MOOSABHKHAN

d>K&KEdEd

^͘EK͘ dKW/ED W'EK͘

ϭ ><E^ ϭ

Ϯ ><EE^ ϰϳ

ϯ >K,K> ϵϱ

ϰ ZKyz>//^E^dZ^ ϭϯ3

ϱ DZKDK>Eh>^ ϭϳϵ

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ALKANES

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CHAPTER - Alkanes

Alkanes
Usually in fuels, examples: natural gas, petrol, diesel are homologous series
have a formula of CnH2n+2

Example: propane has three carbon atom, thus n=3. Then the formula of
propane is C3H8͘/ƚĞŶĚƐǁŝƚŚƐƵĸdžʹĂŶĞ
EĞdžƚĂůŬĂŶĞĨŽƌŵƵůĂĚŝīĞƌďLJʹ,2 atoms. Eg: methane: CH4, ethane: C2H6

Structure of Alkanes/Displayed formula:

Shows how all atoms in a molecule joined together by drawing lines between
atoms to represent the bonds

Example: butane has a formula of C4H10, therefore the structural formula is:

It has 4 carbon atoms bonded together with 10 hydrogen atoms

Organic compound containing only single bond is saturated. Eg: butane

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All alkanes follow a general formula CnH2n+2

No of Carbon Name Molecular Displayed Structural

atoms Formula Formula Formula
1 Methane CH4

2 Ethane C2H6

3 Propane C3H8

4 Butane C4H10

5 Pentane C5H12

WŚLJƐŝĐĂůWƌŽƉĞƌƟĞƐŽĨůŬĂŶĞƐ
1. DĞůƟŶŐƉŽŝŶƚƐĂŶĚďŽŝůŝŶŐƉŽŝŶƚƐŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞĂƐŵŽůĞĐƵůĞƐďĞĐŽŵĞůĂƌŐĞƌĂŶĚ
ŚĞĂǀŝĞƌǁŚŝĐŚŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞƐƚŚĞĨŽƌĐĞƐŽĨĂƩƌĂĐƟŽŶďĞƚǁĞĞŶŵŽůĞĐƵůĞƐƐŽŵŽƌĞ
energy (from heat) is needed to separate them.
2. Alkanes are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as alkanes
are organic compounds
3. density increases down the series.
4. ŵŽƌĞǀŝƐĐŽƵƐ;ƵŶĞĂƐŝůLJŇŽǁͿŐŽŝŶŐĚŽǁŶƚŚĞƐĞƌŝĞƐ͘
5. ďĞĐŽŵĞůĞƐƐŇĂŵŵĂďůĞĚŽǁŶƚŚĞƐĞƌŝĞƐĂƐ͘W͘ďĞĐŽŵĞƐŐƌĞĂƚĞƌ͘
6. ůŬĂŶĞƐĂƌĞƵŶͲƌĞĂĐƟǀĞǁŝƚŚŵĞƚĂůƐ͕ǁĂƚĞƌ͕ĂĐŝĚƐŽƌďĂƐĞƐďĞĐĂƵƐĞƚŚĞʹ

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Isomerism in Alkanes

ĞĮŶĞ/ƐŽŵĞƌŝƐŵ
KƌŐĂŶŝĐĐŽŵƉŽƵŶĚƐŚĂǀŝŶŐƚŚĞƐĂŵĞŵŽůĞĐƵůĂƌĨŽƌŵƵůĂďƵƚĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚƐƚƌƵĐƚƵƌĂů
formula, such compounds are called isomers of each other and this property is
called isomerism.
Note: in alkanes, isomerism begins from butane (C4H10) onwards because there
onwards, branched structures are possible.

Isomerism in Butane:

Isomerism in Pentane:

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YƵĞƐƟŽŶϭ͗;ϱϬϳϬͲKͬEϭϱͬWϭϮͬYϯϰͿ
Which diagram shows the isomer of butane?

YƵĞƐƟŽŶϮ͗;ϱϬϳϬͲKͬEϭϯͬWϭϮͬYϯϴͿ
Alkanes are saturated compounds containing carbon and hydrogen only.
Structures 1, 2, 3 and 4 are saturated hydrocarbons.

YƵĞƐƟŽŶϯ
Which pair of structures are isomers?
AഩϭĂŶĚϮപപഩϭĂŶĚϰപപCഩϮĂŶĚϯപപDഩϮĂŶĚϰ

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YƵĞƐƟŽŶϰ͗;ϱϬϳϬͲKͬEϭϰͬWϭϭͬYϯϳͿ
tŚŝĐŚĂůŬĂŶĞ͕ǁŚĞŶĂŶLJŽŶĞŚLJĚƌŽŐĞŶĂƚŽŵŝƐƐƵďƐƟƚƵƚĞĚďLJĂĐŚůŽƌŝŶĞĂƚŽŵ͕
will not produce isomers?

YƵĞƐƟŽŶϱ͗;ϱϬϳϬͲDͬ:ϬϵͬWϬϭͬYϯϴͿ
Which structure is not an isomer of the structure shown?
CH3 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - CH

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Zd/KEK&><E^

ϭ͘ ŽŵďƵƐƟŽŶƌĞĂĐƟŽŶ
ŽŵƉůĞƚĞĐŽŵďƵƐƟŽŶ;ŐŝǀĞŶƐƵĸĐŝĞŶƚŽdžLJŐĞŶͿŽĨĂŶLJŚLJĚƌŽĐĂƌďŽŶƉƌŽĚƵĐ-
es Carbon dioxide and water.
/ƚŝƐƋƵŝƚĞŝŵƉŽƌƚĂŶƚƚŚĂƚLJŽƵĐĂŶǁƌŝƚĞƉƌŽƉĞƌůLJďĂůĂŶĐĞĚĞƋƵĂƟŽŶƐĨŽƌ
ƚŚĞƐĞƌĞĂĐƟŽŶƐ͘

/ŶĐŽŵƉůĞƚĞĐŽŵďƵƐƟŽŶ
/ŶĐŽŵƉůĞƚĞĐŽŵďƵƐƟŽŶ;ǁŚĞƌĞƚŚĞƌĞŝƐŶ͛ƚĞŶŽƵŐŚŽdžLJŐĞŶƉƌĞƐĞŶƚͿĐĂŶůĞĂĚ
ƚŽƚŚĞĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶŽĨĐĂƌďŽŶŽƌĐĂƌďŽŶŵŽŶŽdžŝĚĞ͘

dƌĞŶĚƐŝŶĐŽŵďƵƐƟŽŶ
The hydrocarbons become harder to ignite as the molecules get bigger. This
ŝƐďĞĐĂƵƐĞƚŚĞďŝŐŐĞƌŵŽůĞĐƵůĞƐĚŽŶ͛ƚǀĂƉŽƌŝnjĞƐƐŽĞĂƐŝůLJ͘

Why carbon monoxide is poisonous

Carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin irreversible making hemoglobin mol-
ecule useless for carrying oxygen gas. If you breathe in enough carbon mon-
ŽdžŝĚĞLJŽƵǁŝůůĚŝĞĨƌŽŵĂƐŽƌƚŽĨŝŶƚĞƌŶĂůƐƵīŽĐĂƟŽŶ

Ϯ͘ ^ƵďƐƟƚƵƟŽŶƌĞĂĐƟŽŶŽĨĂůŬĂŶĞƐ͗
^ƵďƐƟƚƵƟŽŶƌĞĂĐƟŽŶƐŚĂƉƉĞŶŝŶǁŚŝĐŚŚLJĚƌŽŐĞŶĂƚŽŵƐŝŶƚŚĞŵĞƚŚĂŶĞĂƌĞ
ƌĞƉůĂĐĞĚŽŶĞĂƚĂƟŵĞďLJĐŚůŽƌŝŶĞĂƚŽŵƐ͘zŽƵĞŶĚƵƉǁŝƚŚĂŵŝdžƚƵƌĞŽĨĐŚůŽ-
romethane, dichloromethane, trichloromethane and tetrachloromethane.

