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A Self-Regulated Learner Framework For Students With
A Self-Regulated Learner Framework For Students With
A Self-Regulated Learner Framework For Students With
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ISCXXX10.1177/1053451220942203Intervention in School and ClinicJohnson et al.
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DOI: 10.1177/1053451220942203
https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451220942203
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Abstract
Students with math learning disabilities have been shown to experience math anxiety at rates nearly double those of their
typical peers. Anxiety about math is thought to disrupt learning by co-opting attentional resources that could be used in
problem-solving and may be caused by the way in which students interpret their math-related experiences. This article
describes a math intervention designed through a framework of self-regulated learning that defines self-regulated learners
as students who are connected, self-aware, self-determined, strategic, and resilient. Specifically described is an intervention
that helps students regulate anxiety, initiate a problem-solving strategy, and advocate as needed to use approaches they
find effective.
Keywords
math anxiety, math learning disability, self-regulation, emotion regulation, cognitive flexibility
Math anxiety is a state of discomfort caused by performing caused by a student’s negative appraisal of their math learn-
math-related tasks (Ma & Xu, 2004) and has been associ- ing experiences (Ramirez et al., 2018). When students eval-
ated with physiological outcomes similar to those when uate their math learning experiences as negative, they can
experiencing pain (Lyons & Beilock, 2012), and high levels begin to adopt a “failure as debilitating” mindset (Ramirez
of extreme stress (Pizzi & Kraemer, 2017). Students with et al., 2018). This thought process creates a negative cycle
math-related learning disabilities (LDs) tend to have defi- of failure–stress–failure that can cause a student to become
cits in working memory (Johnson et al., 2010), which makes highly anxious about math, and significantly compromise a
math challenging. Students with LD in mathematics have student’s ability to self-regulate and compromise their math
also been found to experience math anxiety at nearly twice performance.
the rate as that of their typically developing peers (Devine Taken together, these findings suggest that intervention
et al., 2018). Anxiety triggers negative thoughts and emo- approaches for students with LD in mathematics should
tions that co-opt the working memory needed to solve math include techniques to manage anxiety, to positively appraise
problems (Ashcraft & Kirk, 2001). Put simply, math anxi- their math learning experiences, and to develop their strate-
ety contributes to poor math performance. gic thinking in math. This article describes the components
Students with LD in mathematics tend to struggle with of a multidimensional math and self-regulated intervention
self-regulated learning, or the ability to select and use developed to address these issues. The intervention described
appropriate strategies to achieve learning goals, and this
leads to math anxiety (Duncan & McKeachie, 2005; Jain & 1
Boise State University, Boise, ID, USA
Dowson, 2009; Kramarski et al., 2010), and low math 2
Lee Pesky Learning Center, Boise, ID, USA
achievement (Ramirez et al., 2018). When a student does
Corresponding Author:
not have the strategies to approach a math task, their stress Evelyn S. Johnson, Boise State University, MS 1725, 1910 University Dr.,
levels can spike, and this further compromises their ability Boise, ID 83725-1725, USA.
to perform math tasks. Finally, math anxiety may also be Email: evelynjohnson@boisestate.edu
2 Intervention in School and Clinic 00(0)
is grounded in two frameworks, one focused on self-regu- and emotion regulation are important in developing resil-
lated learning and the other on math intervention, integrated ience (Zolkoski & Bullock, 2012).
to support students with math anxiety and LD in mathemat- A key principle of the self-regulated learner framework
ics (Johnson, Clohessy, & Chakravarthy, 2018; Johnson, is teachers’ flexibility for adapting strategies to meet the
Clohessy, Meek, & Spears, 2018). specific needs of their individual students in the moment.
Table 1 includes a definition of each component and the
general approaches to develop students’ self-regulation
Overview of the Frameworks skills within the classroom.
