cells blank if the element is not applicable or if data were not
obtained; use a dash in cells and a general note if it is necessary to explain
why cells are blank. In reporting the data, consistency is key: Numerals
should be expressed to a consistent number of decimal places that is
determined by the precision of measurement. Never change the unit of
measurement or the number of decimal places in the same column.
5. NOTES. There are three types of notes for tables: general, specific, and
probability notes. All of them must be placed below the table in that order.
a. General notes explain, qualify or provide information about the table as a
whole. Put explanations of abbreviations, symbols, etc. here.
b. Specific notes explain, qualify or provide information about a particular

column, row, or individual entry.
c. Probability notes provide the reader with the results of the tests for
statistical significance.
Figure 25. Parts of the Table
Figures
Figures include all graphical displays of information that are not tables.
Common types include graphs, charts, drawings, maps, plots, and photos. Just
like tables, figures should supplement the text and should be both
understandable on their own and referenced fully in the text.
Guidelines in Preparing Figures
In preparing figures, communication and readability must be the ultimate

criteria. Avoid the temptation to use the special effects available in most
advanced software packages. While three-dimensional effects, shading, and

layered text may look interesting to the author, overuse, inconsistent use, and
misuse may distort the data, and distract or even annoy readers. Line
drawings are usually a good option for readability and simplicity; for
photographs, high contrast between background and focal point is important,
as well as cropping out extraneous detail to help the reader focus on the
important aspects of the photo.
Figure 26. Parts of a Figure
Parts of a Figure
APA Style figures have the following basic components:

1. Number: The figure number (e.g., Figure 1) appears above the figure title
and image in bold font. Number figures in the order in which they are
mentioned in your paper.
2. Title: The figure title appears one double-spaced line below the figure
number. Give each figure a brief but descriptive title, and capitalize the
figure title in italic title case.
3. Image: The image portion of the figure is the graph, chart, photograph,
drawing, or other illustration itself. If text appears in the image of the figure
(e.g., axis labels), use a sans serif font between 8 and 14 points.
4. Legend: A figure legend, or key, if present, should be positioned within the
borders of the figure and explains any symbols used in the figure image.
Capitalize words in the figure legend in title case.
5. Note: Three types of notes (general, specific, and probability) can appear
below the figure to describe contents of the figure that cannot be
understood from the figure title, image, and/or legend alone (e.g.,
definitions of abbreviations, copyright attribution, explanations of asterisks
use to indicate p values). Include figure notes only as needed.
Figure 27. Sample of a figure (Dalayap et al., 2011)
Summary
After the collection of data and treating them with appropriate statistical
formula, the presentation follows. The commonly used tools of data
presentation are figures, tables and graphs. Graphs show relations -

comparisons and distributions - in a set of data like absolute values, percentage
or index numbers. Some of the types of graphs include column, line, pie, area,
box plot and scatter plot. There are six key graph elements: color, depth, axis,
data label, title, and legend. Tables provide exact values and illustrate results
efficiently as they enable the researcher to present large amount of data in a
small space. Figures include all graphical displays of information that are not
tables. Common types of figures include graphs, charts, drawings, maps, plots,
and photos. APA has its own described format for the table and figure.
Assessment
1. Construct a table and graphs for the following data: The enrollment of
Canalaon High School, 1990-1991 follows:
First year, boys, 124, girls, 141
Second year, boys, 115, girls, 139
Third year, boys, 109, girls, 128
Fourth year, boys, 98, girls, 115
Enrichment
1. Look for references related with your proposed study and explore how the
data are presented in the research article. Include the reference.
Lesson 2 – Analysis and Data Interpretation
Pre-discussion
We are now in the final stage of research writing, which is analysis and
data interpretation. The results and discussion sections are one of the
challenging sections to write. It is important to plan this section carefully as it
may contain a large amount of scientific data that needs to be presented
clearly, concisely and with proper citation. This makes the results and
discussion sections as one of the challenging sections to write. The purpose of
a Results section is to present the key results of your research. Results and
discussions can either be combined into one section or organized as separate
sections depending on the requirements of the journal to which you are
submitting your research paper, thus, what is included in this lesson is all about
how to present data, analyze, and interpret the data.
Figure. 28. Proper citation is also included in the discussion.
What to expect
1. Discuss ways of presenting, analyzing and interpreting data.
2. Formulate the presentation, analysis and interpretation of data.
Lesson Outline
Analysis of Quantitative Data
Numbers or figures simply presented will not be easily comprehended and

their significance will not be determined without a correct analysis. Analysis is
the process of breaking a whole into parts. The researcher must be critical in
looking at details to prove or disproves a certain theory or claim.
In analyzing the quantitative data, the following must be considered.
1. The highest numerical value such as scores, means, percentage, variability,

etc.
2. The lowest numerical values such as scores, weighted means, percentage,
variability, etc.
3. The most common numerical values like mode or values that appear
repeatedly.
4. The final numerical value like the average weighted mean, total, chi-square
value, correlation index, etc.
Interpretation of Qualitative Data
The following are the levels of interpretation which are considered in

organizing discussion of the results of findings.
1. Level 1. Data collected are compared and contrasted. Unexpected
results if any, may be mentioned. The researcher is allowed to comment on
certain shortcomings of the study but should not concentrate too much on the
flaws.
2. Level 2. The researcher should explain the internal validity of the results
as well as their consistency or reliability. The causes or factors that may have
influenced the results may also be described.
3. Level 3. The researcher should explain the external validity of the
results, that is, their generality or applicability to external conditions.
4. Level 4. The researcher should relate or connect the interpretation of
data with theoretical research or with the reviewed literature.
Discussion of Data
The following must be considered in the discussion of data:
1. The flow of the discussion of results or findings is based on how the problems
are stated.
2. The manner or sequence of discussion should include the following
a. Discussion of the findings in relation to the results of previous studies cited in
the review of related literature and studies.
b. Implications, inferences, and other important information.
Example 1: An excerpt in the results of the research conducted by De Guzman