Reactants : CH4 + Cl2

ŽŶĚŝƟŽŶƐ͗WƌĞƐĞŶĐĞŽĨƐƵŶůŝŐŚƚůŝŐŚƚ;hůƚƌĂsŝŽůĞƚ>ŝŐŚƚͿ
CH4ഩнഩů2ഩ ഩ,3ůഩнഩ,ů
Chloromethane

CH3ůഩнഩů2ഩ ഩ,2Cl2ഩнഩHCl
dichloromethane

CH2Cl2ഩнů2ഩ ഩ,ů3ഩнഩ,ů
trichloromethane

CHCl3ഩнഩů2ഩ ഩů4ഩнഩ,ů
tetrachloromethane

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Note:
1. /ƚŝƐĂƉŚŽƚŽĐŚĞŵŝĐĂůƌĞĂĐƟŽŶ;ƌĞĂĐƟŽŶŝŶƚŚĞƉƌĞƐĞŶĐĞŽĨƐƵŶůŝŐŚƚͿ͘
2. If CH4ŝƐƌĞĂĐƚĞĚŝŶĚĂƌŬ͕ƚŚĞƌĞǁŝůůďĞŶŽƌĞĂĐƟŽŶ͘
3. CCl4 dry cleaning agent.
4. ƌŽŵŝŶĞĂůƐŽƌĞĂĐƚƐŝŶĂƐŝŵŝůĂƌǁĂLJďƵƚŝƚƐƌĂƚĞŽĨƌĞĂĐƟŽŶŝƐƐůŽǁĞƌƚŚĂŶ
chlorine

Cracking

What is cracking?
Cracking is the name given to breaking up large hydrocarbon molecules into
smaller hydrocarbon molecules in the absence of oxygen.
C15H32ഩ ഩϮ2H4ഩнഩ3H6ഩнഩ8H18
ethene propene octane

Types of cracking:
ϭ͘ Thermal cracking
ŽŶĚŝƟŽŶƐ͗
Heat in absence of oxygen gas (O2)
temperatures (typically in the range of 450°C to 750°C)
pressures (up to about 70 atmospheres)

Ϯ͘ ĂƚĂůLJƟĐĐƌĂĐŬŝŶŐ
ŽŶĚŝƟŽŶƐ͗
Heat in absence of oxygen gas (O2)
Catalyst : SiO2 (silica) or Al2O3

Apparatus for Cracking:

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h^^K&><E^

Methane
• Cooking gas/ natural gas
• Industrial fuel
• &ŽƌƉƌĞƉĂƌĂƟŽŶŽĨƚĞƚƌĂĐŚůŽƌŽŵĞƚŚĂŶĞů4

Ethane
ƚŚĂŶĞŝƐďĞŝŶŐƵƐĞĚĂƐŚĞĂƟŶŐĨƵĞů͘

Propane
Propane is an important raw material in petro chemistry

Butane
hƐĞĂƐůŝƋƵŝĚŐĂƐ;>W'ͿŚŽƵƐĞŚŽůĚƐĨŽƌŚĞĂƟŶŐĂŶĚĐŽŵďƵƐƟŽŶƉƵƌƉŽƐ-
es

Pentane
/ŶĂĚĚŝƟŽŶƚŽďĞŝŶŐƵƐĞĚĂƐĂĨŽĂŵŝŶŐĂŐĞŶƚ͘

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ALKENES

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CHAPTER - Alkenes

Alkenes
Have general formula CnH2n
all alkene names end with –ene.
dŚĞĨŽƌŵƵůĂŽĨŽŶĞĂůŬĞŶĞĚŝīĞƌƐĨƌŽŵƚŚĞŶĞdžƚďLJʹ,2.
ͲŚĂǀĞƐŝŵŝůĂƌƉƌŽƉĞƌƟĞƐůŝŬĞĂůŬĂŶĞŐŽŝŶŐĚŽǁŶƚŚĞƐĞƌŝĞƐ

Example:ƉƌŽƉĞŶĞŚĂƐƚŚƌĞĞĐĂƌďŽŶĂƚŽŵ͕ƚŚƵƐŶсϯ͘dŚĞŶƚŚĞĨŽƌŵƵůĂŽĨƉƌŽƉĞŶĞ
is C3H6
• ŶĚƐǁŝƚŚƐƵĸdžʹĞŶĞ
• EĞdžƚĂůŬĞŶĞĨŽƌŵƵůĂĚŝīĞƌƐďLJʹ,2 atoms. Eg ethene: C2H4͕WƌŽƉĞŶĞ͗3H6

First alkene is ethene: C2H4

Structure of Alkenes/Displayed formula:

^ŚŽǁƐŚŽǁĂůůĂƚŽŵƐŝŶĂŵŽůĞĐƵůĞũŽŝŶĞĚƚŽŐĞƚŚĞƌďLJĚƌĂǁŝŶŐůŝŶĞƐďĞƚǁĞĞŶ
ĂƚŽŵƐƚŽƌĞƉƌĞƐĞŶƚƚŚĞďŽŶĚƐ

Structure of Alkenes
/ŶŽƌŐĂŶŝĐĐŽŵƉŽƵŶĚĐŽŶƚĂŝŶŝŶŐсĚŽƵďůĞďŽŶĚ͕ƐĂŝĚƚŽďĞƵŶƐĂƚƵƌĂƚĞĚ
ZĞĂƐŽŶ͗ŶŽƚĂůůĂƚŽŵƐĂƌĞďŽŶĚĞĚƚŽƚŚĞŵĂdžŝŵƵŵŶŽ͘ŽĨϰŽƚŚĞƌĂƚŽŵƐ

Example:

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List of Alkenes

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All alkenes follow a general formula CnH2n

No of Carbon Name Molecular Displayed Structural

atoms Formula Formula Formula
1

2 Ethene C2H4

3 propene C3H6

4 ďƵƚĞŶĞ C4H8

5 pentene C5H10

WŚLJƐŝĐĂůWƌŽƉĞƌƟĞƐŽĨůŬĞŶĞƐ
1. DĞůƟŶŐƉŽŝŶƚƐĂŶĚďŽŝůŝŶŐƉŽŝŶƚƐŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞĂƐŵŽůĞĐƵůĞƐďĞĐŽŵĞŚĞĂǀŝĞƌ
ǁŚŝĐŚŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞƐƚŚĞĨŽƌĐĞƐŽĨĂƩƌĂĐƟŽŶďĞƚǁĞĞŶŵŽůĞĐƵůĞƐƐŽŵŽƌĞĞŶĞƌŐLJ
(from heat) is needed to separate them
2. ůŬĞŶĞƐĂƌĞŝŶƐŽůƵďůĞŝŶǁĂƚĞƌďƵƚƐŽůƵďůĞŝŶŽƌŐĂŶŝĐƐŽůǀĞŶƚƐƐƵĐŚĂƐĂůŬĂŶĞƐ
are organic compounds.
3. ůŬĞŶĞĚĞŶƐŝƚLJŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞƐĚŽǁŶƚŚĞƐĞƌŝĞƐ͘
4. ůŬĞŶĞƐďĞĐŽŵĞŵŽƌĞǀŝƐĐŽƵƐ;ƵŶĞĂƐŝůLJŇŽǁͿŐŽŝŶŐĚŽǁŶƚŚĞƐĞƌŝĞƐ͘
5. ůŬĞŶĞƐďĞĐŽŵĞůĞƐƐŇĂŵŵĂďůĞĚŽǁŶƚŚĞƐĞƌŝĞƐĂƐ͘W͘ďĞĐŽŵĞƐŐƌĞĂƚĞƌ͘
6. ůŬĞŶĞƐĂƌĞƵŶƌĞĂĐƟǀĞǁŝƚŚŵĞƚĂůƐ͕ǁĂƚĞƌ͕ĂĐŝĚƐŽƌďĂƐĞƐďĞĐĂƵƐĞƚŚĞʹ
ĂŶĚʹ,ĐŽǀĂůĞŶƚďŽŶĚƐĂƌĞŚĂƌĚĞƌƚŽďƌĞĂŬ͘

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Isomerism in Alkenes

ĞĮŶĞŝƐŽŵĞƌŝƐŵ
KƌŐĂŶŝĐĐŽŵƉŽƵŶĚƐŚĂǀŝŶŐƚŚĞƐĂŵĞŵŽůĞĐƵůĂƌĨŽƌŵƵůĂďƵƚĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚƐƚƌƵĐƚƵƌĂů
ĨŽƌŵƵůĂ͕ƐƵĐŚĐŽŵƉŽƵŶĚƐĂƌĞĐĂůůĞĚŝƐŽŵĞƌƐŽĨĞĂĐŚŽƚŚĞƌĂŶĚƚŚŝƐƉƌŽƉĞƌƚLJŝƐ
called isomerism.