Because students face different challenges, an understand-
ing of these frameworks provides practitioners a way to
Math Intervention Framework
tailor specific components as needed to respond to the
unique needs of their learners. For example, the student The math intervention framework includes teaching for
(i.e., D) highlighted in the vignette in this article was iden- conceptual and procedural understanding, developing stu-
tified as having a specific LD that impacted her math per- dents’ mathematical reasoning ability, and the ability to
formance and experienced high levels of math anxiety that make connections across concepts. The intersection of
often prevented her from getting started with a math task. these aspects of math is strategic competence with prob-
She also had compromised working memory, low compe- lem-solving, demonstrated when a student can indepen-
tence with self-regulated learning strategies, low confi- dently identify and apply an effective and efficient approach
dence levels, and was struggling with long division in her to solving a given mathematics problem. Conceptual
fifth-grade math class (see Note 1). Through the use of the understanding is defined as the understanding of the prin-
two frameworks to guide intervention design, the specific ciples that govern a math domain (Rittle-Johnson &
strategies can be adapted to support each student’s unique Schneider, 2015). Procedural understanding is the knowl-
needs. For example, the math strategy will vary depending edge of action sequences for solving problems (Rittle-
on the math concept to be taught, or the technique to sup- Johnson & Schneider, 2015). Mathematical reasoning is
port math anxiety may differ depending on how anxiety the ability to develop and evaluate math arguments (Liu &
manifests for the student. Xin, 2017). Mathematical connections are a cognitive pro-
cess in which students relate ideas, concepts, procedures,
or representations (García-García & Dolores-Flores, 2018).
Self-Regulated Learner Framework The math instructional framework is not a sequential
Self-regulated learning is the ability to regulate one’s think- instructional preference (Rittle-Johnson & Schneider,
ing, behavior, and emotions in pursuit of a learning goal. 2015). Rather, the goal is to ensure that an intervention is
Self-regulation has been strongly linked to successful learn- designed to support students’ math ability through these
ing outcomes and it is critical for success in school (Durlak four areas. An extensive research base identifies a number
et al., 2011; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2008). Self-regulation is of instructional practices aligned with elements of this
a multifaceted, dynamic construct. This means that students framework that are effective for students with LD to develop
may be able to demonstrate some aspects of self-regulation strong competency in math, which include the following:
but not others; it also means that students may be able to self-
regulate in some contexts but not others. To reflect this com- 1. Explicit instruction of math concepts and proce-
plexity, self-regulated learners are defined as students who dures (Doabler et al., 2015);
are connected, self-aware, self-determined, strategic, and 2. Visual representations to support conceptual under-
resilient (Johnson, Clohessy, & Chakravarthy, 2018). standing and the ability to connect the math concept
Connected learners feel safe, trust their teachers, and to the math procedures (Gersten et al., 2009);
tend to be more engaged during the learning process, which 3. Cognitive strategy instruction to learn to identify
can lead to higher academic achievement (Leighton & and solve a variety of problem types (Griffin &
Bustos Gómez, 2018). Self-aware students understand their Jitendra, 2009);
strengths and needs as learners, and they understand which 4. Explicit inquiry routines to support students’ strate-
learning approaches are most effective for them. Self- gic competence (Impecoven-Lind & Foegen, 2010;
determined learners are able to set goals, make plans, and Scheuermann et al., 2009);
monitor their progress to reach their goals. Strategic learn- 5. Teaching students to verbalize their math reasoning
ers are able to select and effectively use an appropriate strat- and use math vocabulary (Gersten et al., 2009).
egy to reach their learning goal (Karlen, 2016). Resilient
learners are able to use strategies to recover from setbacks These evidence-based practices form the basis for the
and are able to adapt to stress or adversity. Cognitive flexi- instructional approaches used in the integrated self-regula-
bility, the ability to approach a problem in a different way, tion and math intervention.
Johnson et al. 3
Table 1. Self-Regulated Learner Framework: Components, Definitions, and Strategy Approaches.
An Integrated Intervention emotions and connections have been found to increase student
engagement and this engagement leads to a more positive
In this section, the application of the self-regulated learner learning environment (Leighton & Bustos Gómez, 2018).
framework within the math instructional environment is Teachers should focus on three main areas to help their stu-
explained. The goal is to create an intervention designed to dents feel connected: (a) trust, (b) empathy, and (c) support.