and Cerado (2016) entitled: Appreciating the Local Government Support to
Basic Education in Lambayong Districts.
Figure5 shows how efficient schools are when described using cohort survival
and drop-out rates as measures. Cohort survival rate explains the percentage
of a cohort of pupils who are able to reach Grade VI. In contrast, drop-out rate
(or school leavers
rate) is the proportion of pupils who leave school during the year as well as
those who complete the grade but fail to enroll in the next grade level the
following school year, to the total number of pupils enrolled during the previous
school year (Llego, 2015). As illustrated, it is apparent that cohort survival rates
keep on declining since 2009 until 2013; except in 2012, wherein, it almost
recovers its previous level three (3) years ago. The average rate for cohort
survival is only 56.41, that is, extremely low from the national average of 74.55
percent. It means that out of 100 pupils who entered Grade I, merely 56 of them
have completed elementary in 6 years-time or so.
In terms of drop-out rate, the trend denotes apparent probability as the pattern
demonstrates a regular fluctuation every year. The highest occurrence of
drop-out is noted in 2011 reaching extremely high as 4.15. Despite this measly
achievement, the typical drop-out rate remained at 2.46 or nearly 3. By chance,
this is relatively better than the national average computed on the same period,
that is, 6.24 percent.
Example 2. An excerpt of the result of the research study conducted by Naanep

et al. (2018) entitled: Participatory Assessment of Farmer Livestock School on
Goat Enterprise Management in SOCSKSARGEN, Philippines
The frequency distribution of types of adoptors and their technology mixes

adopted is presented in Table I. Results showed that the results during
participatory. assessment revealed that 37 adoptors equivalent 78.72% were
early adoptors indicating that they adopted tethering before FLS- GEM but
shifted to either partial confinement during the duration of the season long FLS-
GEM of the following technology mixes on proper housing, stallfeeding of
grasses, strategic deworming, vitamin and antibiotic supplementation and
upgrading of stock using either upgraded buck or artificial insemination.
However, four (4) adoptors (8.51%) were late adoptors of either partial or
complete confinement with the following mixes adopted after the training such
as vitamin/antibiotic supplementation, stock selection for breeding. On the
other hand, six (6) were non adoptors indicating they had already using partial
or complete confinement even before their training due to their previous training
on goat production. This implies that the two (2) months of participatory
technology development in their respective farms had convinced themselves of
the advantages or benefits of adopting such technology mixes.
Analysis and Interpreting Qualitative Data
Analyzing Data
Qualitative data analysis involves the identification, examination, and

interpretation of patterns and themes in textual data and determines how these
patterns and themes help answer the research questions at hand.
Qualitative analysis is (NSF, 1997):
 Not guided by universal rules
 Is a very fluid process that is highly dependent on the evaluator and the
context of the study
 Likely to change and adapt as the study evolves and the data emerges.
Therefore, this section will provide a loosely structured guide for the steps you
should take when analyzing qualitative data.
Questions to ask yourself throughout the qualitative analysis process

While analyzing your qualitative data it is important that you continuously
ask yourself the following types of questions:
1. What patterns/common themes emerge around specific items in the data?
How do these patterns (or lack thereof) help to shed light on the broader
study question(s)?
2. Are there any deviations from these patterns? If, yes, what factors could
explain these atypical responses?
3. What interesting stories emerge from the data? How can these stories
help to shed light on the broader study question?
4. Do any of the patterns/emergent themes suggest that additional data
needs to be collected? Do any of the study questions need to be revised?
5. Do the patterns that emerge support the findings of other corresponding
qualitative analyses that have been conducted?
Steps in Qualitative Data Analysis

1. Immediately process the information. As soon as data is collected it is
critical that you immediately process the information and record detailed notes.
2. Begin Analyzing as Data is Being Collected. The moment the first pieces
of data are collected you should begin reviewing the data and mentally
processing it for themes or patterns that were exhibited. It is important to do
this early so that you will be focused on these patterns and themes as they
appear in subsequent data you collect.
3. Data Reduction. Qualitative studies generally produce a wealth of data but

not all of it is meaningful. After data has been collected, you will need to
undergo a data reduction process in order to identify and focus in on what is
meaningful. This is the process of reducing and transforming your raw data.
It is your job as the evaluator to comb through the raw data to determine what
is significant and transform the data into a simplified format that can be
understood in the context of the research questions (Krathwohl, 1998; Miles
and Huberman, 1994; NSF, 1997). When trying to discern what is meaningful
data you should always refer back to your research questions and use them as
your framework. Additionally, you should rely on your own intuition as the
evaluator and the expertise of other individuals with a thorough understanding
of the program.
4. Identifying Meaningful Patterns and Themes. In order for qualitative data

to be analyzable it must first be grouped into the meaningful patterns and/or
themes that you observed. This process is the core of qualitative data analysis.
This process is generally conducted in two primary ways:
 Content analysis
 Thematic analysis
The type of analysis is highly dependent on the nature of the research
questions and the type(s) of data you collected. Sometimes a study will use
one type of analysis and other times, a study may use both types
Content analysis is carried out by:

1. Coding the data for certain words or content
2. Identifying their patterns
3. Interpreting their meanings.
This type of coding is done by going through all of the text and labeling
words, phrases, and sections of text (either using words or symbols) that relate
to your research questions of interest. After the data is coded you can sort and
examine the data by code to look for patterns.
Thematic analysis – grouping the data into themes that will help answer the
research question(s). These themes may be (Taylor-Powell and Renner,
2003):
 Directly evolved from the research questions and were pre-set before
data collection even began, or
 Naturally emerged from the data as the study was conducted.
Once your themes have been identified it is useful to group the data into
thematic groups so that you can analyze the meaning of the themes and
connect them back to the research question(s).
5. Data Display
After identifying themes or content patterns, assemble, organize, and
compress the data into a display that facilitates conclusion drawing. The
display can be a graphic, table/matrix, or textual display.
 Regardless of what format you chose, it should be able to help you
arrange and think about the data in new ways and assist you in
identifying systematic patterns and interrelationships across themes
and/or content (Miles and Huberman, 1994; NSF, 1997).
 Through this process you should be able to identify patterns and
relationships observed within groups and across groups. For example,
using our Summer Program study, you could examine patterns and
themes both within a program city and across program cities.
6. Conclusion Drawing and Verification

