General Biology

Q1 W1 Notes

Level of Organization (smallest to

biggest)
Atoms - are the tiniest particles making up matter.
Molecules - can be Micro or Macro form of
substances.
Organelles - are different cell structures that
perform specific functions.
Cells - are groups of different organelles all
working towards common functions.
Tissues - are groups of different cells all working
towards common functions.
Organs -are groups of different tissues having
different structures and functions working
towards common functions.
Systems - are groups of different organs all
working towards common functions.
Organism - is an individual that can carry out all
life processes
CELL THEORY
 is a compilation of the many works of scientists
and the continued improvement of the
microscopes which made it possible to view
and study the minute and microscopic cells
 paved the way to a deeper knowledge and
understanding of the cell
Scientists that laid the foundation of Cell
Theory
1. Robert Hooke
 In 1665 he discovered the “cell” when he
viewed a thin slice of cork using his
primitive microscope
 He coined the term cell, from the Latin
word “cellula” which means little rooms, as
he observed tiny hollow compartments
under the microscope
 He drew what he saw under the
microscope and published his work
“Micrographia”
2. Anton van Leeuwenhoek
 “Father of Microscopy”
 He improved the kind of microscope that
Robert Hooke used
 In 1673 he got samples of water from a
pond, and when he viewed it under the
microscope, he observed small, moving
organisms, which later on he called
“animalcules”, which means little animals.
 In 1676 he discovered bacteria
3. Matthias Schleiden
 German botanist
 He discovered that all plants are made of
cells
4. Theodore Schwann
 A German zoologist
 He concluded that all animals are made of
cells
5. Rudolf Virchow
 A German pathologist
 “Father of Pathology”
 He discovered that all living cells come
only from other living cells
Postulates of the Cell Theory
1. All living organisms are made up of one or more
of cells
 an organism can be unicellular or
multicellular
2. The cell is the basic structural and functional unit
of life
 cells are considered as the basic unit of
life
3. Cells arise from pre-existing cells
 this is based on the process of cell division
 Rudolf Virchow who was responsible for
this tenet

Unicellular Multicellular
 Uni - “one”  Multi - “many”
cellular - “cell” cellular - “cell”
 Made up of one  Made up of two or
cell more cells