Note:ŝŶĂůŬĞŶĞƐ͕ŝƐŽŵĞƌŝƐŵďĞŐŝŶƐĨƌŽŵďƵƚĞŶĞ;4H8ͿŽŶǁĂƌĚƐďĞĐĂƵƐĞƚŚĞƌĞ
ďƌĂŶĐŚĞĚƐƚƌƵĐƚƵƌĞƐĂƌĞƉŽƐƐŝďůĞ͘

Isomerism in Butene:

Isomerism in Pentene:

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O/N 16/P11/Q36
dŚĞĚŝĂŐƌĂŵƐŚŽǁƐƚŚĞƐƚƌƵĐƚƵƌĞƐŽĨƚǁŽŚLJĚƌŽĐĂƌďŽŶƐ͕yĂŶĚz

Two students make the following statements.

^ƚƵĚĞŶƚϭപപ,LJĚƌŽĐĂƌďŽŶyŝƐĂŶŝƐŽŵĞƌŽĨz͘
^ƚƵĚĞŶƚϮപപ,LJĚƌŽĐĂƌďŽŶyŝƐƵŶƐĂƚƵƌĂƚĞĚďƵƚzŝƐƐĂƚƵƌĂƚĞĚ͘
Which students are correct?
പďŽƚŚϭĂŶĚϮ
പϭŽŶůLJ
പϮŽŶůLJ
D പneither 1 nor 2

O/N 10/P12/Q36
Five structures are shown.
tŚŝĐŚƐƚƌƵĐƚƵƌĞƐƌĞƉƌĞƐĞŶƚŝĚĞŶƟĐĂů
molecules?
പϭĂŶĚϯŽŶůLJ
പϮĂŶĚϯŽŶůLJ
പϭ͕ϯĂŶĚϰŽŶůLJ
പϭ͕ϯĂŶĚϱŽŶůLJ

O/N 07/P01/Q40
The diagrams show four structures
tŚŝĐŚƐƚƌƵĐƚƵƌĞƐĂƌĞŝƐŽŵĞƌŝĐďƵƚĞŶĞƐ͍
പϭĂŶĚϮ
പϮĂŶĚϯ
പϯĂŶĚϰ
പϮĂŶĚϰ

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ZĞĂĐƟŽŶŽĨůŬĞŶĞƐ

1. COMBUSTION REACTION
ŽŵƉůĞƚĞĐŽŵďƵƐƟŽŶ;ŐŝǀĞŶƐƵĸĐŝĞŶƚŽdžLJŐĞŶͿŽĨĂŶLJŚLJĚƌŽĐĂƌďŽŶƉƌŽĚƵĐ-
ĞƐĂƌďŽŶĚŝŽdžŝĚĞĂŶĚǁĂƚĞƌ͘

/ƚŝƐƋƵŝƚĞŝŵƉŽƌƚĂŶƚƚŚĂƚLJŽƵĐĂŶǁƌŝƚĞƉƌŽƉĞƌůLJďĂůĂŶĐĞĚĞƋƵĂƟŽŶƐĨŽƌ
ƚŚĞƐĞƌĞĂĐƟŽŶƐ͘

/ŶĐŽŵƉůĞƚĞĐŽŵďƵƐƟŽŶ
/ŶĐŽŵƉůĞƚĞĐŽŵďƵƐƟŽŶ;ǁŚĞƌĞƚŚĞƌĞŝƐŶ͛ƚĞŶŽƵŐŚŽdžLJŐĞŶƉƌĞƐĞŶƚͿĐĂŶůĞĂĚ
ƚŽƚŚĞĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶŽĨĐĂƌďŽŶŽƌĐĂƌďŽŶŵŽŶŽdžŝĚĞ͘

dƌĞŶĚƐŝŶĐŽŵďƵƐƟŽŶ
dŚĞŚLJĚƌŽĐĂƌďŽŶƐďĞĐŽŵĞŚĂƌĚĞƌƚŽŝŐŶŝƚĞĂƐƚŚĞŵŽůĞĐƵůĞƐŐĞƚďŝŐŐĞƌ͘dŚŝƐ
ŝƐďĞĐĂƵƐĞƚŚĞďŝŐŐĞƌŵŽůĞĐƵůĞƐĚŽŶ͛ƚǀĂƉŽƌŝnjĞƐƐŽĞĂƐŝůLJ͘

Why carbon monoxide is poisonous

ĂƌďŽŶŵŽŶŽdžŝĚĞďŝŶĚƐƚŽŚĞŵŽŐůŽďŝŶŝƌƌĞǀĞƌƐŝďůĞŵĂŬŝŶŐŚĞŵŽŐůŽďŝŶŵŽů-
ĞĐƵůĞƵƐĞůĞƐƐĨŽƌĐĂƌƌLJŝŶŐŽdžLJŐĞŶŐĂƐ͘/ĨLJŽƵďƌĞĂƚŚĞŝŶĞŶŽƵŐŚĐĂƌďŽŶŵŽŶ-
ŽdžŝĚĞLJŽƵǁŝůůĚŝĞĨƌŽŵĂƐŽƌƚŽĨŝŶƚĞƌŶĂůƐƵīŽĐĂƟŽŶ

2. ADDITION REACTIONS OF ALKENES

ĚĚŝƟŽŶƌĞĂĐƟŽŶƐĂƌĞƌĞĂĐƟŽŶŝŶǁŚŝĐŚ͕ĂƚŽŵƐĂƌĞĂĚĚĞĚŝŶĂůŬĞŶĞƐĂĐƌŽƐƐ
ƚŚĞĚŽƵďůĞďŽŶĚ͕ĂůǁĂLJƐƌĞƐƵůƟŶŐŝŶĂƐŝŶŐůĞƐĂƚƵƌĂƚĞĚƉƌŽĚƵĐƚ͘
ĚĚŝƟŽŶƌĞĂĐƟŽŶƐĂƌĞƚŚĞĐŚĂƌĂĐƚĞƌŝƐƟĐƐƌĞĂĐƟŽŶŽĨĂůŬĞŶĞƐĂŶĚĂƌĞĂůƐŽ
used as a test for alkenes.

džĂŵƉůĞƐŽĨĚĚŝƟŽŶZĞĂĐƟŽŶƐ͗
Ă͘ ĚĚŝƟŽŶŽĨ,2
ď͘ ĚĚŝƟŽŶŽĨƌ2
Đ͘ ĚĚŝƟŽŶŽĨ,ů
Ě͘ ĚĚŝƟŽŶŽĨ,2O

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Ă͘ ĚĚŝƟŽŶKĨ,2Kƌ,LJĚƌŽŐĞŶĂƟŽŶ
ƚŚĞŶĞƌĞĂĐƚƐǁŝƚŚŚLJĚƌŽŐĞŶŝŶƚŚĞƉƌĞƐĞŶĐĞŽĨĂĮŶĞůLJĚŝǀŝĚĞĚŶŝĐŬĞůĐĂƚĂ-
ůLJƐƚĂƚĂƚĞŵƉĞƌĂƚƵƌĞŽĨĂďŽƵƚϭϱϬΣ͘ƚŚĂŶĞŝƐƉƌŽĚƵĐĞĚ͘