Conclusion drawing and verification are the final step in qualitative data
analysis. To draw reasonable conclusions, you wil need to (Krathwohl, 1998;
Miles and Huberman, 1994; NSF, 1997):
 Step back and interpret what all of your findings mean. Look for the
related literature, reading and studies that help you explain positively
or negatively your interpretation. The more reference cited the stronger
and scientific is your expression of implication as you interpret the data.
State how your findings relate to those of other researchers cited in the
Literature review.
 Determine how your findings help answer the research question(s)
 Draw implications from your findings
To verify these conclusions, you must revisit the data (multiple times) to
confirm the conclusions that you have drawn.
Example: A sample of the results of the qualitative data of the research entitled:
Cultural and ecological significance of Odonata (Insecta) to the T'boli of Lake
Sebu, Mindanao, Philippines (Cudera et al., 2020).
Traditional methods of collecting Odonata

The collection of Odonata is categorized into subthemes such as the
following: the place of collection or habitat, availability (time and month of
collection), morphology, abundance, mode of collection, storage technique,
collectors involved, and rituals performed during collection. To provide a deeper
insight on the participants’ knowledge in collecting the Odonata, the
anonymized quotations are shown in Table 3.
The T'boli participants discussed that the larvae are available in the river all
year round, but they have observed that these are most abundant during the
wet season. The T'boli living near the river are the “expert” collectors of the
larvae. They handpick Odonata during the day, moving the stones in the river to
see them under the water (Figure 6). The larvae driven by the water can be
collected using a net. They can easily identify the larvae based on their
appearance and collect them along with other aquatic organisms. Nowadays,
the collected insects are commonly placed in a bottle or plastic container filled
with water to keep them alive (Figure 6).
Species with a complex life cycle – an aquatic larval stage and a terrestrial
adult stage – such as Odonates (dragonflies and damselflies) occupy different
ecosystems (Stoks and Cordoba-Aguilar 2012). The Odonata larvae live in
freshwater environment, both in running and standing waters (Kalkman et al.
2008) such as the river and lakes in the municipality of Lake Sebu. The T'boli
search under the stones, algae, and leaf litters when collecting the larvae.
Summary
In a quantitative research, the presentation, analysis and interpretation are

placed in the end part of the research paper before the summary of findings,
conclusion and recommendation sections. The major elements of the section
are the presentation, analysis, interpretation and discussion of data. Analysis is
a process of breaking a whole into parts. In the analysis of data, the following
must be considered: the highest numerical value, lowest numerical value, most
common numerical value and final numerical value. There are four levels of
interpretation of data. Each level increases to the depth in which the information
is interpreted. The following are considered in the discussion of the data: flow of
discussion and the manner or sequence of discussion.
Qualitative data analysis involves the identification, examination, and
interpretation of patterns and themes in textual data and determines how these
patterns and themes help answer the research questions. Steps in Qualitative
Data Analysis include the following: Immediately process the information, begin
analyzing as data is being collected, data reduction, identifying meaningful
patterns and themes, data display, conclusion drawing and verification.
Assessment / Enrichment
1. Using the Venn Diagram, compare and contrast quantitative and qualitative
data analysis.
Lesson 3 - Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation
Pre-discussion
This chapter presents the summary of the study; the synopsis of the
research objectives, hypothesis, research methodology, sampling designs,
consideration in determining sample, the subjects, research instruments,
measurement and data collection and processes, and statistical treatment.
This part of the study states in concise form the findings based on the
analysis and interpretation of the data gathered out of the research instruments
used and presented according to a specific problem in Chapter 1.
Generalization in the form of conclusions are presented and the solutions to the
problems are offered in the form of recommendations.
What to expect
1. Use the guidelines in writing the summary of findings, conclusion, and
recommendations;
2. Formulate generalizations for the population and circumstances of the
research study; and
3. Write implications for the field or academic discipline represented by the
problem.
Lesson Outline
Summary of Findings
Guidelines in writing the summary of findings. The following should be the
characteristics of the summary of findings:
1. There should be a brief statement about the main purpose of the study, the
population of respondents, the period of the study, the method of research
used, the research instrument, and the sampling design. There should be no
explanations made.
Example. (Using the hypothetical study of teaching science in the high school
of Province A) This study was conducted for the purpose of determining the
status of teaching science in the high schools of Province A. the descriptive
method of research was utilized and the normative survey technique was used
for gathering the data. The questionnaire served as the instrument for collecting
data. All the teachers handling science and a 20 percent representative sample
of the students were the respondents. The inquiry was conducted during the
school year 1989-90.
2. The findings may be lumped up all together but clarity demands that each
specific question under the statement of the problem must be written first to be
followed by the findings that would answer it. The specific questions should
follow the order they are given under the statement of the problem.
Example. How qualified are the teachers handling science in the high schools
of Province A?
Of the 59 teachers, 31 or 53.54 percent were BSE graduates and three or
5.08 percent were MA degree holders. The rest, 25 or 42.37 percent, were
non-BSE baccalaureate degree holders with at least 18 education units. Less
that half of all the teachers, only 27 or 45.76 percent were science majors and
the majority, 32 or 54.24 percent were non-science majors.
3. The findings should be textual generalizations, that is, a summary of the

important data consisting of text and numbers. Every statement of fact should
consist of words, numbers, or statistical measures woven into a meaningful
statement. No deduction, nor inference nor interpretation should be made
otherwise it will only be duplicated in the conclusion. See the example in No.2
just above.
4. Only the important findings, the highlights of the data, should be included in
the summary, especially those upon which the conclusion should be based.
5. Findings are not explained nor elaborated upon anymore. They should be
stated as concisely as possible.
6. No new data should be introduced in the summary of findings.
Conclusion
Guidelines in writing the conclusions. The following should be the