Ex. Bacteria Ex. Plants, animals

 Prokaryotic Cells
 pro-“before”
 karyo-“nucleus”
 without nucleus or any membrane-
bound organelles such mitochondria
 always made up of one cell or
unicellular
 ribosomes are small
 DNA is circular without proteins
 has no cytoskeleton
 cell division is by binary fission
 reproduction is always asexual
 movement is always by a rigid rotating
flagellum
Ex. Bacteria, Archaea
Archaea - lives in extreme environments
The compartmentalization of the cell into
membrane-bound organelles:
 allows clashing jobs functions such as the
production and degradation processes and
other cellular activities to exists at the same
time without obstructing each other
 separates the DNA material of the nucleus,
mitochondria, and chloroplast
 increases the surface area-volume ratio of the
cell
PARTS OF EUKARYOTIC CELLS
3 Major Parts - cell membrane, nucleus,
cytoplasm
CELL MEMBRANE
 also known as the plasma membrane
 composed lipid bilayer and proteins
 exhibits the property of “selective permeability”
 controls the movement of materials in/out of
the cell
 serves as a protection for the cell
CYTOPLASM
 the jelly like material inside the cell
 most organelles float within the cytoplasm
 it helps dissolves solutes and moves materials
within the cell
Eukaryotic cells
 eu-“true”
 karyo-“nucleus”
 always have nucleus and membrane-
bound organelles such as Golgi body
 often made up of more than one cell
or multicellular
 ribosomes are large
 DNA is linear and associated with
proteins to form chromatin
 always have cytoskeleton
 cell division is by mitosis or meiosis
 reproduction is asexual and sexual
 movement is through a flexible cilia or
flagella
Ex. Plants, animals, fungi, protists
THE NUCLEUS (pl. NUCLEI)
 large, generally oval in shape
 controls all the activities of the cell
 inside the nucleus:
- Chromatins are long strands of DNA
responsible for holding information to make
proteins
- Nucleolus is responsible of
makingproteins
 Nuclear envelope is the double membrane
surrounding the nucleus
ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (RER)
 a network of tubes or membranes
 contain ribosomes
 it receives ribosomes from the nucleus
 a tunnel system that transports ribosomes that
make proteins
SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (SER)
 has no ribosomes
 synthesizes fats and lipids and breakdown
toxins
RIBOSOMES
 are small bodies which are free or attached to
RER
 created by nucleolus
 it is transported by the rough endoplasmic
reticulum
 its job is to make proteins
GOLGI BODY/GOLGI APPARATUS
 stacks of flattened sacs or vacuoles structures
 modifies, sorts and packages proteins
MITOCHONDRIA
 known as the “powerhouse of the cell”
 it is bean-shaped and a relatively large
organelle
 have inner membranes, double membrane
outer smooth inner folded into cristae
 it functions to create ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) which is the energy currency
during the process of cellular respiration
LYSOSOMES
 are small, round membrane structures
 known as “suicidal bags” of the cell
 contain digestive enzymes
 it functions to break down foods, kill pathogens
and destroy dying cells
The Following are only present in PLANT CELLS:
CELLULOSE CELL WALL
 outermost layer of plant, fungi, and bacterial
cells
 made of tough cellulose which is hard to digest
 it gives extra protection
 allows H2O, O2, CO2 to pass into and out of
cell
VACUOLES
 these are fluid-filled sacs
 vacuoles are few and large in plant cells, while
they are small in animal cells
 Vacuoles are pouches in the cell that store
materials such as water, salts, proteins, and
carbohydrates, waste products and toxic waste
CYTOSKELETON
 these are filamentous extensions in cytoplasm
 the microtubules provide strength and support
to the cell
 it moves organelles within the cell
CENTRIOLE
 paired structures near the nucleus
 made of cylinder of microtubule pairs
 it separates chromosomes during the process
of mitosis
CILIA AND FLAGELLA
 Cilia are short, and numerous and hair-like
 Flagella are much longer, fewer, and are whip-
like
 both function in movement
CHLOROPLASTS (and other plastids)
 these are green, oval usually
containingchlorophyll (green pigment) in plants
 the site for photosynthesis the green pigment
chlorophyll within the chloroplasts absorbs
sunlight and together with the raw materials
such as water and carbon dioxide convert solar
energy to chemical energy producing sugar
and oxygen in the process called
photosynthesis.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY
Q1 W2 Notes
Tissues
- are group of cells, coming from the same origin,
having similar structures and working toward a
common, specific function.
Types of Plant Tissues
1. Meristematic tissues
2. Permanent tissues
Meristematic Tissue
 capable of dividing all throughout the lifetime of
the plant
 The term meristem comes from the Greek
word meristos, meaning ‘divisible’
 Three types: apical meristem, intercalary
meristem, and the lateral meristem
Histology
- is the branch of science which deal with the study
of tissues in relation to the disease called
histopathology.
Apical Meristem
 is found near the apices or uppermost point of
the shoot and root
 it is capable of giving rise to the cells in the
three types of primary meristems which are the
protoderm, procambium and the ground
meristem
 is involved in the primary growth of the plant by
increasing the length of the shoot and root.
Intercalary meristem
 responsible in increasing the girth in monocots
Lateral meristem
 gives rise to the vascular cambium
Permanent Tissue
 is categorized into two: simple permanent tissue and complex permanent tissue

Simple Permanent Tissue

 is made up of similar types of cells
 are homogeneous and include cells with same structure and function
 three types of simple permanent tissue are parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma

Parenchyma Tissue
 composed of thin-walled, spherical shaped, living cells
 found in the soft parts of plant such the roots, stems, leaves and flowers
 cells of parenchymal tissues loosely packed, since they contain large intercellular spaces in between
them
 parenchymal tissues function for storage, photosynthesis and for helping the plant float in water

Collenchyma
 is composed of thick-walled, living cells

Sclerenchyma
 consist of thick, secondary cell walls and dead cells
 cells are long, narrow and have hard and extremely thick secondary walls due to the uniform
distribution of lignin
 absent inter-cellular spaces between sclerenchyma cells
 absent nucleus in the cell
 function is to give protection and support to the plant
 Ex. Bark of the tree

Complex Permanent Tissue

 made up of several kinds of cells that execute various activities
 These are classified into two types: xylem and phloem