Reactants: ĂůŬĞŶĞнŚLJĚƌŽŐĞŶŐĂƐ͕,2
ZĞĂĐƟŽŶŽŶĚŝƟŽŶƐ͗ƚĞŵƉĞƌĂƚƵƌĞŽĨĂďŽƵƚϭϱϬΣ͘
Catalyst:ŶŝĐŬĞůĐĂƚĂůLJƐƚ

/ŵƉŽƌƚĂŶĐĞŽĨ,LJĚƌŽŐĞŶĂƟŽŶ

Making margarine
sĞŐĞƚĂďůĞŽŝůƐŽŌĞŶĐŽŶƚĂŝŶŚŝŐŚƉƌŽƉŽƌƟŽŶƐŽĨ
ƉŽůLJƵŶƐĂƚƵƌĂƚĞĚĂŶĚŵŽŶŽͲƵŶƐĂƚƵƌĂƚĞĚĨĂƚƐ;ŽŝůƐͿ͕
and as a result are liquids at room temperature.
dŚĂƚŵĂŬĞƐƚŚĞŵŵĞƐƐLJƚŽƐƉƌĞĂĚŽŶLJŽƵƌďƌĞĂĚŽƌ
ƚŽĂƐƚ͕ĂŶĚŝŶĐŽŶǀĞŶŝĞŶƚĨŽƌƐŽŵĞďĂŬŝŶŐƉƵƌƉŽƐĞƐ

zŽƵĐĂŶ͞ŚĂƌĚĞŶ͟;ƌĂŝƐĞƚŚĞŵĞůƟŶŐƉŽŝŶƚŽĨͿƚŚĞŽŝůďLJŚLJĚƌŽŐĞŶĂƟŶŐŝƚŝŶƚŚĞ
ƉƌĞƐĞŶĐĞŽĨĂŶŝĐŬĞůĐĂƚĂůLJƐƚ͘ŽŶĚŝƟŽŶƐ;ůŝŬĞƚŚĞƉƌĞĐŝƐĞƚĞŵƉĞƌĂƚƵƌĞ͕ŽƌƚŚĞ
ůĞŶŐƚŚŽĨƟŵĞƚŚĞŚLJĚƌŽŐĞŶŝƐƉĂƐƐĞĚƚŚƌŽƵŐŚƚŚĞŽŝůͿĂƌĞĐĂƌĞĨƵůůLJĐŽŶƚƌŽůůĞĚƐŽ
ƚŚĂƚƐŽŵĞ͕ďƵƚŶŽƚŶĞĐĞƐƐĂƌŝůLJĂůů͕ŽĨƚŚĞĐĂƌďŽŶͲĐĂƌďŽŶĚŽƵďůĞďŽŶĚƐĂƌĞŚLJĚƌŽ-
genated.
dŚŝƐƉƌŽĚƵĐĞƐĂ͞ƉĂƌƟĂůůLJŚLJĚƌŽŐĞŶĂƚĞĚŽŝů͟Žƌ͞ƉĂƌƟĂůůLJŚLJĚƌŽŐĞŶĂƚĞĚĨĂƚ͘͟
zŽƵŶĞĞĚƚŽŚLJĚƌŽŐĞŶĂƚĞĞŶŽƵŐŚŽĨƚŚĞďŽŶĚƐƚŽŐŝǀĞƚŚĞĮŶĂůƚĞdžƚƵƌĞLJŽƵǁĂŶƚ͘
,ŽǁĞǀĞƌ͕ƚŚĞƌĞĂƌĞƉŽƐƐŝďůĞŚĞĂůƚŚďĞŶĞĮƚƐŝŶĞĂƟŶŐŵŽŶŽͲƵŶƐĂƚƵƌĂƚĞĚŽƌƉŽů-
LJƵŶƐĂƚƵƌĂƚĞĚĨĂƚƐŽƌŽŝůƐƌĂƚŚĞƌƚŚĂŶƐĂƚƵƌĂƚĞĚŽŶĞƐͲƐŽLJŽƵǁŽƵůĚŶ͛ƚǁĂŶƚƚŽ
ƌĞŵŽǀĞĂůůƚŚĞĐĂƌďŽŶͲĐĂƌďŽŶĚŽƵďůĞďŽŶĚƐ

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ď͘ ĚĚŝƟŽŶKĨƌ2KƌƌŽŵŝŶĂƟŽŶ
ƌŽŵŝŶĞĂĚĚƐƚŽсĚŽƵďůĞďŽŶĚŽĨĂůŬĞŶĞŵŽůĞĐƵůĞƐ͘

Reactants:ĂůŬĞŶĞнďƌŽŵŝŶĞ
ZĞĂĐƟŽŶŽŶĚŝƟŽŶƐ͗ high temperature of 300oC and 60-70 atm pressure
Catalyst:WŚŽƐƉŚŽƌŝĐĂĐŝĚ;,3WK4ͿĂƌĞŶĞĞĚĞĚĂƐĐĂƚĂůLJƐƚ͘

Ő͗ĞƚŚĞŶĞƚŽϭ͕ϮʹĚŝďƌŽŵŽĞƚŚĂŶĞ
CH2с,2ഩнഩƌ2ഩ ഩ,2പ,2
ƌ ƌ

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ALKENES AND BROMINE WATER [TEST FOR ALKENES]
hƐŝŶŐďƌŽŵŝŶĞǁĂƚĞƌĂƐĂƚĞƐƚĨŽƌĂůŬĞŶĞƐ͘
/ĨLJŽƵƐŚĂŬĞĂŶĂůŬĞŶĞǁŝƚŚďƌŽŵŝŶĞǁĂƚĞƌ;ŽƌďƵďďůĞĂŐĂƐĞŽƵƐĂůŬĞŶĞ
ƚŚƌŽƵŐŚďƌŽŵŝŶĞǁĂƚĞƌͿ͕ƚŚĞƐŽůƵƟŽŶďĞĐŽŵĞƐĐŽůŽƌůĞƐƐ͘ůŬĞŶĞƐĚĞĐŽůŽƵƌ-
ŝƐĞďƌŽŵŝŶĞǁĂƚĞƌ

Đ͘ ĚĚŝƟŽŶKĨ,ů
ůůĂůŬĞŶĞƐƵŶĚĞƌŐŽĂĚĚŝƟŽŶƌĞĂĐƟŽŶƐǁŝƚŚƚŚĞŚLJĚƌŽŐĞŶŚĂůŝĚĞƐ͘ŚLJĚƌŽ-
ŐĞŶĂƚŽŵũŽŝŶƐƚŽŽŶĞŽĨƚŚĞĐĂƌďŽŶĂƚŽŵƐŽƌŝŐŝŶĂůůLJŝŶƚŚĞĚŽƵďůĞďŽŶĚ͕
and a halogen atom to the other.
&ŽƌĞdžĂŵƉůĞ͕ǁŝƚŚĞƚŚĞŶĞĂŶĚŚLJĚƌŽŐĞŶĐŚůŽƌŝĚĞ͕LJŽƵŐĞƚĐŚůŽƌŽĞƚŚĂŶĞ͗
CH2ഩഩ,2ഩнഩ,ůഩ ഩ,3ഩഩ,2Cl
tŝƚŚďƵƚͲϮͲĞŶĞLJŽƵŐĞƚϮͲĐŚůŽƌŽďƵƚĂŶĞ͗
CH3ഩഩ, ഩഩ,ഩഩ,ϯഩнഩ,ůഩ ഩ,3ഩഩ,Ϯഩഩഩ,ഩഩ,3

Cl
Ě͘ ĚĚŝƟŽŶKĨ,2KKƌ,LJĚƌĂƟŽŶKĨůŬĞŶĞƐ
ůŬĞŶĞƌĞĂĐƚƐǁŝƚŚǁĂƚĞƌ͕ŝŶƚŚĞĨŽƌŵŽĨƐƚĞĂŵ͕ƚŽƉƌŽĚƵĐĞĂůĐŽŚŽů͘ůŬĞŶĞн
steam are passed over phosphoric acid (H3WK4ͿĐĂƚĂůLJƐƚĂŶĚƚĞŵƉĞƌĂƚƵƌĞŽĨ
300oC. H2KŵŽůĞĐƵůĞĂĚĚƐƚŽсďŽŶĚƐƚŽĨŽƌŵĂůĐŽŚŽů͘