characteristics of the conclusions:
1. Conclusions are inferences, deductions, abstractions, implications,
interpretations, general statements, and/or generalizations based upon the
findings. Conclusions are the logical and valid outgrowths of the findings. They
should not contain any numeral because numerals generally limit the forceful
effect or impact and scope of a generalization. No conclusions should be made
that are not based upon the findings.
Example: The conclusion that can be drawn from the findings in No.2 under
the summary of findings is this: All the teachers were qualified to teach in the
high school but the majority of them were not qualified to teach science.
2. Conclusions should appropriately answer the specific questions raised at the

beginning of the investigation in the order they are given under the statement of
the problem. The study becomes almost meaningless if the questions raised
are not properly answered by the conclusions.
Example: If the question raised at the beginning of the research is: “How
adequate are the facilities for the teaching of science?” and the findings show
that the facilities are less than the needs of the students, the answer and the
conclusion should be: “The facilities for the teaching of science are
inadequate”.
3. Conclusions should point out what were factually learned from the inquiry.
However, no conclusions should be drawn from the implied or indirect effects of
the findings.
Example: From the findings that the majority of the teachers were
non-science majors and the facilities were less that the needs of the
students, what have been factually learned are that the majority of the
teachers were not qualified to teach science and the science facilities were
inadequate.
It cannot be concluded that science teaching in the high schools of

Province A was weak because there are no data telling that science
instruction was weak. The weakness of the science teaching is an indirect or
implied effect of the non-qualification of the teachers and the inadequacy of
the facilities. This is better placed under the summary of implications.
If there is a specific question which runs this way “How strong is science
instruction in the high schools of Province A as perceived by the teachers and
students?”, then a conclusion to answer this question should be drawn.
However, the respondent should have been asked how they perceived the
degree of strength of the science instruction whether it is very strong, strong,
fairly strong, weak or very weak. The conclusion should be based upon the
responses to the question.
4. Conclusions should be formulated concisely, that is, brief and short, yet they
convey all the necessary information resulting from the study as required by the
specific questions.
5. Without any strong evidence to the contrary, conclusions should be stated
categorically. They should be worded as if they are 100 percent true and
correct. They should not give any hint that the researcher has some doubts
about their validity and reliability. The use of qualifiers such as probably,
perhaps, may be, and the like should be avoided as much as possible.
5. Conclusions should refer only to the population, area, or subject of the study.
Take for instance, the hypothetical teaching of science in the high schools of
Province A, all conclusions about the faculty, facilities, methods, problems, etc.
refer only to the teaching of science in the high schools of Province A.
7. Conclusions should not be repetitious of any statements anywhere in the

thesis. They may be recapitulations if necessary but they should be worded
differently and they should convey the same information as the statements
recapitulated.
Some Dangers to Avoid in Drawing up Conclusions Based on

Quantitative Data
There are some pitfalls to avoid in the use of quantitative data (Bacani, et.
al). Researchers should not accept nor utilize quantitative data without question
or analysis even if they are presented in authoritative-looking forms. This is so
because in some instances quantitative data are either inaccurate or
misleading either unwittingly or by design. The data should be analyzed very
critically to avoid misleading interpretations and conclusions. Among the
factors that a researcher should guard against are the following:
1. Bias. Business establishments, agencies, or organizations usually present

or manipulate figures to their favor. For instance, and advertisement may quote
statistics to show that a given product is superior to any other leading brand.
We should be wary of the use of statistics in this case because of the obvious
profit motive behind. An individual may also do the same. A respondent to a
questionnaire or in an interview may commit the same bias to protect his own
interests. Like the case of the science teachers in the high schools of Province
A, they may respond that the science facilities in their respective schools are
adequate they are not adequate just to protect the good names of their own
schools. A respondent, if asked how many science books he has read, may say
that he has read many although he has read only a few to protect his name.
hence, if there is a way of checking the veracity of presented data by
investigation, observation, or otherwise, this should be done to insure the
accuracy of the conclusion based upon the data under consideration.
2. Incorrect generalization. An incorrect generalization is made when there is

a limited body of information or when the sample is not representative of the
population. Take this case. The Alumni Association of a big university would
like to conduct survey to determine the average income of the alumni during
their first ten years after graduation. Though the total number of returns may
meet the sample size requirement, the population may not be properly
represented by the actual composition of the sample. This is likely to happen
because chances are that a great majority of the alumni in the high income
bracket will respond readily but the great majority of those who are not doing
well may ignore the survey by reason of pride. In such a case, the high income
group is over represented and low income group is under represented in the
sample resulting in the overestimate of the average income of the entire alumni
group. This is the result of a built-in sampling bias.
3. Incorrect deduction. This happens when a general rule is applied to a

specific case. Suppose there is a finding that the science facilities in the high
schools of Province A are inadequate. We cannot conclude at once that any
particular tool or equipment is definitely inadequate. Suppose there is an
over-supply of the tubes. Hence, to make the conclusion that all science
equipment and tools in the high schools of Province A are inadequate is an
incorrect deduction of this case.
4. Incorrect comparison. A basic error is statistical work is to compare two

things that are not really comparable. Again, let us go to the high schools of
Province A. suppose in the survey, School C has been found to have 20
microscopes and School D has only eight. We may conclude immediately that
School C is better equipped with microscopes than School D. however, upon
further inquiry, School C has 1,500 students while School D has only 500
students. Hence, the ratio in School C is 75 students is to one microscope while
in School D the ratio is 63 students to one microscope. Hence, School D is
better equipped with microscopes than School C. to conclude that School C is
better equipped with microscopes than School D based on the number of
microscopes owned by each school is incorrect comparison.
5. Abuse of correlation data. A correlation study may show a high degree of