(a) reduce math anxiety and build student confidence, (b) Trust and empathy are basic attributes for establishing effec-
teach a strategy that promotes flexibility in solving prob- tive relationships and help students feel supported in a posi-
lems, and (c) support students’ ability to better appraise tive learning environment (Karreman & Vingerhoets, 2012;
stressful situations, and to adopt a “failure as enhancing Sabol & Pianta, 2012).
learning” mindset. Figure 1 includes a completed interven- Table 1 provides several approaches to helping students
tion template. Each part of the template is described below feel connected. When teachers first begin work with their
to facilitate application to students with different presenting student, they should take the time to get to know the stu-
concerns. Although the example provided in this article dent. Some students will readily share information about
highlights the application of the framework to a single stu- themselves, whereas others will be more reluctant. Student
dent, this approach can be used with small groups. interest inventories can be a great way to learn more about
your student, but a teacher should be sure to read the stu-
dent’s responses and plan ways to incorporate those
Step 1: Connection
responses into instruction and conversation. For example, if
The first part of the intervention design involves creating a a student mentions that they play the piano, a lesson on frac-
safe and positive learning environment for students. Students tions could be related to reading musical notation.
with LD and attention deficits have more distant, more con- Teachers should also discuss with their students what
flictual, and more dependent relationships with their teachers goals they have for themselves and teachers should also
(Demirkaya & Bakkaloglu, 2015). Establishing a positive rap- share the goals they have for their students. The teacher and
port and a strong connection supports student well-being student can each list their goals and then place those goals
because it can make them feel more understood and less vul- on a Venn diagram. This activity can help the student take
nerable about having a disability (Mason et al., 2013). Positive more ownership for their learning, and it also demonstrates
4 Intervention in School and Clinic 00(0)
Step 1: Connection
Positive Feedback from Teacher (example Teacher (T) Student (S) dialogue)
T: Let’s check your work together. Can you walk me through the steps you took to solve this problem?
S: This one is 142 ÷ 3. I built 142 on my HTO chart. I split the 100 flat into 10 – 10’s and divided those into 3 groups. Then I split the 10 rod
into 10 ones and divided those into three groups and then I had 52 in this group.
T: You worked really hard to solve that problem.
S: Wait – I see what happened now. I should have had two 10’s left but I moved one before I saw that there wouldn’t be a group of 3 and then
I didn’t move it back.
T: That’s great that you noticed where you made a mistake. Now you can fix it. Can you think of another way to check your work next time?
S: I can count each group to make sure they are equal.
T: That is a great idea. Nice work!
Step 2: Self-Awareness
Anxiety Rating Calming Strategies
Use anxiety 10-point scale at the start of each session, and as needed Deep breath, 10 cloud, start with known
before new material or if D has an upcoming test or assignment that
is challenging
Step 3: Self-Determination
Goal Setting Measures
1. Reduce time to get started 1. Clock – goal is < 30 seconds
2. Complete all assignments on time 2. Check student gradebook – goal is 100%
3. Use long division strategy 3. Record when strategy is used
Step 4: Strategic
Focus Connections/CRA
Long division Unifix cubes/HTO chart
Step 5: Resilient
If Then
If I make a mistake and get upset Then I can take a break and do my 10 cloud
to students that their teacher is invested in their learning to allow the student to move from a teacher-directed correc-
outcomes. tion to a student-directed correction. The sample script in
As intervention begins, teachers should explain how the Step 1 of Figure 1 provides an example of how the teacher
lessons will be structured and why. If the intervention ses- can implement positive feedback.
sion is 30 min long, a teacher can post a schedule of the Finally, the teacher should also periodically ask for stu-
planned activities, and should review these with the student. dent feedback about what is working for them. For exam-
For example, Today, we will spend about 5 min reviewing ple, a teacher might ask, What strategies are most helpful
how to divide using manipulatives. Then, we will work for for you to understand this math concept? Do you think we
15 to 20 min on dividing multidigit numbers using manipu- need to slow down so you can have more time to practice?
latives and connecting our models with written numbers. Are the problems we are doing challenging, too easy, or just
During the last 5 to 10 min you’ll get to practice on your right? This feedback can strengthen what has been termed
own, check your work, and get feedback from me. This helps the pedagogical alliance (Leighton & Bustos Gómez, 2018),
students understand what to expect and why they are engag- building trust and empathy between teacher and student as
ing in the various learning activities. the student is supported in the learning process.