Reactants: alkene + H2O (steam)

ZĞĂĐƟŽŶŽŶĚŝƟŽŶƐ͗ŚŝŐŚƚĞŵƉĞƌĂƚƵƌĞŽĨ
ĂƚĂůLJƐƚ͗WŚŽƐƉŚŽƌŝĐĂĐŝĚ;,3WK4ͿŝƐŶĞĞĚĞĚĂƐĐĂƚĂůLJƐƚ
Ethanol is manufactured
ďLJƌĞĂĐƟŶŐĞƚŚĞŶĞǁŝƚŚ
ƐƚĞĂŵ͘dŚĞƌĞĂĐƟŽŶŝƐ
ƌĞǀĞƌƐŝďůĞ͘

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Manufacture of Alkenes by Cracking

Cracking

What is Cracking?
ƌĂĐŬŝŶŐŝƐƚŚĞŶĂŵĞŐŝǀĞŶƚŽďƌĞĂŬŝŶŐƵƉůĂƌŐĞŚLJĚƌŽĐĂƌďŽŶŵŽůĞĐƵůĞƐŝŶƚŽ
ƐŵĂůůĞƌŚLJĚƌŽĐĂƌďŽŶŵŽůĞĐƵůĞƐŝŶƚŚĞĂďƐĞŶĐĞŽĨŽdžLJŐĞŶ͘
C15H32ഩ ഩϮ2H4ഩнഩ3H6ഩнഩ8H18
ethene propene octane

Types of Cracking

1. Thermal cracking
ŽŶĚŝƟŽŶƐ͗
• ,ĞĂƚŝŶĂďƐĞŶĐĞŽĨŽdžLJŐĞŶŐĂƐ;K )
• ƚĞŵƉĞƌĂƚƵƌĞƐ;ƚLJƉŝĐĂůůLJŝŶƚŚĞƌĂŶŐĞŽĨϰϱϬΣƚŽϳϱϬΣͿ
• ƉƌĞƐƐƵƌĞƐ;ƵƉƚŽĂďŽƵƚϳϬĂƚŵŽƐƉŚĞƌĞƐͿ

2. ĂƚĂůLJƟĐĐƌĂĐŬŝŶŐ
ŽŶĚŝƟŽŶƐ͗
• ,ĞĂƚŝŶĂďƐĞŶĐĞŽĨŽdžLJŐĞŶŐĂƐ;K2)
• ĂƚĂůLJƐƚ͗^ŝK2 (silica) or Al2O3

Apparatus for Cracking:

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Finding the Products of Cracking

͘Ő͘KĐƚĂŶĞĐĂŶďĞĐƌĂĐŬĞĚŝŶƚŽƐŝŵƉůĞƌŚLJĚƌŽĐĂƌďŽŶƐƐƵĐŚĂƐƚŚĞƌĞĂĐƟŽŶďĞ-
ůŽǁƐƵŐŐĞƐƚƚŚĞƉŽƐƐŝďůĞŝĚĞŶƟƚLJŽĨƉƌŽĚƵĐƚdž͘
8H18 (lͿഩ ഩ2H4;ŐͿഩнഩdžഩнഩ,4 (g)

EƵŵďĞƌŽĨĂƚŽŵƐŝŶdžсϴͲϮͲϭ
сϱ
EƵŵďĞƌŽĨ,ĂƚŽŵƐŝŶdžсϭϴͲϰͲϰ
сϱ

ƚŚĞƌĞĨŽƌĞWƌŽĚƵĐƚdžŝƐ5H10

Uses of Alkenes

• ůĐŽŚŽůƉƌŽĚƵĐƟŽŶ

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ALCOHOL

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CHAPTER - Alcohol

Syllabus
(a) ĚĞƐĐƌŝďĞƚŚĞĂůĐŽŚŽůƐĂƐĂŚŽŵŽůŽŐŽƵƐƐĞƌŝĞƐĐŽŶƚĂŝŶŝŶŐƚŚĞʹK,ĨƵŶĐƟŽŶĂů
group
(b) draw the structures of alcohols, C1 to C4, and name the unbranched alcohols,
methanol to butanol
(c) ĚĞƐĐƌŝďĞƚŚĞƉƌŽƉĞƌƟĞƐŽĨĂůĐŽŚŽůƐŝŶƚĞƌŵƐŽĨĐŽŵďƵƐƟŽŶĂŶĚŽdžŝĚĂƟŽŶƚŽ
ĐĂƌďŽdžLJůŝĐĂĐŝĚƐ
(d) ĚĞƐĐƌŝďĞƚŚĞĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶŽĨĞƚŚĂŶŽůďLJƚŚĞĐĂƚĂůLJƐĞĚĂĚĚŝƟŽŶŽĨƐƚĞĂŵƚŽĞƚŚĞŶĞ
ĂŶĚďLJĨĞƌŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨŐůƵĐŽƐĞ
(e) state some uses of ethanol, e.g. as a solvent; as a renewable fuel; in the pro-
ĚƵĐƟŽŶŽĨǀŝŶĞŐĂƌ

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Alcohol
Are homologous series with general formula CnH2n+1OH
• dŚĞLJŚĂǀĞʹK,ĨƵŶĐƟŽŶĂůŐƌŽƵƉ;ŚLJĚƌŽdžLJůŐƌŽƵƉͿ
• ůůĂůĐŽŚŽůƐĞŶĚǁŝƚŚƐƵĸdžͲŽů

&ŝƌƐƚƚŚƌĞĞŵĞŵďĞƌƐŽĨƚŚĞƐĞƌŝĞƐ;ƐŽƚŚĂƚLJŽƵ͛ĚŚĂǀĞŝĚĞĂŽŶƚŚĞŶĞdžƚͿ
• Methanol, CH3OH
• Ethanol, C2H5OH or CH3CH2OH
• Propanol, C3H7OH or CH3CH2CH2OH
&ŽƌĂůĐŽŚŽů͕ƚŚĞʹK,ŝƐŶŽƚŽĨŚLJĚƌŽdžŝĚĞŝŽŶ͕K,Ͳ͕ďƵƚŝƐĐŽǀĂůĞŶƚďŽŶĚ
ďĞƚǁĞĞŶŽdžLJŐĞŶĂŶĚŚLJĚƌŽŐĞŶ͕Kʹ,

Structure of AlCOHOLS/Displayed formula:

^ŚŽǁƐŚŽǁĂůůĂƚŽŵƐŝŶĂŵŽůĞĐƵůĞũŽŝŶĞĚƚŽŐĞƚŚĞƌďLJĚƌĂǁŝŶŐůŝŶĞƐ
between atoms to represent the bonds

Example:

പപപDĞƚŚĂŶŽů ƚŚĂŶŽů

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All alkenes follow a general formula CnH2n

No of Carbon Name Molecular Displayed Structural

atoms Formula Formula Formula
1 Methanol CH3OH

2 Ethanol C2H5OH

3 Propanol C3H7OH

4 Butanol C4H9OH

5 Pentanol C5H11OH

WŚLJƐŝĐĂůWƌŽƉĞƌƟĞƐŽĨůĐŽŚŽů
1. DĞůƟŶŐƉŽŝŶƚƐĂŶĚďŽŝůŝŶŐƉŽŝŶƚƐŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞĂƐŵŽůĞĐƵůĞƐďĞĐŽŵĞŚĞĂǀŝĞƌ
ǁŚŝĐŚŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞƐƚŚĞĨŽƌĐĞƐŽĨĂƩƌĂĐƟŽŶďĞƚǁĞĞŶŵŽůĞĐƵůĞƐƐŽŵŽƌĞĞŶĞƌŐLJ
(from heat) is needed to separate them.
2. ůĐŽŚŽůƐĚĞŶƐŝƚLJŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞƐĚŽǁŶƚŚĞƐĞƌŝĞƐ͘
3. ůĐŽŚŽůƐďĞĐŽŵĞŵŽƌĞǀŝƐĐŽƵƐ;ƵŶĞĂƐŝůLJŇŽǁͿŐŽŝŶŐĚŽǁŶƚŚĞƐĞƌŝĞƐ͘
4. ůĐŽŚŽůƐďĞĐŽŵĞůĞƐƐŇĂŵŵĂďůĞĚŽǁŶƚŚĞƐĞƌŝĞƐĂƐ͘W͘ďĞĐŽŵĞƐŐƌĞĂƚĞƌ͘

Solubility of Alcohols in Water

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Isomerism in Alcohols

ĞĮŶĞŝƐŽŵĞƌŝƐŵ
KƌŐĂŶŝĐĐŽŵƉŽƵŶĚƐŚĂǀŝŶŐƚŚĞƐĂŵĞŵŽůĞĐƵůĂƌĨŽƌŵƵůĂďƵƚĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚ
structural formula, such compounds are called isomers of each other
ĂŶĚƚŚŝƐƉƌŽƉĞƌƚLJŝƐĐĂůůĞĚŝƐŽŵĞƌŝƐŵ͘
Note: in alkanes, isomerism begins from butane (C4H10) onwards be-
cause there branched structures are possible.

