PROGRESS REPORT

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On-Board Mechanical Control Systems for Untethered

Microrobots
Amit Dolev, Murat Kaynak, and Mahmut Selman Sakar*

environment (locomotion and manipula-

An autonomous robot perceives its environment, makes decisions based on tion), and 3) hardware and/or software to
acquired information and programmed routines, and then actuates a movement process sensory inputs and determine the
or performs a manipulation task within that environment. The idea of micro- control output for the actuators (navigation
and localization). Almost all untethered
robotics is primarily based on teleoperated mobile micromachines equipped with
macroscale mobile robots are actuated by
manipulation capabilities such as actuated grippers and drug-loaded reservoirs. electric motors, decorated with various
Due to miniaturization challenges, the majority of these micromachines are electronic sensors, equipped with embed-
wirelessly actuated using magnetic fields or acoustic waves. A step toward ded microprocessors, and powered by elec-
complete autonomy is the development of on-board control systems that directly tric batteries. One avenue for engineering
microscale mobile robots is miniaturizing
transduce environmental stimuli such as heat and pressure into actuation,
all the required electronic components
without going through the perception and computation cycles. Following the using standard microelectromechanical
analogy of the central nervous system for the architecture of conventional system (MEMS) and semiconductor tech-
autonomous robots, the next-generation microrobots are expected to possess nologies and providing energy wirelessly
reflexes that would allow them to autonomously navigate inside structured using electromagnetic or acoustic waves.[1]
microenvironments and perform targeted and triggered operations. Herein, the A successful proof-of-concept example of
this strategy has been presented very
construction of on-board control systems using stimuli–responsive materials,
recently.[2] The microrobot had a photovol-
nonlinear mechanical mechanisms, and fluid–structure interactions is described. taic unit for converting laser light into
Recent advances in macroscale soft robotics and mechanical metamaterials are electric power, which in turn drives electro-
highlighted with the hope that they inspire solutions for microrobotics. chemical actuators fabricated using atomic
layer deposition. Although sensing and
computation units have not been integrated
yet, the fabrication process is compatible
1. Introduction with accommodating complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor
(CMOS) circuits in the future. Fully autonomous nanoelectronic
The development of untethered autonomous mobile micro- and state machines have already been developed from 2D electronic
nanorobots is one of the holy grails in robotics research because materials using cleanroom processes.[3]
these devices can one day revolutionize medical procedures. It is In this Report, we are going to highlight progress and oppor-
envisioned that simply administering a group of microrobots tunities in the design of all-mechanical autonomous mobile
into the body would suffice to deliver therapy at the target dis- microrobots. This strategy may appear retrograde as modern
eased tissue in a timely manner. An autonomous mobile robot embedded systems replaced almost all clockwork and automata.
is expected to possess three major faculties: 1) sensors to collect However, not relying on electric power has been proven to be a
information about the self and the environment (perception), paradigm shift in the pursuit of miniaturization. The size of
2) actuators to generate motion and interact with the mechanical machines can be reduced to nanoscale as demon-
strated by DNA machines[4] and molecular motors.[5]
Meanwhile, soft roboticists have been pursuing a similar direc-
Dr. A. Dolev, M. Kaynak, Prof. M. S. Sakar
Institute of Mechanical Engineering
tion for different reasons.[6] Electronic components are fabricated
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne from rigid materials; thus, the development of entirely soft
CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland autonomous robots demands the invention of sensors and
E-mail: selman.sakar@epfl.ch controllers based on mechanical logic.[7] We highlight relevant
The ORCID identification number(s) for the author(s) of this article advances in macroscale soft robots with the hope that those
can be found under https://doi.org/10.1002/aisy.202000233. inventions may inspire the design of microscopic counterparts.
© 2021 The Authors. Advanced Intelligent Systems published by Wiley-
Early research in the field focused primarily on providing
VCH GmbH. This is an open access article under the terms of the power to untethered micromachines for controlled motion.
Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution As exemplified by biological systems, extracting chemical energy
and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is stored in organic compounds is an efficient and scalable strategy.
properly cited. Seminal work has shown that platinum plates catalyze a reaction
DOI: 10.1002/aisy.202000233 that decomposes hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen gas.[8]

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The gas bubbles are then ejected, generating thrust and propel-
ling the structures. In this propulsion method, the fuel required
for motion is present in the environment and the catalyst can be
miniaturized down to the nanoscale. Catalytic motors, in princi-
ple, can sustain motion indefinitely as long as the fuel is not
depleted. However, dependence on the presence of fuel in the
environment is a serious limitation for an engineered vehicle.