association between two variables. They may move in the same direction as
the same rate but it is not right to conclude at once that one is the cause of the
other unless confirmed so by other studies. In no case does correlation show
casual relationship. When the government increases the price of gasoline, the
prices of commodities also start to rise. We cannot conclude immediately that
the increase in the prices of gasoline in the sole cause of the increase in the
prices of commodities. There are other causes to be considered such as
shortage or undersupply of the commodities, increased the cost of production,
panic buying, etc. To be able to make a conclusive statement as to what is or
what are the real causes of the increases in prices of commodities, an intensive
investigation is needed.
6. Limited information furnished by any one ration. A ratio shows only a

partial picture in most analytical work. Suppose the only information that we
have about a certain establishment is the ration does not know the kinds of
employees leaving and why they are leaving. We do not know whether the
losses of the employees are caused by death, retirement, resignations, or
dismissals. We can only surmise but we cannot conclude with definiteness that
the causes of the 20% employee turnover are death, retirement, poor working
conditions, poor salary, etc. Avoid as much as possible making conclusions not
sufficiently and adequately supported by facts.
7. Misleading impression concerning magnitude of base variable. Ratios

can give erroneous impressions when they are used to express relationships
between two variables of small magnitudes. Take the following examples. A
college announced that 75% of its graduates passed the CPA examination at a
certain time. Another college also advertised that 100% of its graduates who
took that same examination passed. From these announcements we may form
the impression that the standard of instruction in the two colleges is high.
Actually, only four graduates from the first college took the CPA licensing
examination and three happened to pass. In the second college, only one of its
graduates took the same examination and he happened to pass. To avoid
making false impressions by making conclusions using ratios concerning
variables of very small magnitudes, use the original data because the
relationship is clear even without the use of a ratio. Of the first college, we may
say that three out of the four graduates who took the CPA test passed and of
the second college, we may say that the one graduate who took the same test
passed.
Conclusions or Generalizations in Qualitative Research
In qualitative methods of research conclusion is not applicable especially

for studies that aim to explain things, events or lives. Only those findings that
had proven or nullified the direct effect of each variable can be concluded. This
means that only those studies whose goals are to prove or disprove the
formula, element and compound or relate the performance with their study
habits and/or exposure to gadgets can generate conclusion.
The situation in qualitative research in which conclusion is applicable

depends upon the number of cases or number of participants who are actively
involved in the study, thus, it is safe to generalize. In a case study, if it involves,
at least 1-5 or 10 cases, it is not yet safe to conclude from its findings.
Conclusive statements are still used in qualitative methods when the
methodology and the analysis are exhausted to the highest level.
Recommendation
Guidelines in writing the recommendations. Recommendations are appeals
to people or entities concerned to solve or help solve the problems discovered
in the inquiry. They should have the following characteristics:
1. As mentioned above, recommendations should aim to solve or help
solve problems discovered in the investigation. For instance, one
problem discovered in the inquiry about the teaching of science in the
high schools of Province A is the lack of adequate facilities. Hence, the
recommendation is for the schools to acquire more facilities. Surely this
will solve or help solve the problem of lack of adequate facilities.
2. No recommendations should be made for a problem, or anything for that

matter, that has not been discovered or discussed in the study.
Recommendations for things not discussed in the study are irrelevant.
3. There may also be recommendations for the continuance of a good

practice or system, or even recommendation for its improvement. This is
to insure a continuous benefit being accorded to the universe involved.
4. Recommendations should aim for the ideal but they must be feasible,
practical, and attainable. It is useless to recommend the impossible.
This, of course, depends upon the situation. For a big university of ten
thousand students, it would be easy to recommend the purchase of a
generator as a safeguard against brownouts, but for a small private
highs school of only two hundred students, this may not be feasible.
5. Recommendations should be logical and valid. If the problem is the lack

of facilities, it is only logical to recommend the acquisition of the lacking
facilities.
6. Recommendations should be addressed to the persons, entities,

agencies, or offices who or which are in a position to implement them.
Example. Suppose one problem discovered is the lack of science
facilities. The recommendation should be: the school principals, through
the Division Superintendent, should make an urgent petition to the
proper government authorities to purchase adequate science equipment
for the high schools. For private schools, their petition should be directed
to their respective Board of Trustees.
7. There should be recommendation for further research on the same topic

in other places to verify, amplify, or negate the findings of the study. This
is necessary so that if the findings are the same, generalizations of wider
application can be formulated.
For recommending similar researchers to be conducted, the

recommendation should be: It is recommended that similar researches should
be conducted in other places. Other provinces should also make inquiries into
the status of the teaching of science in their own high schools so that if similar
problems and deficiencies are found, concerted efforts may be exerted to
improve science teaching in all high schools in the country.
Summary
In this lesson, this is the last chapter of the research study and the most
important part because it is where the findings are summarized; conclusions
are made, and provide recommendation for the solution of the problems.
In summary of the findings, there should be a brief statement about the
main purpose of the study, the population of respondents, the period of the
study, method of research used. The findings may be lumped up altogether but
clarity demands that each specific question under the statement of the problem
must be written first to follow by the findings that would answer the question.
Conclusions are inferences, deductions, abstraction, implication,
interpretations, general statements, and/or generalizations based upon the
findings, and in conclusion, should appropriately answer the specific questions
raised at the beginning of the investigation in the order they are given the
research problem, also point out what was factually learned from the inquiry
and it should be formulated concisely.
Recommendation have the aim and effort to solve problems in the study, It
should ensure a continuous benefit being accorded to the respondents
involved.
Therefore, the last part of the text is writing the summary, conclusions and
recommendations usually involve three processes: summarizing -presenting a
general overview of the study from the problems and research objectives to the
methodology used ending up with a summary of significant findings; concluding
- drawing generalizations for the population and circumstances for which the
evidence has been collected. Involves making a concrete pronouncement
based on the results, and recommending - what results mean in terms of
existing knowledge; drawing implications for the field or academic discipline

represented by the problem.
Assessment
1. Give the guidelines in writing the summary of findings. Give examples.
2. Give the guidelines in writing the conclusions. Give the rationale for each
guideline and give examples.
3. What are some dangers to avoid in drawing up conclusions based on

