NORGES GEOTEKNISKE INSTITUTT NORWEGIAN GEOTECHNICAL INSTITUTE PUBLIKASJON NR, 100 PUBLICATION Laurits Bjerrum Volume OSLO 1974CONTENTS Ove Eiwe: Biography of Laurits Bjerrum L. Brerom: Geotechnical problems involved in foundations of structures in the North Sea L. Boerum: Problems of soil mechanics and constructions on soft clays Liv Smo and Uns Oiseni Bibliography of papers by Laurits BjerrumProblems of Soil Mechanics and Construction on Soft Clays State-of-the-Art Report to Session IV, 8th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Moscow, 1973 SYNOPSIS ‘Three iniportant findings form the cornerstone of this report. () Samples of soft clays are frequently disturbed by swelling resulting from redistibution of water in the sampling tube. Howover, th in-situ conditions can be restored if the samplo prior to its testing is econsolidsted in the laboratory at tho same stresses it carried in the fle. @ Recent research, including an analysis of failures, has demonstrated thatthe undrained shear strength af galt clare depends ont i at which he cay js brought to failure, the eect being greater more plastic the clay @) Field and taboratory studies have shown that the Uundrained shear strength of soft clays is highly anisotropic a it varies with tho direction of shear ig and is different ifthe shear streses are applied in the same or the opposite direction of those existing in the field. The anisotropy is greater the less plastic the clay. In the report these findings fre investigated in the light’ of the fundamental properties of clays and their implication on prte- {ical design procedures is evaluated, INTRODUCTION According to the instructions issued by the Organizing Committee of the Eighth International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, the general ‘eports have as their main aim to present a world-wide teview of the main achievements in thei field within the last four or five years. In addition, the General Reports ould inelude recommendations for the practical applic- Mion of the most recent research results and, finally, it ‘hould outline the up-to-date procedures for design and. ‘onstruction of foundations. Said in other words: Write ‘up-to-date text book covering the field of your session, but do it on 50 pagest In spite of the fact that the reporter neglected the con- Suction problems, the report became much too long. To Ast those readers who are short in time or those par- By Laurits Bjerrum RESUME, (Cet exposé se base sur trois découvertes importante. (1) Les échantitlons des argiles molles sont fréquem- ‘ment remaniés par gonflage cause par la redisri- ‘bution do eau dans le tibe carottier & parois ‘ince, IT est cependant possible de sétabir Tes Conditions in situ avant do faire un essal ea ap- pliguant a Téchantillon les conteaintes effetives Gull supporait sur le terrain. @) Des recherches sécentes, qui ont compris une ana- lyse de ruptures, ont demontré que Ta résistance a cisuillement des agiles molles non drainées ext une fonction de la vitesse & laquelle Ia. rupturo: est ‘obtenue, Plus Vargile est plastique plus cet effet cst grand, ©) Des études respectivement sur Je terrain et en laboratoire ont demontré que Ja résistance su csaillement des argles molles non draintes est tres ‘nisotrope. Ainsi, variant selon les directions des contrainte de cisalloment, a résistance qui appa- ‘alt quand oes directions colncident avec les diceo- tions régnant in situ, nest pas la méme que celle ‘manifestant quand ces directions sont de sens contraire, La nature anisotrope sera Gautant plus prononcée que la plastcité de Targile est plus rédulte. Dans cette exposs, cas découvertes sont studiée & Ta lumiére des proprstés fondamentales des argiles. Vimportance’ do ces découvertes pour les procédés opératoires des études de projet est Gvaluto, ticipants in the conference who before the session wish to get a brief impression of the main points raised, a summary with the conclusions was prepared which is so complete that it can be read independent of the main report. Of the papers presented to the conference 13 were chosen to belong to the field covered in the present report, In addition, the Organizing Committee asked all national societies to compile and mail to the reporters papers, abstracts, and reviews of activities within the field of the Session. Material of this type was received from a few countries only. As the reporter for years has been heavily involved in the problem of foundations on soft clays, he has drawn to ‘a considerable extent on the research going on at theinstitution at which he is employed. In addition, he has used the research results made available by universities and institutions with which ke cooperates or communic- ates and, finally, he has consulted the recent publications ealing with the subject under consideration. CLASSIFICATION AND IDENTIFICATION Principle of classification ‘During the carly stage of the development of soil mecha- nies all soft clays of the type dealt with in this report vere classified in one group, generally with the heading “Normally consolidated clays", to