Following the example of the combustion engine, a special
compartment may be engineered for storing and controllably
injecting fuel into a reaction chamber. This approach requires
sophisticated manufacturing techniques that have not been
realized yet, and the fuel stored in a tiny compartment is expected
to power a relatively short journey. These challenges pushed
roboticists to look into alternative powering techniques.
Electromagnetic and acoustic wave fields can be generated easily
over long distances through various media. Inspired by the
design of microorganisms and considering the capabilities of
wireless actuation systems, a variety of microscopic motors have
been engineered.[1,9] Magnetic fields are quite effective in
actuating microswimmers by oscillating and rotating slender
filaments,[10–13] acoustic waves that generate streaming by
vibrating bubbles,[14–17] or sharp-edged microstructures at rela-
tively high frequencies,[18,19] and light can be harnessed to
deform or rotate soft nanocomposite matter through photother-
mal transduction mechanisms.[20–24] Taken together, the field
reached the maturity to move to the next level where the devices
are not teleoperated but empowered with on-board control
systems, essentially transforming them into proper robots.
Figure 1 shows the envisioned transformation of next-
generation microrobots. Conventional untethered microma-
chines are actuated and steered by the same externally applied
signal. The external control platform has an imaging modality
(e.g., cameras, magnetic resonance imaging system, and ultra-
sound) that continuously localizes the device so that the power
sources can generate the right signal to move the device from its
current location to the desired location. All the planning and
computation is done off-board by a computer program.
Several limitations come with this motion control framework.
First, real-time localization of microscopic structures is
challenging, specifically while they are on the move. Second, very
limited information is available on the microenvironment of the
device; thus, adjusting the parameters for optimal navigation is
deemed to be done with trial and error. Third, for many medical
and environmental applications, it would be ideal if the device
could autonomously move to a source or respond to a pro-
grammed trigger to perform a manipulation task such as the
release of therapeutic agents. Here, we survey the literature
on mechanisms based on mechanical and materials design
principles for the realization of such advanced functionality.
We critically review proof-of-concept examples that possess cer-
tain aspects of autonomous functionality, to emphasize practical
challenges and future opportunities.
2. Mechanochemical Control Systems
One promising approach for the implementation of a micro-
scopic on-board control system that regulates the configuration
or kinematics of the robot is using smart materials that respond
to external stimuli by altering their chemical and/or physical
properties.[25–27] Seminal work has shown that structures fabri-
cated from stimuli–responsive hydrogels could serve as autono-
mous flow control systems inside microfluidic channels.[28]
The control is based on the reversible contraction and expansion
of the microgel depending on the pH of the surrounding envi-
ronment. The smart material was structured around pillars in a
way that the actuation would regulate the fluid flow like a valve.
The design paradigm was extended to multilayered microfluidic
systems by coupling the force associated with these volumetric
changes to the deformation of an elastic membrane. Another
interesting application of this autonomous valve concept is the
development of adaptive liquid microscopic lenses displaying
temperature-regulated focusing.[29]
A programmable valve can serve as an on-board speed
regulator when coupled to a catalytic motor (Figure 2a).
Recent work has shown the feasibility of this approach using
thermoresponsive hydrogels. The prototype consisted of a nano-
sized bowl-shaped polymeric vesicle encapsulating platinum
nanoparticles.[30] The narrow opening of the motor served as a

Figure 1. Progress and outlook for untethered mobile microrobots. A) The majority of existing microrobotic manipulation platforms are based on com-
puter vision and teleoperation. The localization can also be performed using magnetic resonance imaging systems or ultrasound probes. The computa-
tion and control are completely delegated to external hardware and software. B) Next-generation microrobots will still be actuated by an external power
source. However, it is envisioned that they will be designed to possess autonomous functionality such as agglomerating at target locations or performing
triggered manipulation tasks with the incorporation of on-board control systems.

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Figure 2. Mechanochemical control systems based on stimuli–responsive and shape-memory materials. A) On-board speed regulation for chemical
motors using a thermoresponsive valve. The contraction of the gel blocks the access of the fuel to the catalyst (shown as gray particles) encapsulated
inside a vesicle (red). B) The coiling of the tail of a magnetic microswimmer as a response to changes in the environment regulates both the mobility and
the maneuverability of the machine. The machine morphs into a different shape to adapt its locomotion or perform a new task. C) Shape transformation
initiated by external stimuli can drive targeted manipulation tasks such as release of cargo. As the response is reversible, the self-controlled actuation can
be repeated to perform multiple tasks or go through load-release cycles. D) Shape-memory property of hydrogels can be harnessed to perform universal
gripping and transport of cargo. Ionic crosslinking of the gel after contacting the cargo locks the shape of the gel. This effect can be harnessed to
transform machines at target locations.