quantitative data?
4. What are the guidelines in writing recommendations? What is the rationale

for each guideline? Give examples.
References
American Evaluation Association (AEA). Retreived: September 20, 2020, from

http://www.eval.org/.
Bacani, A.C., Alfonso, R.C. & Sancho, M.C. (1968). Introduction to Business
and Economic Statistics (4th ed.). Manila, GIC Enterprises & Co., Inc.
Calderon, J.F., & Gozales, E.C. (1993). Methods of Research and Thesis
Writing (1st ed.). Mandaluyong City, National Book Store, Inc.
Cudera R.B., Razon B.C. & Millondaga KJ.I. (2020). Cultural and ecological
significance of Odonata (Insecta) to the T'boli of Lake Sebu, Mindanao,
Philippines. Biodiversitas, 21: 2536-2554.
Dalayap, R.M., Torres, M.A.J. & Demayo, C.G. (2011). Landmark and outline
methods in describing petal, sepal and labellum shapes of the flower of
Mokara orchid varieties. Int. J. Agric. Biol., 13: 652–658.
De Guzman J.G. & Cerado, E.C. (2016). Appreciating the Local Government
Support to Basic Education in Lambayong Districts. International Journal
of Current Research. 8, (04), 29963-29968.
Figure Setup. American Psychological Association. Retrieved: September 29,

2020, from https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/tables-
figures/figures.
Krathwohl, D. R. (1998). Methods of Educational and Social Science Research:

An Integrated Approach (Second Edition). Ney York, NY: Longman.
Miles, M.B, & Huberman, A.M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis. (2nd Ed.).
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Naanep, N.D., Barcelo, P.C. & Alo, A.M.P. (2018) entitled: Participatory
Assessment of Farmer Livestock School on Goat Enterprise Management
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Methods Evaluations. Retrieved September 30, 2020, from
http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/1997/ nsf97153/.
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Malabon City, Mutya Publishing House, Inc.
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Sections of a Research Paper. Retrieved: September 30, 2020, from
https://www.ref-n-write.com/trial/research-paper-example-writing-results-di
scussion-section-academic-phrasebank-vocabulary/.
Tables and Figures. Purdue University. Retrieved. September 29, 2020, from
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formattin
g_and_style_guide/apa_tables_and_figures.html.
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WI: University of Wisconsin Extension. Retrieved: September 29, 2020,
from http://learningstore.uwex.edu/pdf/G3658-12.pdf.
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September 30, 2020, http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/index.php.
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Approach. Alexandria, VA: United Way of America.
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leverage-marketing- with-data-visualizations/.
Zulueta, F.M. & Perez, J.R. (2010). Methods of Research – Thesis Writing and
Applied Statistics (1st ed.). Mandaluyong City, National Book Store.
CHAPTER 8
ABSTRACT AND ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Overview
Now that you had already done or learned the different parts of thesis/
research from the introduction, review of related literature, methodology,
results and discussion, summary, conclusion, and recommendations, your next
thing to do is to write the abstract of your paper and prepare the different
preliminary pages to complete your thesis or research paper.

of the following:
 Abstract
 Acknowledgment
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the students can:
1. Write the abstract of the thesis or research.
2. Write the aacknowledgment.
Lesson 1 - Abstract
Pre-discussion
The abstract is the last part of the thesis or research to be written but
usually it is the first thing that the reader will read, thus it is important that the
abstract should clearly and accurately summarize the study. To have a well
–written abstract it is important that you are familiar with its contents,
importance, length or the number of words, etc.
What to expect
1. Define what an abstract is.
2. Explain the importance or purpose s of an abstract.

3. Determine the contents of an abstract.
4. Write an abstract of the study.
Lesson Outline
What is an abstract?
An abstract is a short or one paragraph summary of the research study
(thesis or journal article). It concisely reports the aims and outcomes of the
research so that readers will know exactly what the paper is about. It is usually
150-250 words long. Some abstract have a maximum of 300 words. It is
usually found after the title page of the thesis but before the table of contents.
An abstract should not be an excerpt copied from the thesis, but it should be
completely independent, and self- contained text. It should be understandable
to the readers who hasn’t read the whole research paper.
Importance or purposes of an abstract

1. It reports the original contributions of your research.
2. It gives the reader the gist or essence of the study quickly.
3. It communicates the key findings to those who don’t have time to read
the whole paper.
4. It helps the readers decide whether he/she wants to read the entire
research paper.
5. Helps readers remember the key points from your paper.
How and when to write an abstract

The abstract is the last thing to write. It should be written when you had
already completed the different parts of your study, (the introduction, review of
related literature, methodology, results and discussion, as well as the summary,
conclusion and recommendations) to accurately summarize the content of
your research.
In writing the abstract you should include the following:
1. The research problem and objectives or the overall purpose of the

study.
You can start your abstract by clearly defining the purpose of your
research and the problem that your research respond to or the research
question that you want to answer. You can include some brief context
on the relevance of your topic but don’t give detailed background
information.
In stating the objectives of your research, you can use

verbs investigate, test, analyze or evaluate etc. to describe exactly
what you set out to do. This part of the abstract can be written in present
or past simple tense but not in future tense because the research is
already complete.
Example: This study investigates the relationship between coffee
consumption and productivity.
2. The methods
The next part is the methods that you used to answer the problem or
question. State the method in one or two sentences. It is a straight
forward description of what you did. The aim of this part is to give the
reader a quick insight of the overall approach and procedure you used
and not to give account on the strengths and weaknesses of the
methodology. The methods is usually written in the past simple tense
since it refers to completed actions.
Example: Structured interviews were conducted with 25 participants.
3. The research results or major findings

Next is the main summary of the research results. This can be written in
present or simple past tense. You may not be able to present all the
results but try to highlight the most important findings so that the reader
will understand your conclusions.
Examples:
Our analysis has shown a strong correlation between coffee

Our analysis shows a strong correlation between coffee
Our analysis showed a strong correlation between coffee
4. The conclusion
The last part is state the main conclusions of your study to answer the
problem or question. It is important that the reader should read the
abstract with a clear understanding of the central point that your
research has proved or argued. The conclusions are usually written in
the present simple tense.
Example:
 We concluded that coffee consumption increases productivity.
 We conclude that coffee consumption increases productivity.
If your research has important limitations such as related to the sample

size or methods, these should be mentioned briefly in the abstract. This
will allow the reader to accurately assess the credibility and
generalizability of your research.
If the aim of the study is to solve practical problem, you might include
recommendations for implementation.
Keywords
List of keywords might be added if your paper will be published. The

keywords should reference the most important elements of the research to
help the readers find your paper during their literature searches.
Things to remember in writing the abstracts

 Use the active voice when possible
 Always use the past tense because you are reporting a completed
study.
 It should be formatted as a single paragraph in a block format.