Teachers should ensure that their lesson allows for many As the sample dialogue in Figure 1 shows, D’s teacher
opportunities for the student to engage and respond, and provided feedback to encourage her to start with what she
should also let students know through their feedback that knew how to do and to use known strategies and tools to
making errors is part of the learning process. Feedback solve problems. The goal was to support D’s independent
should be delivered immediately and scaffolded over time use of strategies over time, to build her confidence, and to
Johnson et al. 5
4. Write my answer: 47 R 1
Figure 3. Strategy template using Hundreds, Tens, and Ones and Concrete Representational Abstract for long division.
Over time, D’s teacher helped her use a new if-then provides the student to use the tools they have learned to
plan to focus on breaking down the steps to identify where solve problems. This process should be scaffolded by the
the error occurred, and to be able to take steps to fix it. The teacher, with the goal of supporting the student to become
if-then plan was, “If I make an error in solving a problem, independent over time.
I will use the break it down strategy to review the steps,
and my reasoning.” The break it down strategy is a graphic
organizer to lead the student through the process. This
Conclusion
strategy consists of six steps: (a) write down the problem, Students with math-related LD are more likely to experi-
(b) identify what you know, (c) identify what you need to ence math anxiety than their typically performing peers
find and what operation(s) you will use to solve, (d) solve (Devine et al., 2018). Currently, the interventions used with
the problem, and (e) check your answer. This accom- students with LD in mathematics typically target lower
plishes two things. First, creating an if-then plan signals to level skills such as fact recall or competency with proce-
the student that making errors is an expected part of learn- dures only (Marita & Hord, 2017), and most do not address
ing math. Second, the if-then cue card is always placed on self-regulation or math anxiety directly. The approach to
the student’s desk as a prompt for what to do next and intervention as described in this article presents a promising
8 Intervention in School and Clinic 00(0)
way to address the comprehensive needs of students with developmental dyscalculia and mathematics anxiety. Journal
significant LDs, anxiety, and self-regulation deficits. The of Educational Psychology, 110(3), 431–444.
success of this intervention design will depend on teachers’ Doabler, C. T., Baker, S. K., Kosty, D. B., Smolkowski, K.,
understanding of the self-regulation and math intervention Clarke, B., Miller, S. J., & Fien, H. (2015). Examining the
association between explicit mathematics instruction and
frameworks. This comprehensive model addresses the vari-
student mathematics achievement. The Elementary School
ous aspects of anxiety, self-regulation, and math strategy
Journal, 115(3), 303–333.
knowledge to help students learn to persist in math and Duncan, T. G., & McKeachie, W. J. (2005). The making of the
understand that productively struggling in math is a natural motivated strategies for learning questionnaire. Educational
part of learning (Hiebert & Grouws, 2007). Psychologist, 40(2), 117–128.
Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., Dymnicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D., &
Acknowledgments Schellinger, K. B. (2011). The impact of enhancing students’
social and emotional learning: A meta-analysis of school-
The authors acknowledge support from the M.J. Murdock
based universal interventions. Child Development, 82(1),
Charitable Trust and the Cambia Foundation. The opinions
405–432.
expressed are solely those of the authors.
García-García, J., & Dolores-Flores, C. (2018). Intra-mathematical
connections made by high school students in perform-
Declaration of Conflicting Interests ing Calculus tasks. International Journal of Mathematical
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with Education in Science and Technology, 49(2), 227–252.
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this Gersten, R., Chard, D. J., Jayanthi, M., Baker, S. K., Morphy,
article. P., & Flojo, J. (2009). Mathematics instruction for students
with learning disabilities: A meta-analysis of instructional
Funding components. Review of Educational Research, 79(3), 1202–
1242.
The authors received no financial support for the research, author- Griffin, C. C., & Jitendra, A. K. (2009). Word problem-solving
ship, and/or publication of this article. instruction in inclusive third-grade mathematics classrooms.
The Journal of Educational Research, 102(3), 187–202.
Note Hiebert, J., & Grouws, D. A. (2007). The effects of classroom
1. The vignette reported in this article is based on an authen- mathematics teaching on students’ learning. In F. K. Lester
tic situation and only the names have been changed to (Ed.), Second handbook of research on mathematics teaching
pseudonyms. and learning (Vol. 1, pp. 371–404). Information Age.
Hjermstad, M. J., Fayers, P. M., Haugen, D. F., Caraceni, A.,
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