nozzle for the oxygen generated during the catalytic decomposi-
tion of hydrogen peroxide fuel. A temperature-sensitive polymer
brush was chemically grown onto the vesicle, whereby its open-
ing was enlarged or narrowed on temperature change, which
controlled the access of hydrogen peroxide fuel and, in turn, reg-
ulated motion.[31] The design space has recently been extended
with the introduction of the 3D chemical patterning of platinum
nanoparticles in arbitrary configurations.[32] Advanced on-board
speed regulation can be implemented with the design of more
sophisticated transmission systems manufactured from
stimuli–responsive polymers.
The shape change induced by the environmental trigger
becomes distributed and intricate with the introduction of
heterogeneous materials and layered architecture.[33–36] Notably,
the shape change can be programmed within the nanostructure
of 3D microscopic objects by controlling the local orientation of
stiff reinforcing elements in the stimuli–responsive matrix.[37]
The technique is based on the remote control of the orientation
and distribution of reinforcing inorganic particles within the
hydrogel nanocomposite using a weak external magnetic
field.[38,39] This formulation generates composites with site-
specific, reversible, and programmable shape changes that are
autonomously triggered by environmental stimuli. The swim-
ming motion of the magnetically powered microrobots is highly
linked to their 3D shape, specifically for helical micro-
swimmers.[40] As shown in Figure 2b, coupling the morphology
of the machine to the osmolarity or temperature of the microen-
vironment realizes on-board regulation of swimming speed as
well as maneuverability.[40,41] This strategy can be extended to
create a switch between a motile and nonmotile morphology
upon encountering a new condition to autonomously localize
robots at the target location.[39,42] Although the external actuation
signal is continuously provided, the shape transformation initi-
ated at the target location would cease the robot’s motion. Recent
work has shown that these control blocks could be 3D printed
using two-photon polymerization or dynamic light projection
grayscale lithography, enabling modular design and assembly
of compound mechanisms with multiple control units.[43,44]
Drastic changes in shape would influence locomotion in fluid
media regardless of the propulsion mechanism due to hydrody-
namic interactions; thus, these control systems can be incorpo-
rated into many other prototypes.
So far, in all the highlighted prototypes, the stimulus must
interact directly with the material. This requirement limits the
repertoire of stimuli that may be used and, at the same time,
demands for high concentrations of chemicals or abrupt changes
in ambient conditions. Pushing the limits of hierarchical archi-
tecture with synthetic molecular material systems may address
these challenges while introducing the potential of building
microrobots with complex chemical control programs.[45–47]
DNA-crosslinked hydrogels mediate size change by interpreting,
amplifying, and integrating molecular inputs, significantly
diversifying the trigger conditions and enhancing
programmability.[48] With proper engineering, specific DNA
molecules can induce 100-fold volumetric hydrogel expansion
by successive extension of crosslinks.[49] The integration of
stimuli–responsive materials with polymer circuits is a major
step toward sophisticated on-board control, considering the
recent advances in DNA nanotechnology.[50] DNA-based digital
logic circuits, in which the gates use oligonucleotide signals

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as inputs and outputs, perform sensing, signal processing,
amplification, feedback, and cascading.[51] DNA origami has
been used to fabricate autonomous nanoscale robots that can
sense biomolecules and compute.[52–55] Finally, an exciting ave-
nue is to interface biological signals with materials that combine
the programmability of clustered regularly interspaced short pal-
indromic repeats (CRISPR)-associated (Cas) enzymes with DNA
hydrogels, leveraging regulatory gene networks.[56]
The control output in mechanochemical devices can be more
dynamic than a steady-state shape change. Recent work has
shown that hydrogels could act as chemical signal integrators
and, therefore, have the potential to exhibit a wide range of tran-
sient responses.[57] Using a polyacrylic acid hydrogel, the authors
demonstrated the emergence of osmosis-driven deformation
waves triggered by different combinations of rates and sequences
of arriving stimuli. An alternative approach for instantiating tem-
porally programmable memory is using multistimuli–responsive
hydrogel nanocomposites.[58] Another interesting direction is
using oscillating gels that undergo periodic sol–gel transition.[59]
Structural remodeling driven by redox changes of a block copol-
ymer has been harnessed for autonomous actuation of gels.[60]
Cyclic mechanical work was also established with the use of
chemo–mechano–chemical feedback loops within compartmen-
talized systems.[61] Separating a catalyst-bearing mechanical sys-
tem actuated by a stimuli–responsive hydrogel from the chamber
filled with the reactant realizes a system with reversible and
repeatable cycles of motion, resembling an internal combustion
engine. The feedback between the exothermic catalytic reaction
and the mechanical action of the thermoresponsive gel may be
modulated with the introduction of more sophisticated transmis-
sion systems or chemical reaction networks.