 Write clearly and concisely.
 It should be short but impactful.
 Make sure that every word counts.
 Every sentence should clearly communicate one main point.
The abstract should not contain

 Lengthy background or contextual information,
 Redundant phrases, unnecessary adverbs and adjectives, and
repetitive information;
 Acronyms or abbreviations,
 References to other literature [say something like, "current research
shows that..." or "studies have indicated..."],
 Using ellipticals [i.e., ending with "..."] or incomplete sentences,
 Jargon or terms that may be confusing to the reader,
 Citations to other works, and
 Any sort of image, illustration, figure, or table, or references. .
Example from Social Sciences. Read the abstract and take note of its content.
Summary
Abstract is a concise summary of the research study. Usually it is 150-300

words. It contains the problem, objectives, brief methods, key findings or
results and conclusions. It is usually found after the title page. Its purpose is
to communicate quickly to the reader the findings of your study. It is the last
part that is written.
In writing the abstract, it is recommended to use the active voice rather
than the passive voice. It is usually written in the past tense. It should be
concise and impactful. The abstract should not contain acronyms or
abbreviations, references, citations, images or illustrations, figures and
tables.
Assessment
Answer briefly the following

1. What is an abstract?
2. What are the contents of the abstract?
3. How long is the abstract?
4. When to write the abstract?
5. What are the purposes of the abstract?
Enrichment
Read the abstract of the published article entitled: Landmark and Outline
Methods in Describing Petal, Sepal and Labellum Shapes of the Flower of
Mokara Orchid Varieties (Dalayap et al., 2011). Examine the contents and
write your insights on writing abstract.
Together with petal color and other floral characteristics, petal shape and size vary
widely within Mokara orchids. An appropriate understanding of their flower forms is
fundamental and necessary for the improvement of this economically and
aesthetically important plant. This study was therefore conducted to describe
variations in the flowers of Mokara with emphasis on the shapes of sepals, petals and
labellum using geometric morphometric (GM) methods based on summarized
information about contours of the structures. We specifically applied the truss-network
based analysis of landmarks and the elliptic Fourier method in describing the petal
and sepal outlines. Each of the methods required a dimension reduction technique in
the form of principal component analysis to summarize independent shape
characteristics. Results showed that classification and discrimination of the varieties
based on the shapes of the petals and sepals could be achieved using both
techniques.
Lesson 2 - Acknowledgment
Pre-discussion
After conducting the study, it is not only important to write the results of our
research but we should not forget to acknowledge those persons or agencies
who had help us in the conduct of our studies. In this lesson you will learn how
to write the acknowledgment.
What to expect
1. Write the acknowledgment
2. Identify those who will be included in the acknowledgment.
Lesson Outline
What is an acknowledgment?
The acknowledgment part is where you thank those who have helped and
supported you in the conduct and writing of your research. This includes both
professional and personal acknowledgments. The acknowledgment is usually
found after the title page and before the abstract of the thesis. It is usually no
longer than one page. In writing an acknowledgment, you can use a more
informal style than usually permitted in academic writing. You can write
something more personal.
Who should you thank?
First thank those who ha d helped you academically or professionally

 Adviser
 Thesis committee members or members of the panel
 Funding agency (if funded research)
 Agency who had allowed you to use their facility for free
 Statistician
 Critic
 Others who had help you professionally
Then, personal thanks to

 friends,
 family members,
 anyone who supported or helped you during the research
process.
Sample of Acknowledgment
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my adviser Prof.
_________________(mention the name ) for the continuous support of my
research, for his/her patience, motivation, enthusiasm, and immense
knowledge. His/her guidance helped me in all the time of research and writing
of this thesis.
Besides my adviser, I would like to thank the rest of my thesis committee
members Prof ______________________, Prof. _____________________,
Prof. _________________________________(mention all the names of the
committee members) for their encouragement, insightful comments and
suggestions.
Special thanks to the ___________________agency for the financial support
of my study.
My sincere thanks to _______________________ for allowing me to use the

facilities /equipment.
Last but not the least I would like to thank my friends for their encouragement
and my family, my parents _______________________ for supporting me
financially and spiritually throughout my life.
Summary
The acknowledgment part is where you thank professionally and

personally those who have helped and supported you in the conduct and
writing of your research. First thank those who ha d helped you academically or
professionally. Then, personal thanks to those who had helped or supported
you during the conduct of your research. The acknowledgment has no
minimum number of words, but It is usually no longer than one page.
Assessment / Enrichment
1. What is an acknowledgment?
2. Who are those to be thank in the acknowledgment?
3. Write a sample acknowledgment.
Reference
Combes, C. How to write abstract. Retrieved September 26, 2020, from

https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/abstract/.
Dalayap, R.M., Torres, M.A.J. & Demayo, C.G. (2011). Landmark and outline
methods in describing petal, sepal and labellum shapes of the flower of
Mokara orchid varieties. Int. J. Agric. Biol., 13: 652–658.
Gonalons-Pons, P. & Schwartz, C.R. (2017). Trends in Economic Homogamy:

Changes in Assortative Mating or the Division of Labor in
Marriage?. Demography, 54 (3), 985-1005.
Labaree, Robert V. Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper.

