GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Quarter 1
STEM | LABADIA - TUGA - GUNDAY - BENIGAY | SEM 1 2022
LESSON 1: CELL THEORY
SPONTANEOUS GENERATION
Aristotle
● Greek philosopher who was one of the
earliest recorded scholars to articulate
the theory of spontaneous generation
● His notion that life can arise from
non-living matter.
● If the material contained pneuma (“vital
heat”)
Jan Baptista van Helmont
● Greek philosopher who was one of the
earliest recorded scholars to articulate
the theory of spontaneous generation
● A Flemish scientist, who proposed that
mice could arise from rags and wheat
kernels left in an open container for 3
weeks.
● In reality, such habitats provided ideal
food sources and shelter for mouse
populations to flourish.
Francesco Redi
● Italian physician who performed an
experiment in 1668 that was one of the
first to refute the idea that maggots (the
larvae of flies) spontaneously generate
on meat left out in the open air.
John Needham
● He briefly boiled broth infused with plant
or animal matter, hoping to kill all
pre-existing microbes.
● He then sealed the flasks.
● After a few days, Needham observed
that the broth had become cloudy and
single drop contained numerous
microscopic creatures.
● He argued that the new microbes must
have arisen spontaneously.
● In reality, however, he likely did not boil
the broth enough to kill all pre-existing
microbes.
Lazzaro Spallanzani
● He performed hundreds of carefully
executed experiments using heated
broth.
● Broth in sealed jars and unsealed jars
was infused with plant and animal
matter.
● Heated but sealed flasks remained
clear, without any signs of spontaneous
growth
Louis Pasteur
● A prominent French chemist who had
been studying microbial fermentation
and the causes of wine spoilage,
accepted the challenge.
● Pasteur filtered air through a gun-cotton
filter and, upon microscopic examination
of the cotton, found it full of
microorganisms.
● Set of experiments irrefutably disproved
the theory of spontaneous generation
and earned him the prestigious
Alhumbert Prize.
● Articulated “Omne vivum ex vivo” (“Life
only comes from life”
LITTLE IS MUCH: UNDERSTANDING THE
CORK
Robert Hooke
● An English scientist who examined a
thin slice of cork under the microscope.
● He observed that the piece of cork was
composed of many tiny compartments
which resembled little rooms with
surrounding walls.
● Hooke named these compartments
cells.
● The cells that Hooke observed were not
living.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
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● He concentrated his study only on the Rudolf Virchow

structure, particularly on the cell wall, ● A German biologist, who theorized that
and did not pursue his investigation of all living cells come from pre-existing
the cell content. living cells.
Antoine Van Leuwenhoek ● His conclusion arose from observing
● Observed red blood cells, sperm and a dividing cells while he was at work.
myriad of single-celled organisms in
CELL THEORY
pond water.
● He discovered free cells and observed The cell theory states that:
the nucleus within some red blood cells.
● He had more success in living cells in 1. All living things are composed of one
action despite his smaller, simpler, or more cells and cell products.
handheld microscopes 2. All living cells come from other living
Robert Brown cells by the process of cell division.
● A Scottish Botanist who made a general 3. Cells are the basic units of structure
conclusion in 1831 and function on organism
● He discovered the nucleus and
theorized that this structure is a
fundamental and a constant component LESSON 2: CELL
of the cell.
Felix Dujardin Cell
● A French biologist who found out that - the basic smallest structural and
functional unit of an organism, typically
living cells contained an internal
microscopic and consisting of cytoplasm
substance. and a nucleus enclosed in a membrane.
● Not knowing exactly what this substance Microscopic organisms typically consist
was, Dujardin gave it the name sarcode. of a single cell, which is either
Jan Evangelista Purkinje eukaryotic or prokaryotic.
● A Bohemian physiologist who made a
thorough investigation of this internal
material.
● He gave it the name protoplasm, a term
coined for the colloidal substance in the
cell which is currently known as
cytoplasm.
Matthias Schleiden
● A German botanist, who stated that all
plants are composed of cells.
Theodore Schwann
● a German zoologist, concluded that all
animals are composed of cells.
Matthias Schleiden & Theodore Schwann 3 MAJOR PARTS OF CELL
● Jointly, Schleiden and Schwann came 1. Cell Membrane
up with the theory that all living things ● Won’t allow to let through other foreign
are composed of cells. substances easily inside the cell.
● Act as a barrier and a gatekeeper