Shape transformation can be localized to the end-effector of
the microrobot for spatiotemporally controlled manipulation.
Self-folding capsules are widely used in the controlled release
of pharmaceutics or cells for biomedical applications.[62]
Instead of directly modulating the motion of the robot, a preprog-
rammed change in the configuration of a specific compartment
must be initiated by the control system. To this end, microgrip-
pers that are capable of collecting or releasing cargo upon envi-
ronmental triggers have been engineered.[36,63–65] As shown in
Figure 2c, spontaneous bending of the arms in the presence
of the stimulus realizes operations such as targeted biopsy or
deployment. In principle, these microgrippers can be attached
to any micromotor with compatible design, promoting modular
assembly and compartmentalization.
While reversible and graded shape transformation is instru-
mental for repeated operations or continuous speed regulation,
some applications may require stable switching from one config-
uration to another. That is to say, exposure to a certain signal
would trigger a morphological change in the robot that is not
going to be reversed upon removal of that signal, and recovery
of the original configuration can only be triggered in the presence
of a different signal. A universal soft robotic microgripper has
been developed based on the shape-memory property of ionically
crosslinked alginate gels.[66] The many degrees of freedom of a
microgel are passively actuated upon contact with the surface of
target objects. By molding itself around the cargo, the microgrip-
per establishes geometric interlocking, and this new configura-
tion is locked in place with the introduction of calcium ions
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(Figure 2d). The original state is recovered with the chelation
of calcium ions by other chemicals. Another potential direction
is the autonomous assembly of self-folding micromachines at
target locations. We can envision a microrobot that transforms
into a completely different stable configuration to conduct a novel
task. Such machines are engineered at the macroscale using
shape-memory composites.[67] These devices are also capable
of transforming into a variety of predetermined shapes from
the same base structure using embedded actuation.[68] It would
also be interesting to engineer materials that can store energy
and autonomously coordinate shapeshifting without the need
for a trigger. A recent report has shown that encoding the rate
and trajectory of shape transformations on timescales from sec-
onds to several hours is feasible using dual network hydrogels.[69]
Stimuli–responsive hydrogels are very soft (i.e., Young’s
modulus in the order of kPa), mechanochemical actuation only
works in water, and the response is noisy as the material is very
sensitive to the physical and chemical properties of the surround-
ing media. Although these properties are acceptable and even
desirable for biomedical applications, microrobots with robust,
versatile, and precise functionality may open new application
areas. As for stimuli–responsive hydrogels, liquid crystal
elastomers (LCEs) also undergo a temperature-dependent phase
transition, enabling the development of untethered soft
microrobots.[23,70] Unlike hydrogels, however, these rubber-like
materials display an isovolumetric change in shape during phase
transition both in air and in water. Using a chemical formulation
for the LCE amenable to photothermal actuation, a conception
that resembles the automatic closure of a Venus flytrap has been
constructed.[71] When an object of a suitable size enters into the
field of view of the device, the LCE bends toward the object, even-
tually capturing it. The trigger options for controlling actuation
are not limited to laser illumination and heat. Mechanical load-
ing such as interfacial shear stress can also serve as the trigger,[72]
introducing the capability to process a repertoire of input signals
for the control of robot actuation.
3. Structural and Microfluidic Logic Elements
The first calculators and computers were built from mechanical
components such as levers and gears. Compliant mechanisms
are suitable for additive manufacturing both at macro and micro-
scales, and, unlike rotary mechanisms, their operation does not
suffer from friction and capillary effects that dominate
small-scale physics. Several examples of functional materials
performing mechanical Boolean logic have been successfully
demonstrated by harnessing elastic instabilities and bistable
mechanisms.[73] Digital mechanical systems usually rely on
geometric design and controlled buckling of beam elements.