Isomerism in Propanol:

Isomerism in Butanol:

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M/J 14/P12/Q38
The structural formulae of some
organic compounds are shown below

Which compounds are alcohols?

പϭŽŶůLJ
പϭĂŶĚϮŽŶůLJ
പϭ͕ϮĂŶĚϯ
പϰ

O/N 06/P01/Q37
ĐŽŵƉŽƵŶĚŬŶŽǁŶŝŶŝŶĚƵƐƚƌLJĂƐ
͚Dd͛ŝƐƵƐĞĚĂƐĂŶĂĚĚŝƟǀĞŝŶ
͚ůĞĂĚͲĨƌĞĞ͛ƉĞƚƌŽů͘dŚĞƐƚƌƵĐƚƵƌĂů
formula of MTBE is shown.

Which compound is an isomer of MTBE?

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O/N 08/P01/Q40
This is the structure of propan-1-ol.

Which of the following is an isomer of propan-1-ol?

O/N 04/P01/Q40
ǀĞŐĞƚĂďůĞŽŝůŝƐƉŽůLJƵŶƐĂƚƵƌĂƚĞĚ͘
Which statement about this vegetable oil is correct?
ഩ/ƚŚĂƐĚŽƵďůĞďŽŶĚƐďĞƚǁĞĞŶĐĂƌďŽŶĂŶĚŚLJĚƌŽŐĞŶĂƚŽŵƐ͘
പ/ƚƌĞĂĐƚƐǁŝƚŚŚLJĚƌŽŐĞŶƚŽĨŽƌŵĂƐŽůŝĚĐŽŵƉŽƵŶĚ͘
പ/ƚƌĞĂĐƚƐǁŝƚŚƐƚĞĂŵƚŽĨŽƌŵŵĂƌŐĂƌŝŶĞ͘
പ/ƚƚƵƌŶƐĂƋƵĞŽƵƐďƌŽŵŝŶĞĨƌŽŵĐŽůŽƵƌůĞƐƐƚŽďƌŽǁŶ͘

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&ŽƌŵĂƟŽŶŽĨƚŚĂŶŽů

Making Ethanol
• &ĞƌŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨƐƵŐĂƌƐǁŝƚŚLJĞĂƐƚ
• ZĞĂĐƟŶŐĞƚŚĞŶĞǁŝƚŚƐƚĞĂŵ

ϭ͘ &ĞƌŵĞŶƟŶŐŐůƵĐŽƐĞͬƐƵŐĂƌƐ
&ĞƌŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŝƐďƌĞĂŬĚŽǁŶŽĨƐƵŐĂƌƐŝŶƚŽƐŵĂůůĞƌŵŽůĞĐƵůĞƐďLJŵŝĐƌŽŽƌŐĂŶŝƐŵƐ͘

C6H12O6;ĂƋͿഩ ഩϮ2H5K,;ĂƋͿഩнഩϮK2(g)

1. dĞŵƉĞƌĂƚƵƌĞŝƐŬĞƉƚĐŽŶƐƚĂŶƚĂƚϯϳĞŐƌĞĞĞůĐŝƵƐƚŽƉƌĞǀĞŶƚĚĞƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶŽĨ
LJĞĂƐƚĂƚŚŝŐŚĞƌƚĞŵƉĞƌĂƚƵƌĞ͘
2. &ĞƌŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶƚĂŬĞƐƉůĂĐĞŝŶĂďƐĞŶĐĞŽĨŽdžLJŐĞŶ͘
3. ĂƌďŽŶĚŝŽdžŝĚĞƉƌŽĚƵĐĞĚŝƐƌĞŵŽǀĞĚďLJůŝŵĞǁĂƚĞƌ͘
4. ůĐŽŚŽůŝƐƐĞƉĂƌĂƚĞĚĨƌŽŵƐŽůƵƟŽŶďLJĨƌĂĐƟŽŶĂůĚŝƐƟůůĂƟŽŶ͘
5. ƋƵĞŽƵƐͬǁĞƚĐŽŶĚŝƟŽŶŝƐƌĞƋƵŝƌĞĚĨŽƌĨĞƌŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶ͘
6. ^ŽůƵƟŽŶƉ,ƐŚŽƵůĚďĞŶĞƵƚƌĂů
7. ƚŚĂŶŽůƉƌŽĚƵĐĞĚŝƐƐĞƉĂƌĂƚĞĚĨƌŽŵƚŚĞƐŽůƵƟŽŶďLJĨƌĂĐƟŽŶĂůĚŝƐƟůůĂƟŽŶ͘

Ϯ͘ ZĞĂĐƟŶŐƚŚĞŶĞǁŝƚŚ^ƚĞĂŵ
Ethene and steam are passed over concentrated phosphoric acid H3PO4 (as a cat-
ĂůLJƐƚͿƵŶĚĞƌŚŝŐŚƚĞŵƉĞƌĂƚƵƌĞŽĨϯϬϬoC and pressure of 65 atm.

C2H4(g) + H2K;ŐͿപപ2H5K,;ĂƋͿ

^ŝŶĐĞƚŚŝƐŝƐƌĞǀĞƌƐŝďůĞƌĞĂĐƟŽŶ͕ďŽƚŚĞƚŚĞŶĞĂŶĚǁĂƚĞƌĂƌĞƉƌŽĚƵĐĞĚĂƐŝĚĞĨƌŽŵ
ĞƚŚĂŶŽů͘dŚĞĞƚŚĂŶŽůŝƐƐĞƉĂƌĂƚĞĚďLJĨƌĂĐƟŽŶĂůĚŝƐƟůůĂƟŽŶ

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ZĞĂĐƟŽŶŽĨůĐŽŚŽůƐ
1. ŽŵďƵƐƟŽŶƌĞĂĐƟŽŶ
ŽŵƉůĞƚĞĐŽŵďƵƐƟŽŶ;ŐŝǀĞŶƐƵĸĐŝĞŶƚŽdžLJŐĞŶͿŽĨĂŶLJŚLJĚƌŽĐĂƌďŽŶƉƌŽĚƵĐ-
ĞƐĂƌďŽŶĚŝŽdžŝĚĞĂŶĚǁĂƚĞƌ͘
/ƚŝƐƋƵŝƚĞŝŵƉŽƌƚĂŶƚƚŚĂƚLJŽƵĐĂŶǁƌŝƚĞƉƌŽƉĞƌůLJďĂůĂŶĐĞĚĞƋƵĂƟŽŶƐĨŽƌ
ƚŚĞƐĞƌĞĂĐƟŽŶƐ