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● Selectively permeable because
substances do not cross it
indiscriminately
TYPES OF CELL MEMBRANE:
a. Phospholipid bilayer
● A thin polar membrane made of two
layers of lipid molecules.
● These membranes are flat sheets that
form a continuous barrier around all
cells.
b. Integral Membrane Proteins
● Is a type of membrane protein that is
permanently attached to the biological
cell membrane.
● Its proteins reside within the bilayer
membranes that surround cells and
organelles, playing critical roles in
movement of molecules across them
and the transduction of energy and
signals.
c. Channel Proteins
● Is a special arrangement of amino acids
which embeds in the cell membrane,
providing a hydrophilic passageway for
water and small particles.
d. Marker Proteins
● Extend across the cell membrane and
serve to identify the cell. The immune
system uses these proteins to tell
friendly cells from foreign invaders. They
are as unique as fingerprints. They play
an important role in organ transplants.
e. Receptor Proteins
● a special class of proteins that function
by binding a specific ligand molecule.
● Transmit information to the cell by
sensing the presence or absence of
their cognate ligands.
f. Peripheral Membrane Proteins
● Not totally embedded in the cell
membrane.
● allows cells to coordinate and
communicate using networks of proteins
and reactions.
TYPES OF TRANSPORT :
a. Active Transport
● Requires energy for transportation of
molecules inside the cell.
b. Passive Transport
● Does not require energy for
transportation molecules inside the cell.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
Osmosis - Spontaneous net movement or
diffusion of solvent molecules through a
selectively-permeable membrane.
mRNA - Messenger Ribonucleic Acid,
corresponds to the genetic sequence of a
gene, and is read by a ribosome in the
process of synthesizing a protein.
tRNA - Transport Ribonucleic Acid, assist the
amino acids and other enzymes when being
transported.
DNA - Deoxyribonucleic Acid, carrying genetic
instructions for the development, functioning,
growth and reproduction of all known
organisms.
How cell membrane allows substances to
pass through?
- The structure of the lipid bilayer
allows small, uncharged substances
such as oxygen and carbon dioxide,
and hydrophobic molecules such as
lipids, to pass through the cell
membrane, down their organelles, by
simple diffusion.
2. Cell Nucleus
● Contains genetic material.
● Control center of the cell.
● The one who is involved in getting
genetic copy on what protein or enzyme
to produce.
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● Determines and dictates how the cell
functions.
3. Cytoplasm
● Is the gelatinous liquid inside of the cell.
● Houses the little organelles of the cell.
● It is the medium of chemical reactions.
SUBCELLULAR ORGANELLES OF CELLS
Subcellular Organelles
● Also known as “Little organs”
● Suspended inside the cytoplasm of the
cell.
1. Mitochondria
● Powerhouse of the cell.
● Plays an important role in respiration.
● They can encode for some of the
components.
● Contains a double membrane with the
inner folding to form “cristae”
2. Golgi Body
● Package the received materials and
distribute them to the plant and animal
parts of the cell.
3. Central Vacuole
● Storage area of the cell.
● Store food, water, and waste.
● Animals have a very small vacuole while
plants have a large central vacuole.
4. Endoplasmic Reticulum
Smooth
● Is ribosome free and functions in
detoxification of lipids.
Rough
● Contains ribosomes and releases newly
made protein from the cell.
5. Ribosome
● Directly involved in the manufacture of
proteins.
● Involves in decoding the information
contained in the mRNA.
● Contain hydrolytic enzymes
● Pick up materials in plant and animal
cells.
6. Cytoskeleton
● A structure that helps cells maintain
their shape and internal organization.
● It also provides mechanical support that
enables cells to carry out essential
functions like division and movement.
3 TYPES OF FILAMENTS IN CYTOSKELETON:
a. Microfilaments
○ Provides shape and movement
of the cell.
b. Intermediate Filaments
○ Most stable component of
cytoskeleton:
○ They are found in durable
structures (hairs, scales and
fingernails)
c. Microtubules
○ Provide pathways for certain
cellular molecules to move.
7. Cell Wall
● Rigid organelle composed of cellulose.
● Primary cell wall expands as a cell
grows.
● Secondary cell wall develops inside the
primary cell wall as the plant reaches its
full size.
8. Centriole
● Paired organelle found only in animal
cells.
● Contains microtubules.
● The one who is assigned for cell
division.
9. Lysosome
● A membrane-bound cell organelle that
contains digestive enzymes.
● They break down excess or worn-out
cell parts. They may be used to destroy
invading viruses and bacteria.
LESSON 3: PROKARYOTIC VS.
EUKARYOTIC
a. Prokaryotic
● Simple, small cells.
● Does not have a well-defined nucleus.
● Most primitive kind of cells.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
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STEM | LABADIA - TUGA - GUNDAY - BENIGAY | SEM 1 2022

