Asia Pacific Education Review (2022) 23:27–43

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-021-09701-0

Reflection of social capital in educational processes: emotional literacy

and emotional labor context
Melek Alemdar1   · Hüseyin Anılan2

Received: 13 May 2020 / Revised: 18 January 2021 / Accepted: 4 May 2021 / Published online: 13 May 2021
© Education Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea 2021

Abstract
Previous attempts to explain teachers’ educational effectiveness have mostly focused on personal traits, organizational com-
mitment, pedagogical content knowledge or the passion for education, and so on. We want to highlight that social skills—
competencies that enable teachers to interact effectively with others—might contribute to the teachers’ well-being with the
help of emotional regulation. Using the hypothesis that building positive relationships and relating to others emotionally may
lead to positive outcomes in the educational process, the aim of this study was to explore the effect of teachers’ emotional
literacy skills and emotional labor behaviors on their social capital. A structural equation model was developed to describe
the cause–effect relationship between the variables. The population investigated in the study consisted of high school teach-
ers in the central districts of Eskişehir, Turkey, in the 2017–2018 academic year and the sample included 399 teachers taken
from seven different school types using the stratified sampling method. Data analysis was performed using correlation and
descriptive analysis, the structural validity of the scales was determined by exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, and
the validity of the structural equation model was tested by running a path analysis—the model was acceptable. The results
of the analyses indicate that there are positive effects of emotional literacy on emotional labor and emotional labor on social
capital. In addition, emotional labor had a full mediating effect in the relationship between emotional literacy and social
capital. Possible explanations of the results, limitations, and suggestions for the study are discussed.

Keywords  Emotional literacy · Emotional labor · Social capital · Structural equation model

Introduction relations have been highlighted in social theory (Dika &

The twenty-first century social and economic landscape
bears extraordinary characteristics that separate it from
prior historical periods due to the progress in technology and
changes in the way communication and information flows.
In this era of transformations and reforms, neither individu-
als nor institutions can seal themselves off from the global
effects. With globalization the structure of the society has
transformed and the individual has been isolated in guise of
modernization. Globalization and its undesirable effects on
society have opened up worldwide agendas and the impor-
tance of being a community, acting together and mutual
Singh, 2002). The emphasis on the social dimension was
maintained with the concept of social capital which includes
“soft skills” and “twenty-first century skills” to tackle com-
plex global challenges (Lee, 2012). Literature on this topic
offers compelling arguments for improving relations with
social capital theory which is conceptualized as “the return
of society.”
Theoretical framework
Social capital

“Relationships matter” says John Field (2008) to emphasize

* Melek Alemdar the importance of trust and connection in all social pro-
malemdar81@gmail.com cesses. Social capital is a new term in international literature
1
(Baştürk, 2011) and it stands out to reveal the effects of social
National Ministry of Education, Eskisehir, Turkey
life dynamics in economic and social activities of countries. It
2
Faculty of Education, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, was formed around the question of “What will create a capital
Eskisehir, Turkey

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Vol.:(0123456789)