ANIMAL TISSUE
Types of Animal Tissues
1. Epithelial Tissues
 For secretions, absorption, protection, and
sensory
 tissues that line the surfaces and the
cavities
 epithelial tissues are classified into two
according to the number of cell layers in
the tissue: simple epithelial tissue (single
cell layer) and stratified epithelial tissue
(several cell layers)
 epithelial tissues are also classified
according to its shape:
1. cuboidal - for secretion, cube-like
2. simple columnar - for secretion and
active absorption, tall and pillar-like
3. simple squamous - for material
exchange through the process of
diffusion
4. stratified squamous - for protection,
flattened
5. pseudo-stratified columnar - usually
lined with cilia
 It is found in the skin, lining of the mouth,
blood vessels lining, lung alveoli and
kidney tubules
2. Muscle Tissues
 responsible for movement of the body
parts and a means of movement of the
animal
 the main function of muscle tissue is
contraction
 the three types of muscles are smooth
muscles, skeletal muscles, and cardiac
muscles
1. Skeletal muscles are striated,
voluntary muscles attached to the
bones, and responsible for locomotion
and posture
2. Smooth muscles are involuntary,
non-striated found in the walls of
hollow organs and muscles involved in
the internal movements of the body
3. Cardiac muscles are found in the
heart; involuntary muscles responsible
for the contraction and pumping of the
heart
3. Nervous Tissue
 composed of cells making up the central
nervous system and peripheral nervous
system
 coordinates the functions of the body
 composed of nerve cells and neuroglia
 its function is to transmit nerve impulses
around the body
 nerve cell which is the basic unit structure
of the nervous system which has three
parts:
1. Cell body (soma)
2. Dendrites - receive impulse
3. Axon - send impulse
 It is divided into three parts
1. Sensory neurons carry information
about the environment (called stimuli)
to the central nervous system
2. Interneurons serve as a connection
between the sensory and motor
neurons
3. Motor neurons carry information from
the central nervous system to the
muscles and glands
4. Connective Tissues
 essential for supporting, connecting, and
separating different kinds of tissues and
organs in the body
 provides the structural framework and
support different tissue to form organ
 Divided into five types:
1. areolar - surrounds the blood vessels,
nerve fibers, organs, and muscles
2. adipose - example are adipocytes
Both areolar and adipose are loose
connective tissues
3. fluid connective tissue- examples
are blood, lymph
4. skeletal connective tissue -
examples are bone, cartilage
5. supporting connective tissue
(dense connective tissue) - examples
are tendon, ligament
Cell Modifications
 is the process happening after cell division,
where the newly formed cells undergo
structure alteration in order for them to carry
out their function to achieve maximum
productivity and the desired result expected of
them
EXAMPLES OF CELL MODIFICATION
1. Red Blood Cells
 type of blood cell which is a tiny, disc-like
cell and biconcave in shape without
nucleus
 hemoglobin which is red pigment is found
in the cytoplasm of the red blood cell
 total lifespan of the red blood cell is about
four months
 carry oxygen to all parts of the body
 absence of nucleus in the red blood cells
allows it to have more hemoglobin and
more hemoglobin means more oxygen
that it can transport
 biconcave shape increases the surface
area for easy diffusion of oxygen in and
out of cells
2. White Blood Cell
 made in the bone marrow
 stored in your blood and lymph tissues
3. Root Hair Cell
 modified epidermal cells of the roots
 has a long narrow protrusion, having a
large vacuole and many mitochondria but
without chloroplasts
 functions to absorb water through osmosis
and mineral salts through active transport
processes
 Increases the surface area of the root hair
cell allowing more water and mineral salts
being absorb
 long and narrow hair-like structure enables
the root hair cell to penetrate in between
soil particles
4. Xylem Vessels
 composed of long cells joined end to end,
is formed when a part of the plant stopped
growing, and the end walls of the cells are
digested away to form a continuous fine
tube
 have thick cell wall and strong cell wall
because of the presence of lignin
 functions to transport water and minerals
from roots to other parts of a plant and
support the plant allowing it to stand erect
5. Guard Cells
 can be found in the stroma
 specialized because cell wall in the inner
side of the guard cells is thicker than the
outer side which helps in the bending
outward when they become turgid