USC Libraries, University of Southern California, Retrieved:
September 30, 2020, from https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide.
Sample Thesis Acknowledgement. Retrieved September 28, 2020, from

https://templatelab.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/acknowledgement-s
ample-04.jpg.
Appendices
Appendix A
Preparation of the Copy of the Research Thesis following the SKSU Format
I. General Format
1. Margins
a. Left – 1.5 inches
b. Top, bottom, right – 1 inch
2. Font
a. Font type – Arial
b. Font size – 12
II. Preliminary Parts

1. Title Page. It is center-justified and capitalized per letter; follows the
inverted pyramid style and is single-spaced.
Contents:
a. Title
b. Name of Researchers
c. Classification of the paper, e.g. research paper proposal or thesis
outline, submitted to the department to which the paper is
presented and the school
d. Degree program, e.g. Bachelor of Secondary Education
e. Month and year of graduation
3. Transmittal. It is placed after the title that contains statements of
recommendation and acceptance.
a. Signatures of the Adviser, Program Chairman, Research
Coordinator and the College Dean
4. Approval Sheet. It is placed after the transmittal that contains
statements of recommendation and acceptance.
a. The approval of the adviser that the thesis proposal is complete
and is recommended for an oral examination.
b. The approval of the panel of examiners that the thesis has been
examined.
c. The acceptance of the department head and academic unit.
4. Biographical Data. Includes the brief biography of the researchers

5. Acknowledgment. It reflects the researcher’s expression of appreciation
for the assistance and support extended to the researchers. Pronouns
must be in the 3rd person.
6. Table of Contents. This is an ordered and paginated listing of the
different parts of thesis. It must show the chapter and section titles in full
and must have entries for the References and Appendices section.
a. The heading, TABLE OF CONTENTS should be typed centered and
in upper case.
b. Spacing should be 1.0.
c. Preliminaries should be listed first.
d. The heading CHAPTER should be flushed left in the same line with
Page flushed right
e. Next to the heading CHAPTER are the titles of the chapters, typed
in upper case.
f. Opposite each chapter title followed is the corresponding page
number.
7. List of Tables. It appears on the page immediately following the Table of

Contents
a. List of Tables should be typed centered and in capital letters.
b. The heading Table is capitalized and should be typed 1 double
space below the heading. At the center is the Title in capital letters and
at the right side is the Page written in capital letter.
c. Arabic numerals used for the table number
8. List of Figures. It is placed in a separate page right after the List of

Tables.
a. List of Figures should be typed centered and in capital letters.
b. The heading Figure is capitalized and should be typed 1 double
space below the heading. At the center is the Title in capital letters and
at the right side is the Page written in capital letter.
c. Arabic numerals used for the Figure number.
9. Abstract. It is a brief yet comprehensive summary of the paper.
III. Body of Thesis.

a. Each chapter should have a heading that is center-justified. The chapter
number must be in Roman Numerals, e.g. CHAPTER I
b. The chapter number is followed by the title in all capital letters and
encoded at the center.
IV. End Matter
1. References
a. The References section should start on a new page.
b. All references cited in the body of the research paper must appear in the
References section.
c. The heading References is center-justified on the first line below the
page header.
d. The components of the Reference is subdivided into Books, Journals,
Online sources and Thesis following the APA Format.
2. Appendices
a. Each appendix should start on a new page and should be typed
centered.
b. Each appendix is represented by Arabic Numerals, e.g. Appendix 1,
Appendix 2 and so on.
See the example below
See the example below
SAMPLE SYLLABUS
CERTIFICATIONS
(Subject Specialist)
CERTIFICATIONS
(Editorial Board)

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RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE

At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:

Lesson 1 - Meaning and Importance of Research

Figure 1. Graduate student experience in their thesis.

There are several definitions of research, proposed by famous authors and

- Research as a process is a systematic way of arriving at answers to

- Searching for theory, for testing theory or for solving a problem. It

- Research comprises “creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in

- Scientific research is a systematic way of gathering data, a harnessing

- A broad definition of research is given by Shuttleworth (2008) – “In the

- Another definition of research is given by Creswell who states that –

to increase our understanding of a topic or issue”. It consists of three

1. A Tool for Building New Knowledge and Solve Societal Problems

2. An Aid to Business Success and Job Search

3. Means to Understand Various Issues

4. A Way to Prove Lies and to Support Truths

5. A Seed to Love Reading, Writing, Analyzing, and Sharing Valuable

6. Nourishment and Exercise for the Mind

7. Review policies that must be revised and programs of actions that

8. Improve Living Conditions.

Research is a systematic investigation (i.e., the gathering and analysis of

Lesson 2 – Characteristics and Types of Research

It was highlighted in the speech of Ilona Stengel that a researcher should

Characteristics of Good Research

1. One of the important characteristics of a good research is about solving

- Types and Classification of Research

1. Fundamental or basic research - Basic research is an investigation on

2. Applied research - In an applied research one solves certain problems

experimental research, case studies and inter-disciplinary research are

Types of Applied Research

There are 3 types of applied research. These are evaluation research,

Evaluation research is a type of applied research that analyses existing

 Research and Development

Research and development is a type of applied research that is focused on

Action research is a type of applied research that is set on providing

process of reflective inquiry that is limited to specific contexts and situational

Figure 2. Difference between basic and applied research

3. Mixed research – It is a methodology for conducting research that involves

A good research is clearly defined with clear and detailed methods,

1. Refer to the word collage of the traits of a good researcher as shown

Lesson 3– The Research Process

You have learned in the previous chapters the importance of research

- The Research Process

Figure 3. The scientific method

Figure 4. Linear process of research

Figure 5. Iterative process of research

Basic steps in research process

Step 1: Identify and develop your topic

Step 2: Do a preliminary search for information

Step 3: Locate materials

Step 4: Evaluate your sources

Step 5: Make notes

Step 6: Write your paper

Step 7: Cite your sources properly

Step 8: Data Gathering and Analysis

Step 9: Writing results, conclusion and recommendation

Step 10: Writing your references

Step 11: Proofread