28
resource in social relations for individuals?” and the answers
by the theorists like Bourdieu, Coleman, Putnam, and Fukuy-
ama made it reputed (Alemdar, 2019). After Hanifan (1916)
first conceptualized the term to emphasize the importance of
social structure, the first sociological analysis was done by
Pierre Bourdieu (McLean et al., 2002). Bourdieu’s work val-
ues the social relations network by emphasizing the idea that
“it is not what you know but who you know” (Püsküllüoğlu,
2015). Accordingly, social capital is the quantity and quality
of effective connections that individuals have and can manage.
Although the foundations of the concept in today’s sense
were laid by Pierre Bourdieu, it was James Coleman who
developed the social capital theory within social sciences
(Field, 2008). Coleman gathered the main elements needed
to provide social capital in social relations: obligations and
expectations, information sharing, norms, and effective sanc-
tions, and also authority relations (Baştürk, 2012). These ele-
ments are resources for social capital, through which infor-
mation channels are made operational, and also expectations,
trust, and solidarity towards others are expected to be devel-
oped in the social environments (Field, 2008). According to
Putnam (2000), another prominent name who actively used
social capital in social analysis, social capital includes trust
and interaction, norms, reciprocity, and social networks in
society. He emphasizes that in societies where the connec-
tions are healthy and strong, individual and social life will
be more dynamic and productive, and the efficacy of institu-
tional performance serving common goals will be improved.
Fukuyama, who places trust at the core of his social capital
theory, argues that excessive individualism culture weakens
the bonds that hold families, neighborhoods, and nations
together (Aydemir, 2011). He portrays social capital as a skill
that occurs when a sense of trust is dominant in a society
or a part of it (Hız & Karataş, 2015; Kahraman, 2016) and
underlines that by the virtue of trust, gained through social
capital, social and economic well-being of the community
will be supported. As mentioned in the most widely cited
studies of social capital, community is formed through rela-
tional networks—the more people one engages with in social
interaction, the higher the levels of social capital they derive.
Educational institutions are one of the most important
places where secondary socialization is gained in indi-
vidual’s social development, providing the production and
continuation of social capital by bringing adults and young
people together, in the same social environments, for com-
mon educational goals (Günkör, 2011). Coleman’s (1988)
research on remaining in high school until graduation ver-
sus dropping out was the pioneer asserting that social capi-
tal aids students in achieving their goals of education and
graduation. Putnam (2004) also agrees that social capital
within the school and community contributes to educational
process through human capital, thus strengthening economic
development and civic engagement. In a sense, education
13
M. Alemdar, H. Anılan
increases the level of income and social status; increase
in status and income level also promotes trust. Individu-
als who are more socialized through education will have
the opportunity to join networks, they will be able to enter
groups where they exchange information more easily. Con-
nection with large and diverse groups of people, especially
in the school environment, enriches people’s philosophy and
worldview. At the same time, cooperation, social networks
and participation shall provide positive benefits, including
trusting others, participating in social activities, informa-
tion sharing, and belonging among employees (Ekşi, 2009).
The degree of trust and connectedness among teachers and
administrators has been shown to have strong educational
effects; here, the distinctive feature of high-performing
schools is a climate of cooperation within the school com-
munity (Putnam, 2004). Social capital makes a significant
contribution to school effectiveness by providing a focus on
solidarity, responsibility, and school goals. This correlation
between social capital and school effectiveness necessitates
a description of the elements of social capital resources that
educational institutions and the main stakeholders (student,
teacher, family, and management) have.
In the educational context, social capital studies have
received considerable attention in the last 40 years. Typi-
cally, the studies have focused on topics such as student
involvement and success, parent–student relationships,
parent–community relationships, immigrants and ethnic
diversity, family structure, among others (Arriaza & Rocha,
2016), but the aspects of social capital relating to teachers
are rarely explored (Minckler, 2011). Researches related
to teacher-based social capital are in the early exploratory
stages of what concepts of teacher-based social capital look
like, its aim, and characteristics to explore possible relation-
ships (Smyth, 2004). Inserting teachers into the issue needs
a view of teachers as the agents who actively use resources
to ensure educational activity. The question, “Why are some
teachers more successful than others?” can be answered
from the human capital perspective as: “Because they are
better educated, more talented or more motivated.” How-
ever, the social capital perspective will answer this ques-
tion not only in terms of the teachers’ knowledge but also
from where and/or whom they get the information (Leana,
2011). Teachers interact with hundreds of people everyday
and face different demands and questions of many actors
such as students, parents, and other employees. Considering
these interactions, social capital emerges as an important
reserve that teachers inherit and invest.
Emotional labor
Goffman (1959), displeased about the commercializa-
tion of emotions, was the first to introduce the concept of
“emotional labor.” In order to evoke some special feelings
Reflection of social capital in educational processes: emotional literacy and emotional labor…
or reactions of customers, as a part of their employment
contracts employees have to show certain emotions through
verbal or non-verbal language and this process is called as
“emotional labor” (Morris & Feldman, 1996). Emotional
labor can be defined as a process of regulation, reflection,
and expression of emotions in the workplace with an aware-
ness that doing so will contribute to the mission and vision
of the organization (Alemdar, 2019). Thus, emotional man-
agement, which involves noticing, defining, and organizing
one’s emotions in a way that would be beneficial to the oth-
ers, turns into emotional labor in the work environment.
Influenced by Goffman’s views, sociologist Hochschild
carried out pioneering studies to express emotional labor
more concretely (Fisher & Ashkanasy, 2000; Zapf, 2002).
Hochschild participated in the courses of Delta Airlines to
examine the emotional labor processes of flight attendants
(Akbaş, 2016); there she referred to emotional labor as “the
management of feelings to create a publicly observable
facial and bodily display” (Hochschild, 1983). Here Hochs-
child underlines that the employees’ emotional performance
and regulation are demanded and used for the commercial
gain of the company, which is an emphasis on the human
cost of emotional labor; this labor requires coordination of
mind and emotions and it includes the application of “feel-
ing rules” as the norms that determine how emotions should
be felt in a particular set of social relationships (Vincent &
Braun, 2013). Feeling rules govern what we are supposed
to feel in a given situation and include emotional situations
considered as suitable for the job or not by the organization.
Hochschild argues that there are two types of rules: surface
acting and deep acting (Hochschild, 2009; Özgün, 2015).
Surface acting means that the employees try to manage the
visible aspects of their emotions on the “surface” (Zapf,
2002). The main point in surface acting is that the emotions
felt and displayed by the employee are completely differ-
ent and separate. Deep acting is an attempt to experience
the emotions required to be displayed by internalizing them
(Hochschild, 1979). In other words, it is a reference to the
natural result of real feelings that are regulated automatically
(Akbaş, 2016). In addition to Hochschild’s surface and deep
acting behaviors, expression “genuine emotions” emerged in
the works of Ashforth and Humphrey (Savaş, 2012). Ash-
forth and Humphrey (1993) asserted that one needs a little
emotional labor at that stage, because expression of genuine
emotion means reflecting the natural emotion without any
regulation. Çukur (2009) chose to include the concept of
“emotional deviance” in his work to describe the situation
when the emotions felt and how they are expressed do not
match up with the required display rules of the organiza-
tion. He proposed to address this term within the scope of
emotional labor studies to reflect divergent consequences of
different types of emotional labor (customer vs. coworkers)
in different work settings.
29
With globalization, technological advances, and industri-
alization, it has become evident that emotions require regula-
tion laws in working environments—various sectors expect
their employees to make physical, mental, and emotional
labor (Ceylan, 2017). Teaching as a profession requires
interaction with many stakeholders during the day (Nias,
1996). Due to the nature of the job, it is inevitable that while
performing their duties, teachers will send certain messages
through emotional signals and cues, to the students, col-
leagues, and other stakeholders. Morris and Feldman (1996)
allege the frequency and the variety of emotional display as
important indicatives of emotional labor. When we consider
the typical situation for a teacher, each day may present vari-
ous instances of emotional displays; when a girl comes with
a finger cut, the teacher may show sympathy. During the next
class, she may be respectful and thankful to a boy who is
helping peers. The next moment, she can be powerless, indif-
ferent, or inadequate taking stand against fighting pupils. For
this reason, it is possible to regard teaching among occupa-
tions that require intense emotional labor (Cingöz, 2018;
Näring et al., 2006). Emotional labor for teachers refers to
the behavior they perform when they are required to feel or
at least reflect an emotion during teaching-relevant interac-
tions (Zembylas, 2004). They are somehow expected to be
exemplary in handling negative emotions and turning them
into positive ones—to be regarded as better teachers (Isen-
barger & Zembylas, 2006). Teachers may express or sup-
press their emotions in their interactions with colleagues,
students, and parents; therefore, the emotional demands
of the teaching profession and the emotional display rules
expected by the school organization merit evaluation in the
context of emotional labor studies.
Emotional literacy
Aristotle (2014) laid the foundations of the concept of emo-
tional literacy centuries ago with his words “On the other
hand, it is not easy to define how, with whom, at what and
how long one should get angry or at what point the right
action ceases and wrong begins” in his book Nicomachean
Ethics. By mentioning anger management, the ancient Greek
philosopher states here that emotions should be regulated
under appropriate conditions and also should be expressed
in a proper language. Emotional literacy is a strategy that
can transform emotions like anger, anxiety, etc. into active
and productive energy (Antidote, 2003). Emotional literacy
has been set among the targets that need to be developed and
learned, just like reading and writing (Park, 1999). Since
emotions can contribute to relationships in a positive way, it
is crucial to be able to realize, make sense of them, and make
the most use of their power. In the context of emotional
literacy in order to lead a quality life, it is necessary for indi-
viduals to get life skills such as understanding, managing,
13