The associated manufacturing paradigm works at the microscale;
a number of MEMS devices with buckling elements have been
fabricated to be used as energy harvesters, sensors, dampers,
stabilizers, and isolators. Furthermore, the high-rate motion
associated with snap-through buckling has been investigated
to develop novel MEMS actuators and optical switching
elements.
The basic building block used in structural logic systems is a
bistable mechanism, which has two stable configurations that are
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Figure 3. Structural and microfluidic logic for building control systems. A) Bistable mechanism based on buckling beam elements. The mechanism has
two stable states and, thus, it can be used as a bit or register. B) Combining mechanochemical control with structural logic leads to the development of
AND gates. Stimuli A and B generate the swelling of two different responsive materials, and, therefore, are treated as two different inputs. The design of
the bistable mechanism controls the energy landscape. C) Mechanical flip-flop based on air bubble (gray) traveling inside the channel along with the fluid
flow. Upon the introduction of a new bubble into the input channel, the entrapped bubble is ejected and the system switches states. D) A switch valve that
is based on snap-through instability of an elastomer membrane. The flow or pressure inside the channel can self-regulate the opening and closing of
embedded valves.

characterized by a double-well potential energy landscape
(Figure 3a). Leveraging mechanical design, the 3D building
blocks can be cascaded to create multistable mechanisms with
richer potential energy landscapes.[74,75] These mechanisms, in
turn, can communicate information by guiding acoustic or
electromagnetic waves.[74,76–80] It has been envisioned that
conformable monolithic systems that undergo complex motion
directly programmed within the architecture of the material
will realize soft robots capable of transforming a simple input,
such as a pressure impulse, into a complex sequence of
flexion, tension, and torsion outputs.[81] The programmed
response can be initiated by the environment with the use of
stimuli–responsive materials. Bistable structures were cascaded
to realize AND, OR, and NAND gates and actuated by the
anisotropic swelling of materials that respond to nonpolar sol-
vents and water (Figure 3b).[82] Autonomous release of strain
energy upon encounter with environmental stimuli produced
precise actuation events with designated functions such as
jumping of structures, opening boxes, and propulsion.[82–84]
The design framework and the nonlinear behavior of the
beams are scale independent, and therefore the systems have
the potential to be scaled down. A recent work has shown
that microscopic Boolean computation elements based on
buckling can be 3D printed and operated using holographic
optical tweezers.[85] One exciting direction is combining
the control features of stimuli–responsive materials with struc-
tural elements on the same system using two-photon
polymerization.
Additive manufacturing is not the only way of building com-
pliant mechanisms. Guided by origami design principles such as
tessellations and Miura fold patterns, complex flexible structures
displaying elastic instabilities have been fabricated from 2D

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layers.[39,86,87] A waterbomb base fold pattern with two stable con-
figurations has been introduced as a testbed for demonstrating
mechanical logic.[88] A humidity-responsive polymer was incor-
porated into the fabric of the mechanism for the transduction of
environmental signals into the mechanical response. If the
waterbomb is in a uniform relative humidity environment, both
actuators sense and respond to the same signal, producing no net
force and no change to the origami structure. However, in a
humidity gradient, the stimuli–responsive layer restricts diffu-
sion of water vapor, forcing it to diffuse around rather than
through a waterbomb. As a result, the top and bottom sensors
detect significantly different local environments, bending the ori-
gami structure and, depending on the initial waterbomb state,
reconfiguring the structure. Origami patterns are modu-
lar,[39,43,89] enabling units to be developed independently and
combined to create more complicated functional structures.
Considering the recent advancements in the design and control
methodologies of origami robots at the macroscale,[90,91] we can
anticipate exciting developments in the microscale.
The structure of a machine can be designed to filter and
amplify harmonic signals, as demonstrated by MEMS sensors
such as gyroscopes and accelerometers. Propulsion strategies
based on vibrations such as acoustic streaming rely on the struc-
tural design of the robot. Maximum velocities due to harmonic
excitation are achieved at eigenfrequencies where the robots are
operated for efficient propulsion. Therefore, the architecture of
the microrobot may be configured to convert external signals
into structural changes that would modulate locomotion
through mechanical logic. For example, one can envision a
microrobot with several motors that operate at distinct
frequencies and each motor drives the robot in a different
direction. Indeed, there are untethered microrobots driven by
multiple acoustic motors in the form of microbubbles[14] or
sharp-edged structures.[19] With the incorporation of mechanical
logic to these prototypes, the selective activation of motors may
be modulated as a response to certain chemicals or mechanical
forces. In the presence of spatial gradients of signals, this
strategy may lead to autonomous navigation and localization
at target locations.