resulting in the opening of the stoma
 regulate the rate of transpiration of the
plant
6. Muscle Cell
 a muscle is generally elongated and
elastic with high number of mitochondria
 the elongated and elastic features of the
muscle facilitate the contraction and
relaxation for movement function
 the abundance of mitochondria in muscles
is a necessity for its contraction function
7. Flagella
 is a whip like structure that extending from
the cell membrane which helps in the
propelling motion of the cell
 can be one or few in numbers
 present in sperm cells
Extra Details
Autopsy - tissue sample from dead organism
Biopsy - tissue sample from living organism
Xylem - carries water and minerals, only goes up
Phloem - carries food
There are plants without xylem and phloem
8. Cilia
 short hair-like projections and are
numerous in number
 it is motile in some protists organism like
paramecium serving as their organ of
locomotion
 it is non motile in the ear which helps
detect sound
9. Microvilli
 are microscopic projections that are
present in, on and around cells
 most often found in the small intestine, on
the surface of egg cells, as well as on
white blood cells
 they are smaller and shorter than cilia
 it functions to increase the surface area of
the cell for better absorption and section
Cytes - cells
Adipose - store fat, contains large droplets of fat
Erythrocytes - red blood cells
Lymphocytes - white blood cells
Thrombocytes - platelets
 GENERAL BIOLOGY
Q1 W3 NOTES
CELL CYCLE
 is an ordered series of events involving cell
growth and cell division that takes place from
the time a eukaryotic cell divides and produces
two new daughter cells
 cells on the path to cell division proceed
through a series of precisely timed and
carefully regulated stages of growth, DNA
replication, and division that produces two
identical (clone) cells
NOTE: Cell division is key to life: from the moment
we are first conceived, we are continually changing
and growing. For our bodies to grow and develop,
they must produce new cells—and allow for the
death of old cells. Cell division is also an essential
component of injury repair. Without sufficient
cellular oversight, repeated rounds of unregulated
cell division can lead to a minor condition like
psoriasis or a life-threatening disease like cancer.
Two Major Phases of Cell Cycle
Interphase
- longest stage of cell cycle, cell undergoes normal
growth processes while also preparing for cell
division
Three Stages of Interphase
1. G1 Phase (Gap 1/First Gap)
 cell increases in size and volume
 cellular contents excluding chromosomes are
duplicated
 cell is accumulating the building blocks of
chromosomal DNA and the associated proteins
 accumulating sufficient energy reserves to
complete the task of replicating each
chromosome in the nucleus
2. S Phase (Synthesis of DNA)
 DNA is replicated
 centrosome is duplicated
3. G2 Phase (Gap 2/Second Gap)
 cell increase in size and volume
 replenishment of energy
 prepares for mitosis
G0 Phase
 resting or non-dividing stage
 Not preparing to divide
 some cells enter G0 temporarily until an
external signal trigger the onset of G1
 other cells that never or rarely divide, such as
mature cardiac muscle and nerve cells, remain
in G0 permanently
Mitotic Phase (M Phase)
- is the multistep process during which the
duplicated chromosomes are aligned, separated,
and move into two new, identical daughter cells
Two Portions of M Phase
1. Karyokinesis
 “nuclear division”, also known as mitosis that
result in the division of the cell nucleus
 Divided into 4 phases:
1. Prophase - nuclear envelope
disintegrates, chromosomes condense,
centrosome move toward opposite poles,
spindle fibers emerge from centrosomes
2. Metaphase - chromosomes align at the
equatorial plate, spindle fibers attach to
sister chromatids
3. Anaphase - cohesin at the centromere
disappears and sister chromatids separate
which is pulled by the spindle fibers
4. Telophase - chromatids reach the poles,
nucleolus reappears, nuclear envelope
develops, and cytokinesis follows
2. Cytokinesis
 “cell motion,” is completed via the physical
separation of the cytoplasmic components into
two daughter cells. Division is not complete
until the cell components have been
apportioned and completely separated into the
two daughter cells.
 In animal cells, it divides through cleavage
furrow
 In plant cells, it divides through cell plate
Cell Cycle Checkpoint
 is one of several points in the eukaryotic cell
cycle at which the progression of a cell to the
next stage in the cycle can be halted until
conditions are favorable
 it ensures ordered progression through the cell
cycle
G1 (G1/S) Checkpoint