30
and expressing their own emotions (Antidote, 2003; Killick,
2006; Park, 1999; Steiner, 2003; Weare, 2004).
Steiner first used the concept of emotional literacy in
1979, in his book ’Healing Alcoholism’ (Steiner, 2003).
And in “Emotional Literacy with a Smart Heart,” Steiner
described emotional literacy skills as “the ability to under-
stand your emotions, the ability to listen to others and empa-
thise with their emotions and the ability to express emotions
productively so as to improve the quality of life around you”
(Steiner, 2003). Emotional literacy is presented here as a
personal source of power (Alemdar, 2014) and in addition
to understanding one’s own feelings and those of the people
around, expressing them and acting accordingly to them pro-
vides a basis for that source of power. Weare (2004) defines
emotional literacy as “the ability to understand emotional
states of ourselves and other people and in particular to be
aware of and use this information with competence in ways
that are helpful to ourselves and others.” As cited in mostly
used definitions of the term (Joseph et al., 2005; Orbach,
1998; Sharp, 2001), emotional literacy brings forward a
new kind of literacy to regulate human relations through
the effective use of words and it emphasizes that both indi-
vidual emotional well-being and positive interpersonal rela-
tionships can be provided through those words.
The definitions above connate a similarity between the
theories of emotional literacy and emotional intelligence.
Although some studies use a common conceptual defini-
tion of two terms (Bocchino, 1999; Claxton, 2005; Killick,
2006; Perry et al., 2008), especially in the field of educa-
tion, a clear distinction is tried to be made (Dickson &
Burton, 2011; Matthews, 2006; Park, 1999; Weare, 2004).
Some studies have discerned two concepts by focusing on
the semantic differences between literacy and intelligence
terms (Matthews, 2006; Southampton Psychology Service,
2003). The term “intelligence” accrues a negative conno-
tation that would undermine the positive message (Sharp,
2001) and it tends to suggest a capacity that is innate and
fixed, not teachable (Ripley & Simpson, 2007; Weare &
Gray, 2003). The term “literacy,” on the other hand, is more
related to language and the culture that can be improved
by the use of language (Matthews, 2006). Emotional intel-
ligence is the personal capability to understand and manage
emotional information, while emotional literacy is to make
use of relationships with others to better understand and
process emotional information (Haddon et al., 2005). As it
focuses on the emotional well-being of the individual and
qualifies the social environment in educational institutions,
the concept of emotional literacy has more intensive use in
education processes than emotional intelligence (Meekums,
2008; Stone, 2005). Hence emotional literacy fits more to the
idea we want to present through this study, as it emphasizes
the ability to understand, manage, and develop these skills
over time in educational contexts (Rae, 2012). The point
13
M. Alemdar, H. Anılan
that emotional literacy highlights as communicating through
emotional vocabulary in social contexts make us feel closer
to use this term, even if they both can substitute each other.
Emotional literacy focuses on how people interrelate to
each other (Killick, 2006) and requires dialog between peo-
ple. Bullying, discrimination, and many problems that break
the peace can be managed through emotional literacy; this
requires people to listen to each other and to accept differ-
ent points of view. Considering the educational processes,
emotional literacy cannot be acquired through 1-hour “les-
son plans” in schools. It gains value in teachers’ rooms, cor-
ridors, classrooms, playgrounds, by focusing on the quality
of the relationship among all members of the school. Here
the emotionally literate school needs to foster the climate
for ethos and democracy where the staff and students are
encouraged to reflect on feelings. Weare and Gray (2003)
summarized several reasons for conducting emotional liter-
acy programmes in schools. These included improving pupil
behavior, increased inclusion of children with emotional and
behavioral difficulties, improvements in mental health, and
greater educational and work achievement. Relationships in
an emotionally literate school are paramount and should be
characterized by openness, effective communication, well-
developed consultation mechanisms, and a supportive spirit
of colleagues.
Schools are not places where emotional literacy is taught,
but where it is put into practice (Alemdar, 2019). Teachers,
like many other people, may not feel comfortable talking
about their emotions. According to Antidote (2003), emo-
tional literacy helps the staff and students to engage in activi-
ties that promote both physical and emotional well-being,
and to elaborate the range of what they can talk about with
each other. And it is expected to increase learning ‘power’
by giving staff and students the capacity to cope with the
emotions that can render them unable to learn. It is possible
to teach emotions in theory or even to integrate them into
the curriculum (Antidote, 2003; Steiner, 2003; Stone, 2005;
Weare, 2004), however, the main point is to ensure that emo-
tional literacy turns into an identity and a life skill through
the values of the school and the behaviors of teachers. So,
in this study, the emotional literacy skills of teachers were
taken into consideration in order to evaluate their emotional
skills from various perspectives through their relationships
at school.
The relationships between social capital, emotional
labor, and emotional literacy
In order to reach quality living standards and to make the
communication healthy, it is important to be aware of the
emotions, to guide and express them at the right place and
time. Exploring emotions is a valuable effort to develop one-
self and establish positive relationships. There is an attempt
Reflection of social capital in educational processes: emotional literacy and emotional labor…
to replace new world terms such as loneliness, value erosion,
and selfishness, through the adoption of social skills. The
process of regenerating a society with strong ties coincides
with the individual development and transfer of emotions.
As Denzin (1984) points out “Emotionality lies at the inter-
section of person and society, because people are connected
to their communities through the feelings they experience
everyday. Thus, the study of emotion is central to all human
disciplines; to be human is to be emotional.”
Teachers, the agents of social change, are the most impor-
tant capital of the school institution. In addition to the cogni-
tive characteristics of teachers, their affective skills are the
key to both their individual achievement and schools’ well-
being. Emotional experiences are not independent of the
environment in which they occur—what people feel and how
they express it changes according to their social positions,
cultural factors, and social norms. The school environment,
where teachers spend and share a significant percentage of
their life, is just one of the central institutions where emo-
tions can be examined sociologically. Teachers who behave
with empathy, respect, openness, and optimism by integrat-
ing emotional literacy into their life are expected to effec-
tively use the norms of reciprocity in providing the social
and emotional harmony needed in the school environment.
In so doing, they fulfill their responsibilities, expectations,
and obligations with cooperation and harmony.
When the emotional literacy skills of individuals are
activated, strong network ties will simultaneously occur and
through that process, respect for others and paying attention
to their problems will be fostered. This interest and desire
are important in the context of social capital such that Adler
and Kwon (2002) define social capital as sources of support,
influence, and knowledge that individuals have in their rela-
tions with others in a particular social context. Social capital
in the workplace also aims to maintain comprehensive and
healthy network connections among all employees. Positive
emotions are key elements in terms of efficiency, production,
and peace, when just the contrary is considered, excessive
dominance of negative emotions such as anger, jealousy,
hate, and disappointment at the workplace can hinder coop-
eration, cohesion, and improvement. Therefore, to maximize
the performance at the workplace with the social capital, it is
crucial to activate emotional capacity and management with
mindfulness. Teachers with positive emotions can enhance
the students’ social and emotional well-being (Weare &
Gray, 2003) and as a result the student achievement and even
school success can be increased indirectly (Alemdar, 2019).
The purpose of the research
The purpose of this study was to test the structural model
created as the emotional literacy skills and emotional labor
31
behaviors of teachers affect their social capital. Within this
framework, the following research questions were explored:
Study Question 1 What are the emotional labor, emo-
tional literacy, and social capital levels of teachers working
in high schools?
Hypothesis 1 The emotional literacy, emotional labor, and
social capital levels of teachers will be investigated.
Study Question 2 Does emotional labor mediate the influ-
ence of emotional literacy on social capital?
Hypothesis 2 Emotional literacy will have a significant
impact on social capital through emotional labor.
Method
Research design
This study examines the theoretical model formed as the
emotional literacy skills and emotional labor behaviors
of teachers affect their social capital. It was designed in a
causal model to analyze the direction of causal relationship
between the variables. The causal model is used to examine
cause or effect relationships that have arisen or exist between
some predictor variables rather than merely establishing
relationships between variables (Bryman, 2012; Karadağ,
2009). Neuman (2011) asserts that time order and correla-
tion relation are the basic conditions that show there is a
causality. The time order requires that the cause precedes the
result. Within the model, the variables of emotional literacy
and emotional labor were considered as the causes contribut-
ing to social capital. In addition, the correlation relationship
between all variables was examined as a prerequisite for the
structural equation model.
Population and sample
The study was conducted during 2017–2018 academic
year in the northwest of Turkey, Eskişehir. The popula-
tion included 2951 teachers working in high schools in
Odunpazarı and Tepebaşı districts of Eskişehir. Because
it was difficult to reach each unit in the study population
in terms of time and cost, a sampling method was applied
(Neuman, 2011). The sample of the study was selected from
the seven high schools, using the stratified sampling method,
which is among probability sampling methods. Schools were
stratified with regard to their types; Science High School,
Social Sciences High School, Anatolian High School,
Vocational and Technical Anatolian High School, Tourism
Vocational High School, Trade Vocational High School, and
Imam Hatip High School. The demographics of the research
sample is presented in Table 1. The data regarding the gen-
der of the teachers participating in the study show that 55.9%
are female and 44.1% are male. In addition, 29.1% of the
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32 M. Alemdar, H. Anılan