A substrate does not have to be solid to compute, as
exemplified by the macroscale hydraulic devices.[92,93] The elastic
instabilities of the structures could be replaced with nonlinear-
ities associated with non-Newtonian fluids, droplets in two-phase
flows, or air bubbles. For example, a bubble traveling in a
microfluidic channel represents a bit, providing the capability
to perform control operations with AND/OR/NOT gates, flip-
flops, and ring oscillators (Figure 3c).[94] Likewise, the presence
or absence of an oil slug in a continuous aqueous phase repre-
sents true or false, respectively.[95] A more advanced version of
this platform was built using ferrofluid droplets.[96] Through
magnetic and hydrodynamic interactions among droplets,
a variety of logic gates have been constructed, which together
led to the development of a finite-state machine. For the realiza-
tion of on-board microfluidic logic, wirelessly powered pumps
must be incorporated into the untethered microrobots.
Untethered micropumps powered by magnetic fields and acous-
tic waves serve as a first step toward the development of fluid
circuits that can compute.[19,97]
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4. Harnessing Fluid–Structure Interactions
An elegant method for building digital logic gates inside micro-
fluidic channels drives the deformation of elastic valves with fluid
flow or pressure. Physical gaps and cavities interconnected by
holes were fabricated into elastomer structures to form networks
of fluidic gates that spontaneously generate cascading and oscil-
latory flow output using only a constant input flow.[98] Following
a similar design framework, check valves (Figure 3d) and switch
valves were replaced with pressure-gain valves, where low and
high pressure correspond to the bits of the logic system.[99]
Digital logic circuits were also constructed from bistable
pneumatic valves that rely on snap-through instabilities of hemi-
spherical membranes.[100] The concept of programmable regula-
tion of flow by the actuation of integrated flexible membranes has
been recently extended to the control of autonomous soft
robots.[7] A microfluidic oscillator circuit that includes a system
of switch and check valves converts pressurized fuel (hydrogen
peroxide) inflow into alternating fuel outflow. The downstream
decomposition of the fuel inside the reaction chamber by plati-
num catalyst results in volumetric expansion and programmable
actuation of pneumatic arms.
Having on-board actuated elements for driving fluid flow or
modulating pressure would significantly increase the size and
complexity of the microrobots. A more practical way of instantiat-
ing computation from fluid-structure interactions (FSI) is harness-
ing hydrodynamic forces generated due to the motion of the robot
or ambient flow. For this strategy to work, the microrobot must
have very flexible structural elements that can be deformed by vis-
cous drag as inertial effects are negligible at the microscale.[101,102]
Flexible helices uncoil under viscous flow and slender rods coil
once rotated at a certain angular speed in viscous fluids.[103,104]
Inspired by these fundamental studies, magnetic microswimmers
have been engineered to adapt their motility by spontaneously
modulating their morphology as a response to changes in the vis-
cosity of the surrounding fluid (Figure 4a).[40] In essence, the robots
regulate the thrust applied by their propeller on the move although
the externally applied magnetic field is kept constant. The same
mechanism endows microrobots to adapt to shear flows where
the helical body uncoils as the robot passes through a channel with
a narrowing profile (Figure 4b).[40] Using elastohydrodynamic cou-
pling in morphological transitions and gait adaptation enables en-
ticing opportunities for microrobots navigating inside obstructed,
heterogeneous, and dynamically changing environments. For
example, if the microrobots had multiple flexible propellers, shape-
shifting might be localized to select actuators in response to changes
in the fluid viscosity, in the presence of boundaries, or passively
passing through bifurcations, to realize autonomous navigation.
Until now, we considered the mechanical behavior of the
materials as continuous. Soft microrobots can be manufactured
from actuated functional discrete elements. Indeed, one of the
first mobile untethered microrobots was a chain of magnetic
microparticles attached via DNA linkers.[12] Colloidal physics
provides rich resources on the collective motion of actuated
particles along with resulting hydrodynamic effects. Discretely
flexible structures based on chains of rigid magnetic particles
connected by soft springs made of polyethylene glycol transform
both shape and motility under varying magnetic fields.[105]
Notably, the transformation between different chain
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Figure 4. Harnessing fluid–structure interactions for instantiating on-board control. A) Elastohydrodynamic interactions between the flexible micro-
swimmer and the surrounding fluid can modulate the shape of the swimmer and therein the mobility and maneuverability of the machine.