/ŶĐŽŵƉůĞƚĞĐŽŵďƵƐƟŽŶ
/ŶĐŽŵƉůĞƚĞĐŽŵďƵƐƟŽŶ;ǁŚĞƌĞƚŚĞƌĞŝƐŶ͛ƚĞŶŽƵŐŚŽdžLJŐĞŶƉƌĞƐĞŶƚͿĐĂŶůĞĂĚ
ƚŽƚŚĞĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶŽĨĐĂƌďŽŶŽƌĐĂƌďŽŶŵŽŶŽdžŝĚĞ͘

dƌĞŶĚƐŝŶĐŽŵďƵƐƟŽŶ
dŚĞŚLJĚƌŽĐĂƌďŽŶƐďĞĐŽŵĞŚĂƌĚĞƌƚŽŝŐŶŝƚĞĂƐƚŚĞŵŽůĞĐƵůĞƐŐĞƚďŝŐŐĞƌ͘dŚŝƐ
ŝƐďĞĐĂƵƐĞƚŚĞďŝŐŐĞƌŵŽůĞĐƵůĞƐĚŽŶ͛ƚǀĂƉŽƌŝnjĞƐƐŽĞĂƐŝůLJ͘
Why carbon monoxide is poisonous
ĂƌďŽŶŵŽŶŽdžŝĚĞďŝŶĚƐƚŽŚĞŵŽŐůŽďŝŶŝƌƌĞǀĞƌƐŝďůĞŵĂŬŝŶŐŚĞŵŽŐůŽďŝŶŵŽůĞ-
ĐƵůĞƵƐĞůĞƐƐĨŽƌĐĂƌƌLJŝŶŐŽdžLJŐĞŶŐĂƐ͘/ĨLJŽƵďƌĞĂƚŚĞŝŶĞŶŽƵŐŚĐĂƌďŽŶŵŽŶŽdžŝĚĞ
LJŽƵǁŝůůĚŝĞĨƌŽŵĂƐŽƌƚŽĨŝŶƚĞƌŶĂůƐƵīŽĐĂƟŽŶ͘

KdžŝĚĂƟŽŶ
1. ĂƌďŽdžLJůŝĐĂĐŝĚĐĂŶďĞƉƌĞƉĂƌĞĚŝŶůĂďŽƌĂƚŽƌLJďLJǁĂƌŵŝŶŐĂůĐŽŚŽůǁŝƚŚŽdžŝ-
ĚŝnjŝŶŐĂŐĞŶƚ;Ğ͘Ő͘ĂĐŝĚŝĮĞĚƉŽƚĂƐƐŝƵŵĐŚƌŽŵĂƚĞ;s/ͿͿ͘dŚĞƉƌŽĚƵĐƚŝƐĐĂƌďŽdž-
LJůŝĐĂĐŝĚĂŶĚǁĂƚĞƌ͘
͘Ő͘ŽdžŝĚĂƟŽŶŽĨĞƚŚĂŶŽůƉƌŽĚƵĐĞƐǁĂƚĞƌĂŶĚĞƚŚĂŶŽŝĐĂĐŝĚ

C2H5K,;ĂƋͿнϮ΀K΁΂ĨƌŽŵŽdžŝĚŝnjŝŶŐĂŐĞŶƚ΃ഩ ഩ2CH3COOH(g) + 3H2O(l)

2. ůĐŽŚŽůĐĂŶďĞŽdžŝĚŝnjĞĚǁŚĞŶůĞŌŝŶĂŝƌǁŝƚŚďĂĐƚĞƌŝĂůĞŶnjLJŵĞƐĂƐĐĂƚĂůLJƐƚ͘
dŚĞƉƌŽĚƵĐƚƐĂƌĞĐĂƌďŽdžLJůŝĐĂĐŝĚĂŶĚǁĂƚĞƌ͘
͘Ő͘ĞƚŚĂŶŽůƉƌŽĚƵĐĞƐǁĂƚĞƌĂŶĚĞƚŚĂŶŽŝĐĂĐŝĚǁŚĞŶůĞŌŝŶĂŝƌ͘
C2H5K,;ĂƋͿнK2;ŐͿഩ ഩ2CH3KK,;ĂƋͿнϯ,2O(l)
Uses of Alcohol
ƐŽƌŐĂŶŝĐƐŽůǀĞŶƚ͖ĂůĐŽŚŽůŝĐĚƌŝŶŬ͖ƉƌĞƐĞƌǀĂƟǀĞƐ͖ǀĞŚŝĐůĞĨƵĞů

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CARBOXYLIC ACID
AND
ESTERS

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CHAPTER - Carboxylic Acid

Syllabus
(a) describe the carboxylic acids as a homologous series containing the –CO2H
ĨƵŶĐƟŽŶĂůŐƌŽƵƉ
(b) (draw the structures of carboxylic acids, methanoic acid to butanoic acid, and
name the unbranched acids, methanoic to butanoic acids
(c) ĚĞƐĐƌŝďĞƚŚĞĐĂƌďŽdžLJůŝĐĂĐŝĚƐĂƐǁĞĂŬĂĐŝĚƐ͕ƌĞĂĐƟŶŐǁŝƚŚĐĂƌďŽŶĂƚĞƐ͕ďĂƐĞƐ
and some metals
(d) ĚĞƐĐƌŝďĞƚŚĞĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶŽĨĞƚŚĂŶŽŝĐĂĐŝĚďLJƚŚĞŽdžŝĚĂƟŽŶŽĨĞƚŚĂŶŽůďLJĂĐŝĚŝ-
ĮĞĚƉŽƚĂƐƐŝƵŵŵĂŶŐĂŶĂƚĞ;s//ͿĂŶĚƚŚĞĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶŽĨǀŝŶĞŐĂƌďLJďĂĐƚĞƌŝĂůŽdž-
ŝĚĂƟŽŶĚĞƐĐƌŝďĞƚŚĞƌĞĂĐƟŽŶŽĨĐĂƌďŽdžLJůŝĐĂĐŝĚƐĨƌŽŵ1 to C4 with alcohols
(e) from C1 to C4 to form esters
(f) draw the structures of and name the esters formed from carboxylic acids (see
11.4 (b)) and alcohols
(see 11.3 (b))
(g) ƐƚĂƚĞƐŽŵĞĐŽŵŵĞƌĐŝĂůƵƐĞƐŽĨĞƐƚĞƌƐ͕Ğ͘Ő͘ƉĞƌĨƵŵĞƐ͖ŇĂǀŽƵƌŝŶŐƐ͖ƐŽůǀĞŶƚƐ

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Carboxylic Acids

homologous series with general formula CnH2n+1KK,;ĮƌƐƚƐĞƌŝĞƐ͕ŶсϬ͕

ascending)
• dŚĞLJŚĂǀĞʹKK,ĨƵŶĐƟŽŶĂůŐƌŽƵƉ;ĐĂƌďŽdžLJůŐƌŽƵƉͿ
• ůůĐĂƌďŽdžLJůŝĐĂĐŝĚƐĞŶĚǁŝƚŚƐƵĸdžʹŽŝĐĂĐŝĚ

&ŝƌƐƚƚŚƌĞĞŵĞŵďĞƌƐŽĨƚŚĞƐĞƌŝĞƐ;ƐŽƚŚĂƚLJŽƵ͛ĚŚĂǀĞŝĚĞĂŽŶƚŚĞŶĞdžƚͿ
• Methanoic acid, HCOOH
• Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH
• WƌŽƉĂŶŽŝĐĂĐŝĚ͕2H5COOH

Structure of Carboxylic acids/Displayed formula:

Shows how all atoms in a molecule joined together by drawing lines
ďĞƚǁĞĞŶĂƚŽŵƐƚŽƌĞƉƌĞƐĞŶƚƚŚĞďŽŶĚƐ

Example:

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All Carboxylic acids follow a general formula CnH2n+1COOH