host's defense mechanisms against

infection are impaired
● Nitrifying bacteria and Denitrifying
nitrogen on environment
4. Ancient producers of oxygen
5. Vector for genetic engineering purposes
● bacteria can grow within 24 hours

STRUCTURE OF PROKARYOTIC CELLS

1. Glycocalyx
● Function as a receptor.
b. Eukaryotic 2. Nucleoid
● Complex, large structured. ● Location of genetic material (DNA).
● Have a well-defined nucleus. 3. Pili/Pilus
● Evolved from prokaryotic cell only but ● Used to transfer DNA to other cells.
contain different types of organelles. ● Use for sexual reproduction of cells.
4. Mesosomes
● Role is during cellular respiration.
5. Flagellum
● Helps in the movement of the cell.
6. Cell wall
● Provides rigidity and support cell.
7. Fimbriae
● Helps in attachment to the surface.
8. Inclusion/Granules
● Helps in storage of carbohydrates,
COMMON MISTAKES AND glycogen, phosphate, fats.
MISCONCEPTIONS: ● Similar to vacuoles.
9. Ribosomes
a. Eukaryotes can be unicellular. ● Help in protein synthesis.
b. Even though prokaryotes do not have 10. Cell membrane
nucleus, they do contain genetic ● Regulate the flow of materials inside
information. and outside the cells.
c. Though they sound negative, bacteria 11. Endospore
are very important. ● helps cells survive during harsh
conditions.
ROLES OF BACTERIA ARE THE ● Breaks at 121 degrees celsius.
FOLLOWING:
1. Decomposers ORGANELLES
2. Aids in digestion
PROKARYOTIC EUKARYOTIC
3. Helps in Nitrogen Cycle
Ribosome Nucleus
● Pathogenic - disease causing
microorganism (harmful) Centrioles Smooth ER
● Non-pathogenic - can be pathogenic Cytoskeleton Rough ER
● Opportunistic Pathogens - they cause Golgi Apparatus
serious infections mainly when the Vacuoles and Vesicles

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Mitochondria Transcription and Replication and

Chloroplast and other translation occurs transcription occurs in
plants together nucleus and translation
Lysosome in the cytosol
Peroxisomes DNA is circular and It is linear and
double-stranded double-stranded
STRUCTURE OF EUKARYOTIC CELLS Asexually Sexually
1. Nucleolus simple, smallest Larger and complex
- is the largest nuclear organelle and is cells
the primary site of ribosome subunit
biogenesis in eukaryotic cells.
LESSON 4: ANIMAL AND PLANT TISSUE
2. Plasma membrane
- a network of lipids and proteins that
forms the boundary between a cell's Tissue
● Must cells are specialized to perform
contents and the outside of the cell.
one specific function.
3. Peroxisome ● Groups of similar cells performing
sequester diverse oxidative reactions special life functions are called tissue.
and play important roles in metabolism,
reactive oxygen species detoxification, FOUR TYPES OF ANIMAL TISSUE
and signaling.
1. Epithelial Tissue
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC ● Lines, tissues, that protect other
AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS underlying tissues and organs.
Characterized by
PROKARYOTIC EUKARYOTIC
● Cells tightly linked together.
Primitive kind of cell Modified cell structure
● Presence of cell secretion called the
containing different
basement membrane.
components
Named by:
Organelles like Organelles like ● Cell shape.
mitochondria, Golgi mitochondria, ● Other characteristics of the cell.
body, endoplasmic ribosomes, golgi body,
reticulum, cell wall, endoplasmic reticulum, PARTS OF EPITHELIAL
chloroplast, etc. are cell wall, chloroplast, a. Squamous
absent etc. are present ● Cells are very thin, much wider than
Not well-defined Structured they are thick.
nucleus compartmentalized and ● Simple Squamous - can be located in
functional nucleus the alveoli.
Many organelles are Cell organelles are ● Stratified Squamous - can be located in
absent present which are the capillary.
membrane bound b. Cuboidal
Conjugation, Cell division ● Cell cube-shaped secretion and
transformation and absorption.
transduction ● Simple Cuboidal - typically found in
glandular (secreting) tissue and kidney
tubules.