 also known as restriction point in yeast
 damages in DNA are checked
 if a cell that does not meet all the requirements
will not be allowed to progress into the S phase
 Stimulating Protein (Go) - cyclin and cyclin
dependent kinases
 Inhibiting Protein (Stop) - p53 protein and
retinoblastoma protein
Importance of Mitosis in Living Process
1. Genetic Stability
 Mitosis helps in the splitting of
chromosomes during cell division and
generates two new daughter cells.
Therefore, the daughter cells formed as
genetically uniform and identical to the
parent as well as to each other. Thus,
mitosis helps in preserving and
maintaining the genetic stability of a
particular population.
2. Growth
 Mitosis helps in increasing the number of
cells in a living organism thereby playing a
significant role in the growth of a living
organism
3. Replacement and Regeneration of New
Cells
G2 Checkpoint
 ensures that all DNA are completely and
correctly replicated
 damages to replicated DNA are repaired
 Proceeds to M phase if cell size and nutrients
are sufficient
 Stimulating Protein (Go) - cyclin and cyclin
dependent kinases
 Inhibiting Protein (Stop) - p53 protein
M Checkpoint
 occurs during metaphase
 attachment of spindle fibers are checked
 Stimulating Protein (Go) - anaphase-promoting
complex/cyclosome (APC/C)
 Inhibiting Protein (Stop) - mitotic arrest
deficient (MAD) protein
 Genetic mutations occur here
 Mitosis helps in the production of identical
copies of cells and thus helps in repairing
the damaged tissue or replacing the
wornout cells.
4. Asexual Reproduction
 Mitosis is used in the production of
genetically similar offspring. For example,
budding of hydra and yeast, binary fission
in amoeba, etc.
Significance of Mitosis
 It helps in maintaining the same number of
chromosomes in daughter cells after division.
 It is responsible for growth and development of
multicellular organisms.
 It helps in repairing of damaged tissues.
 It helps the cell to maintain proper size.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY
Q1 W4 NOTES
Somatic Cells / Body Cells
- all cells of a multicellular organism except the
gametes or reproductive cells
- Ex. Skin cells and nerve cells
Gametes
- reproductive cells of an animal or plant
- Ex. egg cells and sperm cells
Diploid cells
- has two complete sets of chromosomes
Haploid cells
- contains a single set of chromosomes
- half the number of chromosomes of the parent
cell
Chromosomes
- organized package of proteins
Homologous chromosomes
- are matched pairs containing the same genes in
identical locations along their length
Mitosis
 part of a cell reproduction cycle that results in
identical daughter cells (diploid cells)
 genetically identical to the original parent
nucleus
 Occurs in somatic cells
Meiosis
 halves the number of chromosomes from the
parent cell
 results in haploid cells
 used by multicellular organisms in the
formation of reproductive cells (gametes)
 daughter cells that are produced after meiosis
are not alike
 four daughter cells produce after one meiotic
process because the cell divides twice in
meiosis
 Divided into two parts: Meiosis I and Meiosis II
Meiosis I
 halves the number of chromosomes
 “reductional division”
 mixing of chromosomes
Prophase I
˗ chromosome condense and pair up
˗ nuclear membrane fragments
˗ crossing over of the chromosomes occur
Metaphase I
˗ chromosomes line up along the equator of the
cell
˗ meiotic spindle fibers extend from the
centrioles and attach a chromosome
Anaphase I
˗ The pair of chromosomes are then pulled apart
by the meiotic spindle, which pulls one
chromosome to one pole of the cell and the
other chromosome to the opposite pole
˗ the sister chromatids stay together
Telophase I and Cytokinesis
˗ chromosomes complete their move to the
opposite poles of the cell
˗ nucleus and nuclear envelop develops
˗ the cell then undergo cytokinesis and divide
through cleavage furrow
˗ this results to two haploid cells
Meiosis II
 equational division
 similar to mitosis
 results in 4 haploid daughter cells
Prophase II
˗ sister chromatids condense
˗ centrioles duplicate
˗ nuclear membrane dissolves
Metaphase II
˗ sister chromatids line up along the equator of
the cell
˗ meiotic spindle fibers attach to each sister
chromatids
Anaphase II
˗ The sister chromatids are pulled to opposite
poles by the meiotic spindle fibers
˗ The separated chromatids are now individual
chromosomes
Telophase II and Cytokinesis
˗ chromosomes arrive at the opposite poles of
the cell
˗ nuclear envelope develops in the four nuclei
˗ undergo cytokinesis
˗ results in four haploid daughter cells each with
half a set of chromosomes
Importance of Meiosis