distinguish them from the “Overconsolidated clays”. In the pest 20 years the profession has to an increasing degree beon aware of the existence of a variety of types of soft clays, and considerable efforts have been made in. ‘order to work out methods for their classification. Itis today generally accepted that an identification and classification of a soft clay should be based on the follow- ing type of information: ()_ The geological history of the deposit. @ The water content and the Atterberg limits. (Atten- tion is drawn to the fact that serious fallacies may result if the Atterberg limits are carried out on sam- ples which are dried out before testing as done rou- tinewise in many laboratories). The content of orga- nic matter, eventually derived from a plot of the Atterberg limits on a plasticity chart. @) A description based on a visual study of the fabric of the clay in a wet and partly dried out condition. (@) The results of one or several in-situ vane tests carried cout in such numbers that the variation in strength with depth can be evaluated. The sensitivity. (5) The result of consolidation tests for evaluating the shape of the elog p curve and the existence of a p-value, indicating a treshold value in the com- pressbility of the clay. ‘The above information should, in fact, be sufficient, not only for a description and classification of soft clay, but also for solving normal routine-type foundation ‘problems in areas where the result of practical experience can be attached to the groups into which the clays are classified, Below a detailed description will be given of the most common types of soft clays, the clays being classified into a few main groups according to their engineering properties. Limiting the discussion to “homogeneous”, flocculated clays, it is proposed to base a classification of the soft clays on their engineering geological history, ‘emphasizing the change in properties which have occurred since their deposition. Normally consolidated young clays ‘A dlay which recently has been deposited and come to equilibrium under its own weight but has not undergone significant secondary or delayed consolidation may be [YOUNG NORMALLY CONSOLr. DATED CLAY ‘AGED NORMALLY YoIO RATIO € Fstened eaang VERTICAL PRESSURE IN LOGARITHMIC SCALE Fig. 1. Geological history and compressibility of a “young” and an “aged” normally consolidated clay. classified as « “young” normally consolidated clay. Such 4 clay is characterized by the fact that itis just capable of carrying the overburden weight of soil, and any add- itional Toad will result in relatively large settlements If an undisturbed sample of a “young” clay is tested ina contolidometer, the resulting e-log p curve will show 8 bend at the effective overburden pressure, p,, which the sample carried in the field. A consolidation curve of ths type is shown in Fig. 1 marked “young”, being characte ined by the fact that p,=p,. To this group of clays belong thus only clays which are recent from a geological point of view. A clay which has just consolidated unde an additional load as, for instance, a fill, will also be classified with respect to its compressibility as a “young” clay deposit. A vane test carried out in a young normally contolidated clay will show a shear strength which in creases linearly with the effective overburden pressure. ‘The value (6,/p,) vane is a characteristic parameter of the clay depending on its plasticity. If syip, observed in vane tests is plotted against the plasticity index of the clay, the point wil fall close to the curve marked “youn” in Fig. 2, corresponding to a value of pp, of about 10. Normally consolidated aged clays If a “young” clay is left under constant effective stres for hundreds or thousands of years, it will continue to settle. The result of this secondary or delayed consolit ation is a more stable configuration of the structural arrangement of the particles which means greater strength and reduced compressibility. With time a clay undergoiné 1 delayed consolidation will thus develop a reserve ress ance against a further compression. It can carry a foxd in addition to the effective overburden pressure withott significant volume change, If an undisturbed sample of -2-08 Aged 0.6 os lL] Pe O46 4 Young fa 02 o 2 « 80 100 20 en 15 1.0 0 80 = 100 Fig.2, Typical values of (S/Ps)rase and pulpy observed in normally consolidated lata glacial and post glacial clays. such an “aged” normally consolidated clay is subjected to a consolidation test, the resulting e-log p eurve will look like the carve marked “ayed” on Fig. 1. The curve shows an abrupt increase in compresbility at a pressure , which i greater than p,, A. peetfect developed as a result of a delayed con- soldation is ebaracterized by the fact that the developed value of p, increases proportionally with p, the effective overburden pressure the clay carted in the period it setled secondarily. In a homogeneous clay deposit the ratio pdp, is consequently constant with depth and this ratio can conveniently be used to describe the effect. The Ppgratio of clay depots of the same age will