Table 1  Demographics of Category N %
participants (n = 399)
Gender Woman 223 55.9
Man 176 44.1
Trade vocational high school 46 11.5
Tourism vocational high school 13 3.3
Science high school 42 10.5
School Type Anatolian high school 105 26.3
Social sciences high school 22 5.5
Vocational and technical anatolian high school 116 29.1
Imam hatip high school 55 13.8
Undergraduate 270 67.7
Educational Postgraduate 116 29.0
Background Unstated 13 3.3
Education faculty 226 56.6
Graduation Faculty of arts and sciences or others 149 37.4
Unstated 24 6.0
1–5 years 52 13.0
5–10 years 76 19.0
Length of service 11–15 years 72 18.0
16–20 years 107 26.8
21 Years +  82 20.6
Unstated 10 2.5
1–2 Years 111 27.8
Working period in current 3–5 years 107 26.8
school
6–8 Years 85 21.3
9–11 years 34 8.5
12 years +  46 11.5
Unstated 16 4.0

teachers work in Vocational and Technical Anatolian High
School, 67.7% of them have undergraduate degrees, 56.6%
of them are graduates of the Education Faculty, 26.8% of
them have 16–20 years length of service, and 27.8% of them
has been working in current schools for 1–2 years.
Data collection tools
The research data were obtained with “Scale for Social Capi-
tal at Schools” by Ekinci (2008), “Teacher Emotional Labor
Scale (TELS)” by Çukur (2009), and “Emotional Literacy
Skill Scale” developed by Alemdar (2019). The sample
items are added in Appendix 1 and the psychometric prop-
erties of the scales are presented below:
Scale for Social Capital at Schools consists of 62 items.
It has five sub-dimensions: “Organizational Commitment,”
“Communication–Social Interaction,” “Cooperation–Social
Networks and Participation,” “Trust,” and “Tolerance to
Differences and Sharing Norms.” Each item in the scale
is scored as a 5-point Likert scale between “Never” and
“Always.” Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was utilized
through a maximum likelihood technique in order to exam-
ine its construct validity. The findings were as follows: χ2/df
(8301.78/1815) = 4.57, p = .001, SRMR: .079, NFI = .96;
CFI = .97; IFI = .97; RMSEA = .095 (Confidence interval
for RMSEA = .093–.097) and the model indices constituted
a good fit. In the original study by Ekinci (2008), Cronbach
Alpha reliability coefficients ranged from .83 to .96. For
this study, Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficients ranged
between .90 and .94, and the value of reliability for the entire
scale was .98.
Teacher Emotional Labor Scale (TELS), was adapted
by Çukur (2009) to determine teachers’ emotional labor
strategies based on the study of Diefendorff et al. (2005).
TELS is devoted to the concept of emotional labor (Basım &
Begenirbaş, 2012) and it includes 20 items and four dimen-
sions: automatic emotion regulation, surface acting, deep
acting, and emotional deviance. Each item in the scale is
scored as a five-point Likert between “never defines” (1)
and “totally defines” (5). In the measurement model test of
the hypothetical structural model created in this study, TELS
was first tested with both 4 factors and 3 factors. Because in