1. Allows Sexual Reproduction of Diploid organisms

˗ Meiosis allows the reduction of a diploid cell to a haploid gamete, which can then recombine with
another haploid gamete to create a diploid zygote.

2. Enables genetic diversity

˗ Genetic diversity means that there will be certain individuals within any given population that will
be better able to survive a loss of habitat, a change in food availability, a change in weather
patterns, diseases, or other catastrophic events, ensuring species continuity

3. Aids the repair of genetic defects

˗ If a genetic defect is present on a certain allele of one parent, recombination can replace this
allele with the healthy allele of the other parent, allowing healthy offspring.

Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis

2
Disorders and Diseases from Malfunctioned Cell Cycle
CANCER
˗ collective name for many different diseases
caused by uncontrolled cell division
˗ all cancers begin when a gene mutation gives
rise to a faulty protein that participates in the
process of cell reproduction
˗ can occur anywhere in the body including the
breast, intestines, lungs, reproductive organs,
blood, and skin
Proto-oncogenes - genes that code for the
positive cell-cycle regulators
TUMOR
˗ uncontrolled growth of the mutated cells
outpaces the growth of normal cells in the area
create a rapidly growing mass of cells that form
a lump
Benign Tumor
˗ mass of cells that retain adhesion proteins
that keep them properly attached to their
home tissue
˗ have no potential to invade other cells
Oncogenes - genes that cause a cell to become
cancerous
Tumor-suppressor genes / Anti-oncogenes -
genes that can prevent the cell from undergoing
uncontrolled division
NOTE: One of the critical processes monitored by
the cell-cycle checkpoint surveillance mechanism is
the proper replication of DNA during the S phase
Malignant Tumor
˗ considered cancerous
˗ can spread to other tissues and impair
more organs of the body
Metastasis - process of breaking away and
creating secondary tumors
MUTATION
˗ random changes in the DNA
˗ changes may result in the death of the cell or
allow it to survive and continue to grow and
divide
Aneuploidy
˗ gain or loss of whole chromosomes
˗ most common chromosome abnormality
˗ caused by non-disjunction
˗ occur in meiosis
Non-disjunction
˗ failure of chromosomes to correctly separate
˗ can occur during either meiosis I or II
Apoptosis
˗ programmed death of cells in the body
˗ plays an important role in shaping plant and
animal structure
˗ Ex. fingers in your hands and feet are
separated from one another because cells
between the fingers die during the tissue
development.
˗ If homologous chromosomes fail to separate
during meiosis I, the result is two gametes that
lack that chromosome and two gametes with
two copies of the chromosome
˗ If sister chromatids fail to separate during
meiosis II, the result is one gamete that lacks
that chromosome, two normal gametes with
one copy of the chromosome, and one gamete
with two copies of the chromosome
Down syndrome
˗ genetic condition that happens when a child is
born with an extra chromosome 21
˗ most common genetic cause of intellectual
disability
Homologous chromosome - A set of one
maternal and one paternal chromosome that pair
up with each other inside a cell during fertilization
Sister chromatids - identical copies formed by the
DNA replication of a chromosome
 GENERAL BIOLOGY
Q1 W5 NOTES

Structural Components of the Cell CHOLESTEROL

Membrane ˗ a major constituent of the cell membrane
˗ consists of a polar head, a planar steroid ring,
and a non-polar hydrocarbon tail
Fluid Mosaic Model
˗ helps to maintain cell membrane stability and
˗ best explains both the microscopic
fluidity at varying temperatures
observations and the function of the plasma
membrane
˗ proposed by Seymour J. Singer and Garth L.
Nicolson in 1972
˗ describes the structure of the plasma
membrane as a mosaic of components —
including phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins,
and carbohydrates—that gives the membrane
a fluid character

PHOSPHOLIPID
˗ consists of a three carbon glycerol backbone
with two fatty acid molecules attached to
carbons 1 and 2, and a phosphate-containing
group attached to the third carbon
˗ arranged in a structure called a lipid bilayer
˗ phosphate heads facing the water and tails
pointing towards the interior of the membrane
˗ has hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail
Hydro - water Philia - love or like
Phobia - fear
Hydrophobic
˗ water fearing, does not like water
˗ resistant to water
˗ only dissolve in oil-based substances
˗ suitable for passive diffusion
˗ non-polar
Hydrophilic
˗ water loving, likes water
˗ absorbed or dissolve in water
˗ require facilitated diffusion
˗ polar and ionic
Polar - covalent bond where atoms share
electrons unequally
Non-polar - covalent bond where atoms
share electrons equally
PROTEIN
˗ second major component of plasma
membranes
Membrane Protein
˗ is a protein molecule that is attached to, or
associated with, the membrane of a cell or an
organelle
Integral Membrane Proteins
˗ permanently embedded within the plasma
membrane
˗ hydrophobic regions of the protein interact with
the hydrophobic region of the phospholipid
bilayer
˗ hydrophilic region or regions of the protein
protruding from then membrane, are in contact
with the cytosol or extracellular fluid (Cytosol -
liquid inside the cell)
˗ functions include channeling or transporting
molecules across the membrane
˗ Some integral protein can act as cell receptors
Transmembrane proteins
˗ span the entire plasma membrane
˗ found in all types of biological
membranes