increase vith the amount of secondary consolidation which the slay has undergone under the existing overburden pres- sure, Because the secondary consolidation inreases with the plasticity ofthe clay, the pJp, wil increase with the Pasty index. Fig. 2 shows the correlation between Dib,-ratio and the plasticity index observed in normally Consolidated clays, which have all aged over a period of ‘ome thousands of yeas. ‘A vane test carried out in an aged normally consol ated clay will sso show a linear increase in strength with tttestve overburden pressure, The value of sp, is, how ever, greater than the vane valves observed in young says. In Fig, 2 are shown the correlation between the plasticity andthe value of sp found in clays which have carried their load over a peiod of some thousands of years. From the dagram the pJpy and the &p,-vaues can directly be compared with the values representative for young clays. Overconsolidated clays Some clay deposits may ~ for instance as a result of sur- face erosion ~ at some stage of their life have been sub- jected to a load greater than the present effective over~ ‘burden, and they are then classified as overconsolidated clays. Fig. 3 shows how a clay of this type will behave when subjected to additional loading. The clay was originally consolidated and aged under an effective over- burden pressure, py. Due to erosion the effective over- ‘burden pressure was reduced to the present overburden pressure, p,- The clay is thus an overconsolidated clay with an overconsolidation ratio plp,. When a clay of this type is subjected to additional loading, it will, as ated in Fig, 3, show a bend at a pressure p, which is eater than the maximum past pressure. The p,effect observed in this group of clays is the result of two dif- ferent contributions: (1) The overconsolidation effect ‘which is constant with depth and is independent of the properties of the clay, the consequence of which is that the clay can carry an additional load equal to p,-P, ‘without any significant volume change. @) The.effect of secondary consolidation which the clay underwent in the period it carried the load p,, which increased with depth in the same way as the load p,. The relative importance of the two contributions to the p,-value depends on the 10000 years of delayed consolidation — Voto RATIO Unloading by erosion from 9, 10D, VERTICAL PRESSURE IN LOGARITHMIC SCALE Fig. 3. Geological history and compressibility of an overcon- tolidated day, esemagnitude of the maximum past pressure and the plas city of the clay, ‘An identical effect as obtained by overconsolidation will result if the deposit is subjected to cyctic variations in load of the type which, for instance, may accompany fluctuations in groundwater level (see for instance Party, 1968 and 1972). Overconsolidation may also result from the capillary pressure when a clay is subjected to evapor- ation. During the unloading the clay will tend to swell and its water content will increase. This inerease will be more pronounced closer to the surface than at greater depths. ‘The undrained shear strength observed for instance by vvane tests will show a corresponding reduction. At some depth below the surface the strength will increase linearly with the effective overburden pressure existing before the unloading. Closer to the surface, the shear strength is reduced compared with the original value and the redue- tion will increase towards the surface. Weathered clays in upper crust ‘Where a clay deposit is exposed the upper layer of clay hhas by drying, freezing, leaching, and oxidation been ‘changed to a crust of weathered clay. As the weathering proceeds from the surface downwards, there is a gradual transition from the weathered crust to the unweathered clay beneath. The thickness of the weathered crust varies with the permeability of the clay and the climatic con- ditions. Tn the temperate climate of Scandinavia, the thickness of the crust varies from 1-3 m in the low- laying, poorly drained plastic clays in Sweden to 6-8 m or more in the low-plastic well-drained masine clays in Norway. A similar range of variation is found in the relatively well-drained marine clays around St. Lawrence River in Canada, In the upper crust it is possible to distinguish between, three different zones. ‘Down to a depth to which the frost normally penetrates in the winter period, the soft clay has been transformed to very stiff, frost-shattered and dried-out clay. This zone is characterized by numerous fissures and open cracks, and the clay has a brownish colour, Its water content is as low as the plastic limit, Below this frost-affected zone a zone of driedout clay, is found. This clay is also stiff, and its water content slightly higher than the plastic limit. The frequency of fissures decreases with depth. Below the dried-out clay a layer of weathered clay is found. As a result of the fact that surface waterrich in oxygen will penetrate through the fissures of the upper part of the crust and reach the clay beneath, t will be subjected to an oxidizing weathering which will proceed slowly downwards