13
Reflection of social capital in educational processes: emotional literacy and emotional labor…
the adaptation study of the scale, various factor structures
were tested and it was suggested that one of the models that
best fit the four-factor structure was the combination of deep
and surface acting dimensions (Çukur, 2009). Also, in the
alternative scale study that was used to examine the struc-
tural validity of TELS, it was stated that the triple structure
could be implemented in different samples (Diefendorff
et al., 2005). And the analysis of our study showed that the
model with 3 factors had better fit indices. The goodness-of-
fit indices obtained
​​ from CFA for the three-factor structure
were χ2/df (574.4/161) = 3.5, p = .001, GFI: .87, CFI = .88;
AGFI = .84; IFI = .88; SRMR = 0.8; RMSEA = .080 (Con-
fidence interval for RMSEA = .076–.090) and they were
within acceptable limits. It was stated that the Cronbach
Alpha values ​​calculated for the Turkish version of the scale
ranged between .70 and .81 (Çukur, 2009). The Cronbach
Alpha values of the scale calculated for this study were
found to vary between .70 and .76 and the overall reliability
was .79.
Emotional Literacy Skill Scale, developed by Alemdar
(2019), consists of 31 items in 5 dimensions: “Motivation,”
“Empathy,” “Self-Regulation,” “Emotional Awareness,” and
“Social Skills.” The scale is in a 5-point Likert type and
contains expressions in the range of “Strongly disapprove”
and “Always approve.” It was observed that the Cronbach
Alpha values of the scale varied between .60 and .77 and
the overall reliability of the scale was .85. The validity of
the scale was tested with CFA, it was determined that the
goodness-of-fit indices were not in acceptable limits (Çokluk
et al., 2014). It was seen that values could be improved
with 6 modifications. DFA values after the modifications
were χ2/df (1423.34/418)  =  3.41, p  =  .001, CFI  =  .90;
GFI = .89, IFI = .90; RMSEA = .078 (Confidence interval
for RMSEA = .073–.082) and it was determined that the
model was appropriate for the gathered data.
Data collection
Data collection tools were reproduced in 700 copies and
were put into practice in sampled high schools in the spring
semester of the 2017–2018 academic year with the approval
letter obtained from the Governorship and the Institute.
Before the application, the teachers were given the necessary
information, they were also told that it would take approxi-
mately 20 min to fill the form and the process would be
on a voluntary basis. In all schools, the application process
took two weeks, and after two weeks statistical preparations
began to be made for the analysis of the data obtained.
Data analysis
In this study, structural equation model was preferred
to reveal the relationships between latent and observed
33
variables in the theoretical model. With the structural equa-
tion model, it is possible to analyze the hypotheses based on
the relationships of the mentioned variables with the data
obtained in the research process. To test the hypotheses of
the research, the mean X and standard deviation (SD) scores
were calculated for the scales and subscales. And then, path
analysis was used to test the structural equation model. In the
second stage, the following steps were followed:
Constructing the theoretical model
A theoretical structural equation model was developed to
examine the relationships between emotional labor, emo-
tional literacy, and social capital (See Fig. 2). In the struc-
tural model, it was assumed that emotional literacy skills and
emotional labor have an impact on teachers’ social capital,
and it was empirically tested whether such an impact existed.
The first of the measurement components in the model con-
sists of emotional literacy, which is also the independent var-
iable of the study, with five observed variables (motivation,
empathy, self-regulation, emotional awareness, and social
skills). The mediator variable, emotional labor, consists of
three observed variables (automatic emotion regulation,
emotional deviation, and role play). And social capital as
the dependent variable is represented by five observed vari-
ables (organizational commitment, communication–social
interaction, collaboration–social networks and participation,
trust, and tolerance to differences and sharing norms).
Testing of the structural model
At this stage it was confirmed that the relationships between
emotional literacy, emotional labor, and social capital were
constructed with statistical acceptability. Goodness-of-fit
indices considered within the scope of the research were
GFI, AGFI, IFI, SRMR, RMSEA, Chi-Square [χ2], degrees
of freedom [df], the ratio between chi-square and degrees of
freedom [χ2/df] and t value. The critical values taken were
the acceptance point; χ2/df ≤ 5 (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 2001);
CFI, IFI ≥ .90 (Raykov & Marcoulides, 2006); SRMR ≤ .80
(West et al., 2012); and RMSEA ≤ .10 (Cole, 1987). It is
stated in the literature that the coefficient obtained from GFI
and AGFI is very sensitive to the sample size and reflects
the perfect fit as it approaches 1 (Byrne, 2016; West et al.,
2012). Doll et al. (1994) and Frias and Dixon (2005) inter-
pret the values between .80 and .89 as acceptable, and t value
is greater than 1.96 in absolute value with a level of signifi-
cance of 0.05 (Çokluk et al., 2014).
Before applying the structural equation model, there
are some preconditions that must be met in order to see
whether the data are suitable for model testing (Hair
et al., 2010; Kline, 2005; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001).
In this research, the preconditions that were met before
13

34 M. Alemdar, H. Anılan

testing were missing value analysis (Tabachnick & Fidell,
2001), extreme value analysis, linearity (Tabachnick &
Fidell, 2001), normal distribution (Kline, 2005), and mul-
ticollinearity (Hair et al., 2010; Kline, 2005). Also some
of the values are presented in Table 2 (Table 3).
Findings
Descriptive statistics of observed variables
in structural models
In Table  4, descriptive statistics of variables indicate
the results for Hypothesis 1. The table shows that the
arithmetic mean of the emotional labor scale total score
is 3.25 which represents a moderate level; the means of
the sub-dimensions scores range from 2.91 to 3.46. The
emotional deviance ( X = 2.91, SD = .515) has the low-
est mean, and the automatic emotional regulation ( X =
3.46, SD = .803) has the highest mean. The arithmetic
mean of the emotional literacy skill scale total score is
3.74, showing a high level. It is examined that the means
of the sub-dimensions’ scores change between 3.37 and
3.90. The emotional awareness ( X  = 3.37, SD = .480)
has the lowest mean and the self-regulation ( X  = 3.90,
SD = .619) has the highest mean. Finally, the arithmetic
mean of the social capital scale total score is 3.19, which
is a moderate level. The means of the sub-dimensions
scores vary between 3.06 and 3.46; collaboration–social
networks and participation ( X  = 3.06, SD = .827) has
the lowest mean, and the tolerance and sharing norms
( X  = 3.46, SD = .941) has the highest mean.
Testing the measurement model
The hypothetical model, determined to test within the
research, includes three latent variables “Emotional Literacy
Skill,” “Emotional Labor,” and “Social Capital.” The latent
variables have 13 observed variables (see Fig. 1). The data
on the latent and observed variables used in the structural
model are presented in Table 5.
Before the structural model, the measurement model cre-
ated by latent and observed variables had been analyzed.
Since the two-step modeling approach was adopted in testing
the model, the measurement model was tested before the
structural model (Fig. 1). The fit indices of taken from the
analysis were χ2/df (307.91/62) = 4.96, p = .001, GFI = .89,
AGFI = .84, CFI = .93; IFI = .93; RMSEA = .10 (Confi-
dence interval for RMSEA = .089–.11) and values repre-
sented the appropriateness of the model for the obtained
data. The model achieved after the analysis is given in Fig. 1.
The standardized factor load values from observed variables
to latent variables vary between .40 and .94 and all factor
loads are significant at the level of .001. The correlation
values prove a moderate positive significant relationship
between Emotional Literacy and Emotional Labor (r = .35,
p < .05). Another moderate positive impact is between Emo-
tinal Labor and Social Capital (r = .48, p < .05). Addition-
ally, there is a weak positive significant relationship between
Emotional Literacy and Social Capital (r = .23, p < .05).
Testing the structural model
After having tested the measurement model, the structural
model test was carried out. Goodness-of-fit indices obtained
after testing the model were χ2/df (307.91/62)  =  4.96,
p = .001, GFI = .89, AGFI = .84, CFI = .93; IFI = .93;