Viscosity is one of the major parameters that has the direct effect of viscous stresses. Microscopic helices driven at a fixed angular speed can start
coiling with increasing viscosity. B) The shear stress generated by external flow can deform flexible microswimmers. This deformation is a form of
adaptation as it allows navigation inside narrow channels. C) Dynamic assemblies of actuated colloidal particles display adaptive locomotion by splitting
and merging during forward motion inside structured environments.
morphologies and locomotion modes enables these colloidal
chains to navigate through complex 3D environments, such as long
and curved channels. If we consider a group of particles, though
not physically connected, that stay together due to magnetic and
hydrodynamic interactions as a microrobot, the possibilities for
on-board control will expand significantly. Dynamic assemblies
of magnetic microparticles demonstrate multimode locomotion
and versatile transformation, all thanks to the fluidic nature of
the composition.[106–111] We can envision that with the use of smart
materials and FSI, these swarm robotic systems may adapt to the
changes in the environment during locomotion and follow gra-
dients of signals to autonomously reach target locations (Figure 4c).
Engineering self-propelled swimmers that follow gradients of
signals is an active research direction within the colloidal science
community. The ability to adapt motion in response to gradients
in external stimulus is called taxis. For example, colloidal suspen-
sions of catalytic motors perform phototactic flocking through
electrophoresis.[112,113] Another work has shown that the
alignment of photocatalytic particles by hydrodynamic torque ena-
bles them to perform positive rheotaxis (i.e., they migrate
upstream).[114] Light-activated particles also perform phototaxis
under inhomogeneous laser exposure due to diffusiophoretic tor-
ques.[115] On-board control options have been extended for active
colloids by decoupling the amplitude of rotational fluctuations
from the thermal bath through randomly oriented magnetic
fields.[116] In all the aforementioned examples, the gradients of
stimuli exert mechanical torques on the particles that bias their ori-
entation during motion. An alternative strategy has been proposed
based on the shape transformations of stimuli–responsive materi-
als in response to changes in the concentration of a chemical.[117]
This strategy has been experimentally realized using geometrically
and compositionally asymmetric colloids containing polystyrene
particles and thermoresponsive microgels.[118]
5. Miniaturization Challenges and Controller
Design
There are distinct challenges associated with the design and
manufacturing of the three classes of control systems described
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in this Report. The design process involves tuning of the
mechanical and chemical properties of the materials and struc-
tures so that the microrobot will autonomously react to its envi-
ronment in a desired or even optimized way. As an example, let
us focus on on-board control based on FSI in soft micro-
swimmers that are folded from 2D hydrogel nanocomposites
(see Section 4). The shape transformations during swimming,
which lead to adaptive locomotion, depend on the magnetization
and the mechanical properties of the structure, the external mag-
netic field, and the viscosity of the fluid. The design challenge is
to determine the amount, distribution, and alignment of the
magnetic nanoparticles as well as the composition and architec-
ture of the hydrogel, so that the machine will fold into the right
morphology with the right magnetization and structural proper-
ties. A proper computational model that captures this folding
process as well as the dynamic evolution of shape during loco-
motion is instrumental for the design process. Designing for
flexibility requires deep understanding and precise predictions
of finite deformations. Computational tools based on computer
graphics and analytical formulations facilitate the design of com-
pliant mechanisms.[119,120] The tuning of material properties
according to the desired function becomes even more challeng-
ing once we consider molecular engineering and DNA circuits.
Analogous inverse engineering problems have been studied in
materials science and nanoelectronic devices. Machine learning
has emerged as a viable tool for the rational design of organic and
inorganic devices and optimization of their performance.[121,122]
The examples presented in this Report cover a diverse size
scale, characteristic dimensions ranging from nanometers to
centimeters (see Table 1). Miniaturizing mesoscale robots to
microscale may not be straightforward, depending on the scaling
laws associated with the powering scheme of the controller and
the complexity of the design. Mechanochemical control based on
organic components such as nucleic acids and proteins is partic-
ularly suited for microscale systems, considering the amazing
capabilities of autonomous single-celled organisms and eukary-
otic cells. In living systems, biochemical computation drives
mechanical work through direct interactions among regulatory
and motor proteins. Coupling the physicochemical properties
© 2021 The Authors. Advanced Intelligent Systems published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
www.advancedsciencenews.com
Table 1. Classification of surveyed prototypes according to their
characteristic dimension.