Integral monotopic proteins

˗ permanently attached to the
membrane from only one side
Peripheral Proteins
˗ proteins that are only temporarily associated
with the membrane
˗ found on the exterior and interior surfaces of
membranes, attached either to integral
proteins or to phospholipids
˗ serve as enzymes, as structural attachments
for the fibers of the cytoskeleton, or as part of
the cell’s recognition sites
˗ referred to as “cell-specific” proteins
˗ mostly hydrophilic
Cell Transport
Semi-Permeability of Plasma Membrane
˗ plasma membranes are selectively permeable
˗ they allow some substances to pass through,
but not others
˗ amphipathic characteristic of plasma
membrane helps the movement of some
materials through the membrane and hinders
the movement of others
Amphipathic - molecule with hydrophilic
and hydrophobic parts, “dual loving”
NOTE: Water solutions are very important in
biology. When water is mixed with other molecules
this mixture is called a solution. Water is the
solvent, and the dissolved substance is the solute.
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
˗ substances cross the plasma membrane
without any input of energy from the cell
˗ substances move from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration
˗ Three common types of passive transport
include simple diffusion, osmosis, and
facilitated diffusion
CARBOHYDRATES
˗ third major component of plasma membranes
˗ always found on the exterior surface of cells
and are bound either to proteins or lipids
˗ along with peripheral proteins form specialized
sites on the cell surface that allow cells to
recognize each other
˗ this recognition function is very important to
cells, as it allows the immune system to
differentiate between body cells (called “self”)
and foreign cells or tissues (called “non-self”)
Simple Diffusion
˗ dispersion of materials/ particles from an area
of high concentration to an area of low
concentration until the concentration is equal
across a space
˗ materials move within the cell’s cytosol by
diffusion, and certain materials move through
the plasma membrane by diffusion as well
Facilitated Diffusion
˗ diffusion of solutes, and substances that
cannot cross the lipid bilayer due to their size
and/or polarity (such as water and ions)
through transport proteins in the plasma
membrane
˗ involves transport proteins (integral proteins)
Osmosis
˗ a special case of diffusion
˗ movement of water through a semipermeable
membrane according to the concentration
gradient of water across the membrane, which
is inversely proportional to the concentration of
solutes, trying to achieve equilibrium
˗ only transports water through the plasma
membrane
Tonicity
˗ describes how an extracellular
solution can change the volume of a
cell by affecting osmosis
Hypertonic
˗ the concentration of solute in the
solution is greater than the
concentration of solute in the cells
˗ net flow or water will be out of the cell
˗ “hyper” = greater than normal
Isotonic
˗ the concentration of solute in the
solution is equal to the concentration
of solute in cells
˗ amount of water entering the cell is
the same as the amount leaving the
cell
˗ “iso” = equal or same as normal
Hypotonic
˗ concentration of solute in the solution
is less than the concentration of solute
in the cells
˗ net flow of water will be into the cell
˗ “hypo” = less than normal
Plasmolysis - cell membrane shrinks
away from cell wall of a plant cell
Cytolysis - the cell membrane burst in
animal cells
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
˗ require energy, usually in the form of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
˗ may also require transport proteins, such as
carrier proteins, which are embedded in the
plasma membrane
Through Pumps
Primary Active Transport
˗ moves ions across a membrane and
creates a difference in charge across
that membrane
˗ Ex. sodium-potassium pump is a
mechanism of active transport that
moves sodium ions out of the cell and
potassium ions into the cells
Secondary Active Transport
˗ describes the movement of material
using the energy of the
electrochemical gradient established
by the primary active transport
˗ Using the energy of the
electrochemical gradient created by
the primary active transport system,
other substances such as amino acids
and glucose can be brought into the
cell through membrane channels
Through Vesicle Transport

Endocytosis
˗ a type of vesicle transport that moves
a substance into the cell
˗ plasma membrane completely engulfs
the substance, a vesicle pinches off
from the membrane, and the vesicle
carries the substance into the cell

Phagocytosis
˗ “cell eating”
˗ process by whichlarge particles, such
as cells or relatively large particles,
are taken in by a cell
˗ evident in the white blood cell called a
neutrophil, which surrounds and
engulfs the microorganism

Pinocytosis
˗ “cell drinking”
˗ process that takes in molecules,
including water and dissolved
nutrients, which the cell needs from
the extracellular fluid

Receptor-mediated endocytosis
˗ an endocytosis, which employs
receptor proteins in the plasma
membrane that have a specific
binding affinity for certain substances

Exocytosis
˗ opposite of endocytosis because its
purpose is to expel material from the
cell into the extracellular fluid

Extra Details:

Homeostasis
˗ body’s way of keeping everything balanced
˗ getting the right balance of sodium and
potassium in the diet is important for good
health
˗ imbalances may increase the risk of high blood
pressure, heart disease, diabetes, and other
disorders