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GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
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STEM | LABADIA - TUGA - GUNDAY - BENIGAY | SEM 1 2022

● Stratified Cuboidal - can be found in the

excretory ducts of salivary and sweat TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE:
glands. a. Cardiac
c. Columnar ● Can be located in the heart.
● Elongated cells, much longer than they ● Involuntary movement.
are wide. b. Skeletal
● Pseudostratified ciliated columnar ● Can be located near the bones.
epithelium - Lines the bronchi, trachea, ● Voluntary movement.
uterine tubes and some of the uterus. c. Smooth
Propels mucus or reproductive cells by ● Can be located in the organs (example:
ciliary action. stomach).
● Involuntary movement.
4. Nervous
● Carry electrical and chemical signals
and impulses.
● Are made up of specialized cells called
neurons.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:

Sensory Neuron - Receiver of the

information.
Motor Neuron - The one who translates and
responds to the received information.

TWO TYPES OF PLANT TISSUE

2. Connective
● Characterized by the cells widely
separated from each other in a matrix
that is produced by the cells.
● Protects and supports.
CELL MATRIX COMPOSED OF TWO REGIONS:
a. Ground
● Liquid (sol), Gel, Gum or solid
b. Fibers
● Non-elastic (= white or Collagen)
● Elastic (= yellow fibers)
3. Muscle Tissue
● Tissue with cells having fibers
specialized for contraction.
1. Meristematic Tissue
● Responsible for the production of new
cell.
● Small, thin cell walls and rich in
cytoplasm.
TYPES OF MERISTEMATIC TISSUE:
a. Apical
- Primary plant body.
- Responsible for the extension of the
roots and shoots of the plant.
b. Lateral
- Known as the secondary meristems
because they are responsible for
secondary growth (increase in stem
girth and thickness)
2. Permanent Tissue
- Composed of mature and differentiated
cells.