No of Carbon Name Molecular Displayed Structural

atoms Formula Formula Formula
1 Methanoic acid HCOOH

2 Ethanoic acid CH3COOH

3 WƌŽƉĂŶŽŝĐĂĐŝĚ C2H5COOH

4 Butanoic acid C3H7COOH

5 Pentanoic acid C4H9COOH

Isomerism in Carboxylic Acids

ĞĮŶĞ/ƐŽŵĞƌŝƐŵ
KƌŐĂŶŝĐĐŽŵƉŽƵŶĚƐŚĂǀŝŶŐƚŚĞƐĂŵĞŵŽůĞĐƵůĂƌĨŽƌŵƵůĂďƵƚĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚƐƚƌƵĐƚƵƌĂů
ĨŽƌŵƵůĂ͕ƐƵĐŚĐŽŵƉŽƵŶĚƐĂƌĞĐĂůůĞĚŝƐŽŵĞƌƐŽĨĞĂĐŚŽƚŚĞƌĂŶĚƚŚŝƐƉƌŽƉĞƌƚLJŝƐ
called isomerism.
Note: in alkanes, isomerism begins from butane (C4HϭϬ) onwards because there
ďƌĂŶĐŚĞĚƐƚƌƵĐƚƵƌĞƐĂƌĞƉŽƐƐŝďůĞ͘

Isomerism in butanoic acid:

Isomerism in Pentanoic acid

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&ŽƌŵĂƟŽŶŽĨĂƌďŽdžLJůŝĐĐŝĚƐ

KdžŝĚĂƟŽŶ
1. ůĐŽŚŽůĐĂŶďĞƉƌĞƉĂƌĞĚŝŶůĂďŽƌĂƚŽƌLJďLJǁĂƌŵŝŶŐĂůĐŽŚŽůǁŝƚŚŽdžŝĚŝnjŝŶŐ
ĂŐĞŶƚ;Ğ͘Ő͘ĂĐŝĚŝĮĞĚƉŽƚĂƐƐŝƵŵĐŚƌŽŵĂƚĞ;s/ͿͿ͘dŚĞƉƌŽĚƵĐƚŝƐĐĂƌďŽdžLJůŝĐĂĐŝĚĂŶĚ
water.
͘Ő͘ŽdžŝĚĂƟŽŶŽĨĞƚŚĂŶŽůƉƌŽĚƵĐĞƐǁĂƚĞƌĂŶĚĞƚŚĂŶŽŝĐĂĐŝĚ
C2H5K,;ĂƋͿഩнഩϮ΀K΁΂ĨƌŽŵŽdžŝĚŝnjŝŶŐĂŐĞŶƚ΃ഩ ഩϮ,3KK,;ŐͿഩнഩϯ,2O(l)

2. ůĐŽŚŽůĐĂŶďĞŽdžŝĚŝnjĞĚǁŚĞŶůĞŌŝŶĂŝƌǁŝƚŚďĂĐƚĞƌŝĂůĞŶnjLJŵĞƐĂƐĐĂƚĂůLJƐƚ͘
dŚĞƉƌŽĚƵĐƚƐĂƌĞĐĂƌďŽdžLJůŝĐĂĐŝĚĂŶĚǁĂƚĞƌ͘
͘Ő͘ĞƚŚĂŶŽůƉƌŽĚƵĐĞƐǁĂƚĞƌĂŶĚĞƚŚĂŶŽŝĐĂĐŝĚǁŚĞŶůĞŌŝŶĂŝƌ͘
C2H5K,;ĂƋͿഩнഩK2;ŐͿഩ ഩϮ,3KK,;ĂƋͿഩнഩϯ,2O(l)

ŚĞŵŝĐĂůWƌŽƉĞƌƟĞƐŽĨĂƌďŽdžLJůŝĐĐŝĚƐ

ZĞĂĐƟŽŶŽĨĂƌďŽdžLJůŝĐĐŝĚƐ
ϭ͘ ĂƌďŽdžLJůŝĐĂĐŝĚƐĂƌĞǁĞĂŬĂĐŝĚƐ;ƉĂƌƟĂůůLJŝŽŶŝƐĞƐŝŶǁĂƚĞƌͿ
Ϯ͘ ĂƌďŽdžLJůŝĐĂĐŝĚƐƌĞĂĐƚǁŝƚŚŵĞƚĂůƐƚŽĨŽƌŵŵĞƚĂůĞƚŚĂŶŽĂƚĞ;ƐĂůƚͿĂŶĚ
ŚLJĚƌŽŐĞŶ
͘Ő͘ZĞĂĐƟŽŶďĞƚǁĞĞŶĐĂůĐŝƵŵĂŶĚĞƚŚĂŶŽŝĐĂĐŝĚĨŽƌŵŝŶŐĐĂůĐŝƵŵĞƚŚĂŶŽĂƚĞ
and hydrogen
Ă;ƐͿഩнഩϮ,3KK,;ĂƋͿഩ ഩĂ;,3COO)2;ĂƋͿഩнഩ,2(g)
ϯ͘ ĂƌďŽdžLJůŝĐĂĐŝĚƐƌĞĂĐƚǁŝƚŚďĂƐĞƐƚŽĨŽƌŵƐĂůƚĂŶĚǁĂƚĞƌ;ŶĞƵƚƌĂůŝnjĂƟŽŶͿ
E.g. Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium ethanoate
and water.
CH3KK,;ĂƋͿഩнഩEĂK,;ĂƋͿഩ ഩ,3KKEĂ;ĂƋͿഩнഩ,2O(g)
ϰ͘ ĂƌďŽdžLJůŝĐĂĐŝĚƐƌĞĂĐƚǁŝƚŚĐĂƌďŽŶĂƚĞƐĂŶĚďŝĐĂƌďŽŶĂƚĞƐƚŽĨŽƌŵƐĂůƚ͕ĐĂƌďŽŶ
ĚŝŽdžŝĚĞĂŶĚŚLJĚƌŽŐĞŶ͘
E.g. Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium carbonate to form sodium ethanoate
and water.
2CH3KK,;ĂƋͿഩнഩEĂ2CO3;ĂƋͿഩ ഩϮ,3KKEĂ;ĂƋͿഩнഩK2;ŐͿഩнഩ,2O(g)
ϱ͘ ƐƚƌŝĮĐĂƟŽŶ
ƐƚĞƌŝƐŽƌŐĂŶŝĐĐŽŵƉŽƵŶĚŵĂĚĞĨƌŽŵĐĂƌďŽdžLJůŝĐĂĐŝĚĂŶĚĂůĐŽŚŽůǁŝƚŚƚŚĞ
ƌĞŵŽǀĂůŽĨŽŶĞŵŽůĞĐƵůĞŽĨǁĂƚĞƌ͘^ƵůĨƵƌŝĐĂĐŝĚŝƐĂĚĚĞĚĂƐĐĂƚĂůLJƐƚƚŚĞŶŚĞĂƚ
mixture.
dŚĞƌĞĂĐƟŽŶŝƐƌĞǀĞƌƐŝďůĞ

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Hydrolysis of Esters
We can add sodium hydroxide and heat mixture to
ŽďƚĂŝŶĐĂƌďŽdžLJůŝĐĂĐŝĚĂŶĚĂůĐŽŚŽůĨƌŽŵĞƐƚĞƌ͘dŚŝƐŝƐ,zZK>z^/^

Uses of Carboxylic Acids

ƚŚĂŶŽŝĐĐŝĚ;ĂĐĞƟĐĂĐŝĚͿ
• ƐĂŇĂǀŽƵƌŝŶŐ
• ƐĂƉƌĞƐĞƌǀĂƟǀĞ
• hƐĞĚǁŝƚŚŽƚŚĞƌĐŚĞŵŝĐĂůƐƚŽŵĂŬĞĚƌƵŐƐ͕ĚLJĞƐ͕ƉĂŝŶƚƐ͕ŝŶƐĞĐƟĐŝĚĞƐĂŶĚƉůĂƐ-
ƟĐƐ

DĞƚŚĂŶŽŝĐĂĐŝĚ;ĨŽƌŵŝĐĂĐŝĚͿ
• Used to coagulate latex

&ĂƩLJĂĐŝĚƐ;ůŽŶŐͲĐŚĂŝŶĐĂƌďŽdžLJůŝĐĂĐŝĚƐͿ
• hƐĞĚŝŶŵĂŬŝŶŐƐŽĂƉƐ

Benzoic acid
• WƌĞƐĞƌǀĂƟǀĞŝŶĨŽŽĚ

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MACROMOLECULES

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