Bulk Transport
˗ remove and take in larger molecules and
particles
 GENERAL BIOLOGY
Q1 W6 NOTES

Enzyme
NOTE: Many enzymes can catalyze a reaction only
˗ organic substances that accelerate the rate of if coenzymes, or cofactors are present
chemical reaction
˗ vital for life and serve a wide range of Important Terms
important functions in the body, such as aiding
Catalyst - A substance that speeds up a chemical
in fighting germs, digestion, and metabolism
˗ some enzymes help break large molecules into reaction without being changed
smaller pieces that are easier to be absorbed Enzyme - A biological catalyst (usually a protein)
by the body Substrate - The reactant molecule that an enzyme
˗ other enzymes help bind two molecules
works on
together to produce a new molecule
˗ protein macromolecules Active Site - The part of the enzyme where the
˗ also known as catalysts substrate binds
˗ they increase the speed of that reaction, Enzyme-substrate complex - formed when the
typically by 106-1014 times faster than the rate
substrate molecule collides with the active site of
of the uncatalyzed reaction
˗ enzymes are specific, each type of enzyme its enzyme
typically only reacts with one, or a couple, of Endoenzymes - remain in the cell and are active
substrates Exoenzymes - inactive when inside the cell but
˗ enzymes are reusable, they are not reactants
upon release they become active
and are not used up during the reaction
Activation energy - the minimum energy required
Enzyme Components to start a chemical reaction.
Transition state - the intermediate stage in a
Apoenzyme
˗ an inactive enzyme reaction in which the old bonds break and new
˗ lack their necessary cofactor(s) for proper
bonds are formed.
functioning
˗ activation of the enzyme occurs upon binding
of an organic or inorganic cofactor

Cofactor
˗ mostly metal ions or small organic molecules,
are inorganic and organic chemicals that assist
enzymes during the catalysis of reactions
˗ Ex. magnesium, zinc

Holoenzyme
˗ active forms of apoenzymes (apoenzyme +
cofactor)
˗ Ex. DNA polymerase and RNA polymerase

Coenzyme
˗ non-protein organic molecules that are mostly
derivatives of vitamins soluble in water by
phosphorylation
˗ organic cofactor
˗ Ex. NADH, FADH
Oxidation – Reduction Reaction
˗ type of chemical reaction that involves a
transfer of electrons between two species
˗ any chemical reaction in which the oxidation
number of a molecule, atom, or ion change by
gaining or losing an electron
Oxidation
˗ loss of electron
˗ gain of oxygen
Reduction
˗ gain of electron
˗ loss of oxygen
Oxidizing Agent
˗ a reagent which increases the oxidation
number of an element of a given substance
˗ also called as oxidants
Reducing Agent
˗ reagent that lowers the oxidation number of a
given element
˗ also called as reductants
Reactant
˗ a substance or mixture for use in chemical
analysis or other reactions
˗ a substance or compound added to a system
to cause a chemical reaction or added to test if
a reaction occurs
Reagent
˗ a substance consumed in the course of a
chemical reaction
Factors Affecting Enzymatic Activity
1. Temperature
˗ raising temperature generally speeds up a
reaction, and lowering temperature slows
down a reaction
˗ however, extreme high temperatures can
cause an enzyme to lose its shape
(denature) and stop working
˗ most enzymes have an optimum
temperature, near normal body
temperature at which they catalyze a
reaction most rapidly
2. pH
˗ each enzyme has an optimum pH range
˗ extreme pH values can cause enzymes to
denature
˗ enzymes catalyze a reaction most rapidly
at an optimum pH, near neutral
3. Substrate Concentration
˗ increasing substrate concentration also
increases the rate of reaction to a certain
point
˗ once all the enzymes have bound, any
substrate increase will have no effect on
the rate of reaction, as the available
enzymes will be saturated and working at
their maximum rate
4. Enzyme Concentration
˗ increasing enzyme concentration will
speed up the reaction, as long as there is
substrate available to bind to
5. Enzyme Inhibitor
˗ Has three types: competitive, non-
competitive, and uncompetitive
Competitive Inhibitor
˗ A molecule similar in structure to a
substrate can bind to an enzyme‘s
active site and compete with substrate
Non-competitive Inhibitor
˗ attach to the enzyme at an allosteric
site, which is a site other than the
active site distort the tertiary protein
structure and alter the shape of the
active site
˗ does not compete or block substrate
binding but changes the shape of the
enzyme
Feedback Inhibitor
˗ regulates the rate of many metabolic
pathways when an end product of a
pathway accumulates and binds to
and inactivates the first enzyme in the
metabolic pathway