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- They have specialized structures to
perform specific functions.
TYPES OF PERMANENT TISSUE:
a. Simple Permanent Tissue
- Type of tissue that are made of similar
types of cells that perform the same
function.
- Primarily found in the construction
organs, epidermal layer, and mechanical
support.
- This type of tissue forms the basis of the
plant body.
a. Epidermis
● Outermost layer.
● Protoderm-derived layer
cells–covering the stem, leaves,
root, leaf, flower, and hard parts
of seed of a plant.
● Main function is to provide a
protective barrier against
mechanical injury, water loss,
and infection.
b. Parenchyma
● Located in the soft parts of the
plant.
● Main function is to help in storing
food.
● Cells can be in oval or rounded
shape.
● The cells inside this tissue are
living.
● Have thin cell walls.
● Have large central vacuole and
dense cytoplasm.
● Can be classified into
Aerenchyma and Chlorenchyma.
c. Collenchyma
● Can be located on leaf stalks,
below the epidermis.
● Elongated shape living cells.
● Thick cell walls.
● Main function is to provide
flexibility to the plants.
d. Sclerenchyma
● Located in leaf veins, hard
coverings of the seed.
● Main function is to provide
rigidity.
● The cells in this region are dead.
● The cell walls are very thick due
to the deposition of Lignin.
● The cells can be in different sizes
with different shapes.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
Aerenchyma - facilitates the movement and
transportation of oxygen from the stem to the
root in plants. Also, essential for plant
survival.
of Chlorenchyma - Special type of parenchyma
tissue. It contains chlorophyll since it is the
one who is responsible it
Lignin - abundant in cell walls especially in
plant cells, it transports water and provides
mechanical support and resistance
Chlorophyll - a green coloured pigment,
present in all green plants that is responsible
for absorption of sunlight to provide energy for
photosynthesis
b. Complex Permanent Tissue
● Defined as a collection of structurally
dissimilar cells performing a common
function.
a. Xylem
● Distributes water and dissolved
minerals upward through the
plant, from the roots up to the
stem and leaves.
b. Phloem
● The opposite function of xylem, it
delivers minerals, food, and other
nutrients from the leaves
downward to the roots and other
parts of the plant.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Quarter 1
STEM | LABADIA - TUGA - GUNDAY - BENIGAY | SEM 1 2022
LESSON 5: CELL MODIFICATION
- Are specialized or modifications re acquired
by the cell after cell division that helps the
cell in different beneficial ways.
Cell Specialization
- another term for modification or
differentiation
- Occurs after cell division
- Newly formed cells are structurally modified
TYPES AND EXAMPLES OF CELL
MODIFICATIONS
1. Apical Modification
- Cell modification that can be found on
the apical surface of the cell
KINDS OF APICAL MODIFICATION:
a. Extra Cellular Matrix (ECM)
- Compound secreted by the cell
on its apical surface.
- Plant Cells: Cell wall
Animal Cells: Glycoprotein
b. Flagella
- Also known as flagellum
- A whip-like structure that
extends from the cell body.
- Pushes the cell to a particular
direction in a propelling motion.
- Connected to the cytoplasm and
contained in the cell’s plasma
membrane.
- The bottom part of axoneme is a
basal body which attaches it to
the cell body.
- The dye in arms convert
chemical energy in the form of
ATP to mechanical as it propels
the movement of the flagellum
- Responsible for locomotion and
motility.
c. Cilia
- Can be motile or nonmotile
(primary cilia)
- Brushing off and removal of
unwanted debris along the lining
of the respiratory tract of
humans.
CILIA MAY BE CLASSIFIED AS:
1. Mechanoreceptor
- Guides the flow of the fluid
through the tubules in the body.
2. Chemoreceptor
- Serves to detect the smell of
substances.
3. Photoreceptor
- Present in retina
- Sensitive to light
d. Microvilli
- Tiny finger-like structure that protrude
from the cell membrane.
- Each microvillus is covered by a single
layer of epithelial cells and is supplied
with blood by the capillaries.
- Allows absorption of fat using its lymph
vessels.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
Why are Microvilli Important?
- increase the surface area on the
epithelial cell that they are located on.
- In small intestines, microvilli provides
more effectiveness in receiving or
absorption of nutrients.
e. Pseudopodia
- It is a temporary arm-like projection of a
eukaryotic cell membrane
- It is filled with cytoplasm
- Primarily consist of actin filaments and may
also contain microtubules and intermediate
filaments.
- Used for motility and ingestion
- Found often in amoebas
2. Basal Modification
- Cell modification that can be found on
the basal surface of the cell.
- Hemidesmosomes: are multiprotein
complexes that facilitate the stable
adhesion of basal epithelial cells to the
underlying basement membrane
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3. Lateral Modification
- Cell modification that can be found on
either side or basal surface of the cell.
KINDS OF LATERAL MODIFICATION:
a. Tight Junction
- Act as barriers that regulate the
movement of water and solutes
between epithelial layers.
- Prevents leakage of Extra
Cellular Fluid (ECF)
b. Adhering Junction
- The anchoring junction on the
lateral surface of the cell.
- Very similar to the anchoring
junction of the basal surface of
the cell.
- Provides fastening of cells to
one another.
c. Gap Junction
- Also known as communicating
junctions
- Closable channels that connect
the cytoplasm of adjoining
animal cells.
- Presence of connexon that
allow direct exchange of
chemicals between cytoplasm of
two cells.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:

FORM FITS FUNCTION

- means that the form of a body part or
structure is related to its function.
- when the shape of something is
designed for the job it is supposed

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