Table 2  Coefficients of skewness–kurtosis and tolerance–VIF values

Latent variables Observed variables Kurtosis Skewness Tolerance VIF

Emotional labor Automatic emotion regulation 0.36 − 0.52 0.75 1.3

Surface acting 0.41 − 0.29 0.74 1.3
Emotional deviance − 0.19 − 0.03 0.80 1.2
Deep acting 0.08 − 0.14 0.70 1.4
Emotional literacy Motivation 0.11 − 0.43 0.71 1.4
Empathy 0.00 − 0.25 0.70 1.5
Self-regulation 0.70 − 0.54 0.70 1.5
Emotional awareness − 0.19 0.33 0.73 1.4
Social skills − 0.61 − 0.39 0.60 1.8
Social capital Organizational commitment − 0.49 − 0.18
Communication–social interaction − 0.17 − 0.05
Cooperation–social networks and participation − 0.41 0.11
Trust − 0.33 − 0.26
Tolerance to differences and sharing norms − 0.16 − 0.52

13
 Table 3  Pearson product–moment correlation matrix between emotional labor, emotional literacy skills, and social capital subscales
Sub-scales 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Emotional labor
Automatic emotion regulation –
Surface acting 0.23** –
Emotional deviance 0.34** 0.32** –
Deep acting 0.40** 0.43** 0.10* –
Emotional literacy
Motivation 0.045 0.02 − 0.10* 0.13** –
Empathy 0.19** 0.13** − 0.25 0.44** 0.27** –
Self-regulation 0.22** 0.27** − 0.40 0.35** 0.36** 0.50** –
Emotional awareness 0.08 − 0.18** − 0.21** 0.09 0.36** 0.20** 0.25** –
Social skills 0.14** − 0.11 − 0.24** 0.28** 0.48** 0.42** 0.39** 0.48** –
Social capital
Reflection of social capital in educational processes: emotional literacy and emotional labor…

Organizational commitment 0.11* 0.22* 0.08 0.22** 0.09 0.05 0.13** − 0.06 0.00 –
Communication–social interaction 0.24** 0.21** 0.22** 0.30** 0.13** 0.17** 0.17** 0.05 0.10* 0.61** –
Cooperation–social networks and Participation 0.18** 0.21** 0.18** 0.28** 0.13** 0.12* 0.21** 0.02 0.04 0.61** 0.76** –
Trust 0.22** 0.25** 0.20** 0.28** 0.14** 0.12* 0.23** 0.02 0.08 0.64** 0.77** 0.80** –
Tolerance to differences and sharing norms 0.23** 0.20** 0.15** 0.30** 0.18** 0.08 0.21** 0.06 0.13** 0.60** 0.70** 0.75** 0.84**

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01

13
35

36 M. Alemdar, H. Anılan

Table 4  Descriptive statistics of Latent variables Observed variables SD

X
observed variables in structural
models Emotional labor Automatic emotion regulation 3.46 0.803
Surface acting 3.24 0.663
Emotional deviance 2.91 0.837
Deep acting 3.38 0.674
Emotional labor total score 3.25 0.515
Emotional literacy Motivation 3.77 0.642
Empathy 3.75 0.657
Self-regulation 3.90 0.619
Emotional awareness 3.37 0.672
Social skills 3.87 0.724
Emotional literacy total score 3.74 0.480
Social capital Organizational commitment 3.15 0.910
Communication–social interaction 3.12 0.723
Cooperation–social networks and participation 3.06 0.827
Trust 3.27 0.842
Tolerance to differences and sharing norms 3.46 0.941
Social capital total score 3.19 0.732

SRMR = .083; RMSEA = .100 (Confidence interval for
RMSEA = .089–.11). The goodness-of-fit values of the
model are within acceptable limits and the model is in agree-
ment with the data. The standardized path coefficients for
the model are given in Fig. 2.
The results of the analysis show that the path coefficients
from emotional labor to social capital (β = .45, p < .05),
from emotional literacy to emotional labor (β = .31 p < .05),
were statistically significant, but the path coefficient from
emotional literacy to social capital (β = .07, p > .05) was
not statistically significant. When the path coefficient from
emotional labor to social capital had been fixed to zero and
the analysis was repeated, it was seen that the path coef-
ficient from emotional literacy to social capital (β = .26,
p  <  .05) was significant. The path from emotional lit-
eracy to social capital was removed from the model and
the full-mediation model was tested, the goodness-of-
fit indices were calculated as χ2/df (309.63/63)  =  4.91,
p = .001, GFI = .89, AGFI = .85, CFI = .93; IFI = .93;
SRMR = .083; RMSEA = .099 (confidence interval for
RMSEA = .088–.11). The significance of the deterioration
in the model was evaluated with the Chi-Square difference
test and it was determined that there was no significant dete-
rioration in the model (Chi-Square Difference Test: 1.71, 1:
p > .05). Bootstrap confidence interval statistics were also
added into the study to determine the significance of the
mediating effect (Preacher & Hayes, 2008). In order for the
results to be meaningful in this test, the lower (LLCI: .018)
and upper (ULCI: .121) limits of the confidence interval
must be above or below zero together. The fact that both val-
ues are positive indicates that the mediation relationship of
the model assumed to be significant (p > .05). According to
the results of the analysis, it can be reported that emotional
labor has a full mediation effect in the relationship between
emotional literacy and social capital. That is, emotional lit-
eracy skill affects social capital through emotional labor.
That result verifies the Hypothesis 2 (See Study Question 2).
Discussion and conclusion
The two main purposes of the research were (1) to determine
the descriptive statistics related to teachers’ emotional labor
behaviors, emotional literacy skills, and social capital; (2) to
examine the relationships between emotional literacy, emo-
tional labor, and social capital by constructing a theoretical
structural equation model.
First, the results of this study show that teachers sampled
in the study display “moderate” emotional labor behav-
iors indicating that teachers often organize their behaviors
according to the emotional requirements of the job. This
result is consistent with the previous findings in Turkish
literature (Akbaş, 2016; Cingöz, 2018). When the results
obtained from the overall emotional literacy scale are ana-
lyzed, it is seen that teachers have a high level of emotional
literacy. As well as being a positive finding, it also reveals
that teachers’ emotional literacy skills need improving.
Teachers’ social capital levels are found to be ‘moderate,’
the existing studies also support that finding (Güngör, 2011;
Kahraman, 2016). The goal is to increase that level to high
among teachers, representing the welfare in social relations
and positive network connections in educational settings.
Secondly, the Path analysis performed on the data
proved that the model was acceptable. The results of the