Length scale Reference number
Nanometres [3,4,11,30,31,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,58,121,122]
Micrometres [2,5,10,12–23,27,28,32,34,36,43,48,56,57,61,63–66,
72,85–87,94,95,97,98,99,105–115,118,123–129,131]
Millimetres [29,38–42,44,49,65,67,69–72,77–79,96,101,132]
Centimetres [7,33,35,37,60,68,73–75,82–84,88,89,91,100,104,119,130]
of polymers with the conformation changes or binding events of
nuclei acids and proteins will provide a framework for developing
efficient and programmable controllers for microrobots. Bacteria
exploit mechanics and FSI to drive adaptive behavior.[123,124]
Buckling of a flexible hook is the basis of autonomous navigation
and obstacle avoidance in uniflagellated bacteria.[125,126] The fab-
rication of highly flexible structures at microscale has already
been achieved using various techniques including flow coating,
self-folding, and two-photon polymerization.[43,127–129] On-board
control based on structural and microfluidic logic elements, on
the other hand, has not been implemented on untethered micro-
robots yet. From the engineering perspective, solutions that do
not directly link stimuli to actuation by compartmentalizing the
body into distinct sensor, computer, and actuator units are more
robust. Therefore, it is worth pursuing this direction despite
miniaturization challenges. On-board pneumatic and hydraulic
systems that drive microfluidic control elements may be minia-
turized using inventions such as untethered micropumps,[19,97]
pressure generators based on photothermal heating,[130] and
chemical micropumps.[131,132] Alternatively, structures may
process information with the aid of externally generated waves.
This concept has been extensively explored by experts working on
metamaterials.[133,134]
6. Conclusion
Microrobotics has been rapidly emerging as a field continuously
fed by various established disciplines including polymer chem-
istry, colloidal physics, condensed matter physics, optics, and
mechanics. The richness in the design and actuation principles
that have been explored resulted in scientific advancements as
well as demonstrations of feasibility for various applications.
However, the capabilities of the existing prototypes are limited,
particularly due to the lack of technologies for on-board
perception and control. In this report, we highlighted three major
directions that may lead to the development of untethered auton-
omous mobile microrobots. A solid understanding of material
properties, fluid–structure interactions, and nonlinear mechan-
ics that would enable programmable responses to environmental
stimuli will play a critical role in this important quest. We also
expect important milestones in computational mechanical
design and manufacturing as the mechanical control systems
developed for macroscale robots cannot be directly miniaturized
using the existing technology. The modified design principles
must be guided by multiphysics simulations that take the domi-
nant forces at microscale into account. Despite the difference due
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to scale, soft roboticists have been asking the right questions
regarding physical intelligence; therefore, both domains of robot-
ics are expected to inspire each other in the following years.
The authors are convinced that mechanics is the leading path
to autonomy at microscale.
Acknowledgements
M.S.S. acknowledges support from the European Research Council under
the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program
(grant agreement no. 714609).
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Keywords
fluid–structure interactions, mechanical metamaterials, microengineering,
nanotechnology, physical intelligence, soft robotics
Received: October 15, 2020
Revised: January 13, 2021
Published online: April 1, 2021
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Amit Dolev received his B.Sc. (Suma cum laude) in mechanical engineering at Technion—Israel Institute
of Technology—and Ph.D. in the Dynamics Laboratory headed by Professor Izhak Bucher at Technion-IIT.
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where he works on utilization of acoustics for powering microscale technologies. He pursues a broad
range of research interests including nonlinear dynamics, fluid–structure interactions, vibrations, signal
processing, acoustics, and control.
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Murat Kaynak is currently a Ph.D. candidate at EPFL. He received his B.Sc. from Istanbul University,
Turkey, and M.Sc. from Penn State University, USA. He joined the MicroBioRobotic Systems (MICROBS)
Laboratory in 2016, where he works on the design, fabrication, and acoustic actuation of microrobots. He
has also developed several microfabricated devices for basic research in mechanobiology and
neuroscience.

Mahmut Selman Sakar is the head of the MicroBioRobotic Systems (MICROBS) Laboratory and a tenure-
track assistant professor in the Institute of Mechanical Engineering at EPFL. He received his Ph.D. in
electrical and systems engineering from the University of Pennsylvania in 2010 and undertook
postgraduate research at Massachusetts Institute of Technology and ETH Zurich before moving to
Lausanne in 2016. His current work focuses on the applications of small-scale robotics in life and health
sciences including mechanobiology, developmental biology, neuroscience, and minimally invasive medical
technologies.

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