13
Reflection of social capital in educational processes: emotional literacy and emotional labor… 37

Fig. 1  Measurement model related to structural model, standardized path coefficients

Table 5  Latent and observed variables used in structural models

Latent variables Abbreviation Observed variables

Emotional labor OTM Teacher emotional labor scale “automatic emotion regulation” sub-dimension total score
DSAP Teacher emotional labor scale “emotional deviance” sub-dimension total score
ROL Teacher emotional labor scale “acting (surface and deep)” sub-dimension total score
Emotional literacy MOTV Emotional literacy skill scale “motivation” sub-dimension total score
EMPT Emotional literacy skill scale “empathy” sub-dimension total score
OZDUZ Emotional literacy skill scale “self-regulation” sub-dimension total score
DFAR Emotional literacy skill scale “emotional awareness” sub-dimension total score
SBEC Emotional literacy skill scale “social skills” sub-dimension total score
Social capital OBAG Social capital at schools scale “organizational commitment” sub-dimension total score
ILTSM Social capital at schools scale “communication-social interaction” sub-dimension total score
ISBIR Social capital at schools scale “cooperation-social networks and participation” sub-dimension total score
GVN Social capital at schools scale “trust” sub-dimension total score
FTOLR Social capital at schools scale “tolerance to differences and sharing norms” sub-dimension total score

13

38
Fig. 2  Standardized path coefficients for the hypothetical structural model
analyses show significant correlations between emotional
literacy and emotional labor, emotional labor and social
capital, and emotional literacy and social capital through
emotional labor. The effect of emotional literacy on social
capital through emotional labor was statistically confirmed
with a full mediation test. The first direct effect is in the
moderate and positive relationship between emotional lit-
eracy and emotional labor (ß = .31). This result shows that
the improvement of emotional literacy skills will generate
a change and even development in emotional labor. This
implies that defining one’s own emotions and understand-
ing others’ emotional states have a positive effect on dis-
played emotions at the workplace. It can also be said that
individuals with emotional literacy skills activate and use
their emotions according to the requirements of their work.
The study by Grandey (2000) presents emotional events,
which includes positive and negative emotions, as one of
the two primary antecedents of emotional labor. Likewise,
in this study emotional literacy has been used to focus on
positive and negative emotions which are realized, managed,
and used effectively in organizing interpersonal relations. In
the context of the study, it is seen that the sampled teachers
have managed to organize and reflect their emotions in a way
that contributes to the vision and mission of the organiza-
tion they work with, by taking emotional literacy skill into
account and describing their own emotional worlds through
words. When the literature is analyzed, hardly any research
is found directly investigating the relationship between emo-
tional literacy and emotional labor; there have been some
13
M. Alemdar, H. Anılan
studies which focus on the relationship between emotional
intelligence and emotional labor. Similar to our research,
Ramachandran et al. (2011) and Karim and Weisz (2010)
found a significant correlation between emotional intelli-
gence and deep acting behavior. In addition, the result that
emotional literacy increases the positive effect of emotional
labor is supported by Abraham (1998) and Kim et al. (2012).
Abraham (1998) concluded that the mediating role of emo-
tional intelligence will alleviate the effect of emotional
deviation, which is the negative result of emotional labor.
Also Kim et al. (2012) stated that individuals with high emo-
tional intelligence are able to cope more effectively with the
negative consequences of emotional labor and provide better
performance in the business environment.
From our model, it is ascertained that the biggest direct
effect is in the moderate positive relationship between
emotional labor and social capital (ß = .45). This result
reveals positive contribution of one-unit change in emo-
tional labor to social capital, and demonstrates that indi-
viduals who feel, reflect, and express their feelings in the
workplace contribute to the development of all kinds of
relationships, social values, and social network structure in
the same environment. Even though the inclusion of other
people as a fundamental element in the emotion process is
still marginal (Fisher & Van Kleef, 2010), it is a fact that
emotions are either shaped or impeded by the social con-
text in which they are exhibited (Alemdar, 2019). In the
context of educational settings, when the teachers organ-
ize their emotions according to the ethics, beliefs, and
Reflection of social capital in educational processes: emotional literacy and emotional labor…
principles of the teaching profession, they contribute in
direct proportion to the social capital reserves, trust, effec-
tive communication, and sharing in their educational envi-
ronments. Recent research on emotional labor is focused
on social and personal identity (Ashforth & Humphrey,
1993; Aslan & Arı, 2018; Basım et al., 2013), education
training (Näring et al., 2006; Yılmaz et al., 2015), job
satisfaction (Asumah et al., 2019), and alienation (Iliffe &
Manthorpe, 2019). In most of these studies, although the
importance of emotional labor and its implications have
been identified, social capital context was not a focus of
investigation. With that study it is hoped to have a contri-
bution to the literature.
In addition to the direct effects, the research results found
out significant indirect effects. The findings show that emo-
tional literacy skill has an indirect effect on social capital
(ß = .26) and emotional labor mediates between emotional
literacy and social capital. Killick (2006) summarized some
of the emotional literacy skills as accessibility, understand-
ing, sensitivity, awareness of the needs of the learner, and a
tendency to collaborate in solving problems. It can be con-
cluded that the development of those skills creates a natural
resource in social capital by enriching networks, nurturing
social norms, and supporting trust. It can also be inferred
that emotional literacy has a positive effect on explaining
the factors such as trust, reciprocity, solidarity, and volun-
teering in teachers’ social capitals at an individual level, and
those individual capacities are confirmed to contribute to
the organizational social capital. On the basis of trust, high
levels of social capital lead to the characteristics of helpful-
ness, reliability, competence, honesty, and transparency in
the ideal school environment. Accordingly, trust strengthens
the social interaction at the school, and social ties reinforce
the sense of community among individuals. Because social
capital is also associated with the communal adaptation of
virtues such as loyalty, reliability, diligence, and helpfulness,
common perceptions and values are strengthened by act-
ing together, sharing responsibilities, collaborating in solv-
ing problems. While there are no published studies directly
examining the relationship between emotional literacy and
social capital, studies measuring similar skills have been
reviewed. Bozionelos and Bozionelos (2018) reached a
similar conclusion as our study—they found that five fea-
tures related to emotional intelligence explain a significant
percentage of variance related to social capital (varying
between 19.2% and 21.4%). Similarly, Bavarsad and Rahimi
(2016) concluded that emotional intelligence predicts social
capital. These studies agree with our findings, asserting that
the emotional intelligence of the employees increases their
ability to monitor their own emotional state as well as that
of others, and thus by using these skills, the employees may
contribute to the increase of potential social capital. On the
other hand, Charsoughi et al. (2015) report that emotional
39
intelligence training affected students’ human capital signifi-
cantly but had not contributed to their social capital.
Relating to Turkish literature, the majority of previ-
ous emotional literacy studies have only focused on pupils
(Alemdar, 2014; Coşkun, 2015; Holmes, 2016) or scale
development (Akbağ et  al., 2016; Palancı et  al., 2014).
Studies exploring the role of the teacher in promoting emo-
tional literacy are, by contrast, few and far between. Also,
emotional labor is mostly modeled with psychological capi-
tal (Alamur & Atabay, 2016; Oğuzhan et al., 2017; Tosten
& Toprak, 2017) or other organizational variables like job
satisfaction (Göç, 2017), burnout (Cingöz, 2018), and so
on. Our study will be the first one to contribute to Turkish
literature with the finding that teachers’ emotional literacy
skills affect their emotional labor behaviors and increase to
the accumulation of social capital through emotional labor.
When the social structures and networks between teach-
ers and other stakeholders in educational organizations
are supported and enriched by emotional competences,
the effectiveness of educational organizations is implicitly
improved. As through education, the individual can learn the
benefits of living in society by engaging in social activities
that require trusting others, solidarity, social networks, and
participation (Ekşi, 2009; Temple, 2001). In return, social
capital provides important input for academic success in
the educational process (Alemdar, 2019). Durkheim (1933)
explained the importance of social networks which make up
a society in the 19th century as “Society doesn’t become a
jumble of juxtaposed atoms. Rather the members are united
by ties which extend deeper and far beyond short moments
during which exchange is made” (as cited in Field, 2008).
Teachers, who are the mediators of the ideal of bringing the
Turkish society to a level even above contemporary civiliza-
tion, act as the glue in strengthening social bonds. Enriching
the networks that teachers have in the school community,
increasing the level of trust and sharing the norms within
the frame of mutual love and respect will always serve as an
investment in social, psychological, economic, and human
capital.
Limitations and directions for future
research
This research was conducted by developing a structural
model based on quantitative data. In future studies, longitu-
dinal and in-depth results can be obtained with qualitative
studies that can enable deep observation of the behavior.
Also different details can be obtained by using mixed method
research. The sample of this research consists of teachers
working in high schools in the National Ministry of Edu-
cation. Teachers from different school levels, with partici-
pation of other school stakeholders such as administrators,
13

40
students, and parents can help to extend the knowledge in the
field from different perspectives. And also private schools
can be added into research to make comparisons with the
public schools.
Through the findings obtained as a result of the analyses,
suggestions can be listed as follows:
• As it is seen that the emotional literacy skill of teachers
affects both emotional labor behavior and social capital,
emotional literacy curriculums, through which teachers
can read their own emotions like a book, should be devel-
oped, implemented, and assessed. These curriculums can
be provided to the teachers through several projects and
in-service trainings. Also, emotional literacy acquisition
programs should be developed for prospective teachers
in Education Faculties.
• With reference to the direct effect between emotional
labor and social capital, the frequency and variety of
emotions displayed in teaching should be taken into
account and an effective organizational culture should
be created that supports teachers’ deep acting and expres-
sion of genuine emotions. School administrators should
be informed about emotional labor through specific
workshops.
Dedication
This work has been dedicated to women who are smart
enough to demand their own freedom and brave enough to
get it. As Estés (2019) says “So, if women must, they will
paint blue sky on jail walls. If the skeins are burnt, they will
spin more. If the harvest is destroyed they will sow more
immediately. Women will draw doors where there are none,
and open them and pass through into new ways and new
lives.” To crown this unique soul with wisdom, we must
have a duty far from patterns, prejudices and stereotypes.
Appendix 1: Emotional literacy skill scale
sample items
• I fulfill my duties or responsibilities properly.
• I easily get distracted while completing a task (Reverse
item).
• When I hurt someone, I can express my sadness.
• I believe each new day is a new opportunity to improve
myself.
• When I lose a game or race, I question the underlying
reasons.
• Even when I’m angry, I weigh up all the options before
doing something.
• I have difficulty in expressing my worries (Reverse item).
13
M. Alemdar, H. Anılan
• Sometimes I say, “I wish I were someone else.” (Reverse
item).
• I often feel left out by my friends (Reverse item).
• I’m regarded as “social” by those around me.
• I care about having eye-contact during a communication.
Teacher emotional labor scale sample items
• Some of your students argue with you, claiming that you
cannot teach well. At that moment, I reflect the emotions
I feel.
• One of the students lost his relative and you share this
news with the class. I try to be cool and resist expressing
my true feelings.
• Your supervisor informed you that he did not accept the
changes you want to make in the curriculum, and this
ruined your plans. Although it is not expected from me as
a teacher; at that moment, I directly show my emotional
reaction.
• You don’t usually find the jokes made by your colleagues
very funny. However, in such cases, I make an effort to
actually feel the emotions I need to display.
Scale for social capital at schools sample
items
• I feel a strong emotional attachment to this school.
• Working at this school adds meaning to my life.
• I share my problems or joys with my colleagues.
• School principal makes the teachers feel valued.
• The decisions at school are made collaboratively.
• Parents also share and support the school’s goals.
• Relationships in this school are based more on trust than
in other schools.
• Employees at this school trust each other.
• Differences are respected at this school.
Acknowledgements  This article is produced from the doctoral dis-
sertation titled “Reflection of social capital on educational processes:
Emotional literacy and emotional labor context” which was conducted
by Melek Alemdar under the consultancy of Hüseyin Anılan. It was
supported by Scientific Research Projects Fund of Eskisehir Osmangazi
University with the project number: 2017-1553.
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