in the sediment. This weather- ing will cause a leaching of the clay, and due to the con- sequent lowering of the pH of the water, it will lend to 1 disintegration of the mineral particles. The result is a release of aluminium and iron which at the existing pH. ‘will precipitate as hydroxides acting as a weak cement or bbe adsorbed at the surface of the clay minerals. The net effect is an increase in plasticity, a gain in strength, and {reduction in compressibility. A weathered clay of this type will not show a pronounced p-value. The e-log p ‘curve is more likely to show a gentle curvature represent. ing a reduced compressibility compared with that of the ‘unweathered clay. Quick clay deposits If a marine clay is subjected to a slow flow of freih ‘ground-water so that the salt originally confined in the pore water of the clay is removed by leaching, it willbe changed to @ quick clay, The effect of the leaching is @ reduction in plasticity of the clay and a dramatic increase in sensitivity. Recent research has shown that during the last phase of the leaching, a consolidation of the efay will occur, leading to a small reduction in water content, ‘A main effect of the leaching is thus a reconstitution of the clay resulting in the formation of a new structural arrangement. The result is that the properties of the deposit change. From being an “aged” clay, it changes to a fresh sediment built up of clay particles of a reduced activity. The vane shear strength is reduced and the p,. value of the “aged” clay disappears. In addition, K, will decrease to a value close to 0.5, being typical for a young clay. A clay deposit with these properties is classified as ‘ normally consolidated young quick clay, Alter the leaching is completed the clay will continue to consolidate and with time it will again develop a pyValue and K, and the vane shear strength will increase. A clay of this type, which has completed the major part of its delayed consolidation, is classified as a normally consolidated aged quick clay. With time a quick clay will, in addition, undergo a chemical transformation again teading to change properties. This change is due to the fact that the chem cal equilibrium between the clay minerals and the sur- rounding pore water is disturbed by the leaching. With fresh water in the voids, the clay minerals become partly unstable and they start to disintegrate, producing new" cations which by adsorbtion on the surface of the clay ‘minerals will increase the plasticity of the elay. The result is an increase in shear strength, a reduction in sensitivity, and a reduction in compressibility. A clay of this type ‘may be classified as a weathered leached clay. Cemented clays In a number of recent publications, reference is made to the development and significance of cementation bonds in clays. First and foremost, the interest has been con centrated on the sensitive Leda-type clays occurring ia the St. Lawrence and the Ottawa river valleys, see for instance Crawford (1963), Kenney (1966), Conlon (1966) Kenney, Moum and Berre (1967), Townsend, Sangtey and Walker (1969), Mitchell (1970), Loiselle, Massier® and Ssinani (1971), and Sangrey (1972).Jn this report, a cemented clay is understood as a clay having particles which are held together with strong bonds of a different nature than the bonds due to effective friction and effective cohesion (see below) dominating in non-eemented clays, The bonds are thus envisioned as being formed of a brittle cementing material with a con- siderable shear and tensile strength. According to this efinition, it is a characteristic feature of a cemented clay ‘that it shows some properties which cannot be explained completely in terms of its mineralogical composition, its plasticity and its geological stress-time history. A review of the published information about the East ‘Canadian cemented clays has shown that they are charac- terized by the following properties: When subjected to a shear or consolidation test, the clay shows a brittle behaviour characterized by the fact that at a very small strain a critical stress level is reached, beyond which the magnitude and rate of deformations are large. Their sensitivity is very high. Their vane shear strength in- creases in general linearly with depth and the ratio be- tween the vane strength and the effective overburden pressure varies ~ generally speaking ~ in accordance with the plasticity of the clay (Crawford, 1965; Crawford and Eden, 1965; Bozozuk and Leonards, 1972; Raymond, 1972) In areas where erosion has occurred, the strength and the preconsolidation pressure can be related to the ‘maximum overburden pressure the clay has carried in the pst. The shear strength and the compressibility charac teristics are dependent on the rate st which they are tested. As will be demonstrated below, most of the above characteristics are equally valid for the non-cemented clays encountered in Scandinavia and elsewhere in the World, However, when comparing the properties one by one, it is discovered that there are two significant dif- ferences between the two types of clays: In the first place, the cohesive bonds in the Canadian clays are more resistant against a disturbance than those in a non- cemented clay with the same plasticity, In the second place, the overconsolidated Canadian clays have during the unloading retained the strength and the preconsotid- ation pressure gained under the maximum load to a degree which is unknown in a comparable non-cemented ‘lay. The ability to preserve during an unloading a very high strength and a correspondingly high preconsolid- Aton pressure is especially remarkable in some low-plastic stays, as for instance, the Toulnustouc clay (Conlon, 1966), the Labrador clay (Kenney, Moum and Berre, 1967), and the Saint-Jean Vianney clay (Tavenas, Chag- non and LaRochelle, 1971). The plasticity of these clays 's s0 low (5-10.%) that the effective cohesion is insig- aificant. In spite of this the properties of the clay re- mained unchanged during unloading. The cohesive bonds in these clays must therefore be of a different nature than, that existing between clay particles in uncemented clays, ‘The above review has thus demonstrated that except {or the swelling the properties of the cemented clays in Fasten Canada are entirely governed by their compo- ‘ition and their stress history. The cementation bonds only manifest themselves by their ability to preserve the properties of the clays during a change in stresses, and their main effect is obviously to prevent the clay from swelling. ‘The most likely explanation which can account for the peculiar property of the Canadian clays, and especially that the strength of their cementing bonds is governed by their past stress history, is that the cementing agent exists as a uniform smear covering the surface of the ‘mineral particles. Only if this is the case, the number of contact points, their area and thus their integrated strength can be governed by the load transferred through the clay. If this explanation is correct, the cementing bonds will in principle contribute to the strength of the clay in a similar manner as the effective friction and the effective cohesion, their strength being governed by the transferred load. The difference of. the three types of ‘bonds will first appear when the clay is unloaded, The effective friction disappears immediately and completely by an unloading. The cohesive bonds will, at least partly, remain intact and try to prevent the clay from swelling. As the strength of the cohesive bonds, however, is of a viscous nature with time they will break, the clay will swell and its strength decrease. The cementing bonds which were established when the clay was under the maximum load and probably by recrystallization have gained in strength since then, are, in contrary, of a permanent nature. They will remain intact during unloading and due to their tensile strength, they will prevent any swelling of the clay. The result is that the effective stresses, the elastic strain energy, and the strength of the clay is maintained during an unload- ing, being locked into the clay by the welds of the con- tact points (Conlon, 1966). The cementing bonds will obviously make the structure of the clay resistant against distortion and they will first break when the clay is strained beyond a certain eritical value In order to verify the assumption, on which the above explanation was based, a chemical examination has been made on a sample of the strongly cemented low-plastic clay from the landslide at Saint-Jean Vianney in Quebec (Tavenas et al, 1971). This investigation showed that the ‘most important cementing agent of this clay was calsium carbonate. The clay showed a content of carbonates as high as 6% of the dry weight, and the calcium proved ‘to appear, uniformly distributed, being deposited through- ‘out the sample as a fine layer on all particles. No micro- fossils were found in the sample investigated, and there ‘were no coneretions of calcium carbonates. The uniform distribution of the calcium carbonate on the surface of the particles was further proved by an X-ray fluor scene picture taken in a scanning electron microscope, ‘There are thus good reasons to assume that the particles of the clay are covered by a “smear” of precipitated cal- cium carbonate. The source of the calcium carbonate is most likely the microfossils originally deposited in the clay. Due to a change in chemical environment, they were dissolved and reprecipitated as positively charged small crystallites of calcium carbonates.It should be mentioned that the above conclusions are in agreement with the result of similar studies performed by Bjerrum and Wu (1960), Kenney et al. (1967), and Loiselle et al. (1971). Other types of soils Due to lack of space and time, it proved necessary to limit the discussion to the above types of clays. The report ‘will thus not cover the special properties of, for instance, the varved clays or clays with a high content of organic matter. SAMPLING AND SAMPLE DISTURBANCE Review of recent progress It was as carly as in 1923 that John Olsson succeded in constructing a piston sampler by which samples of soft marine clays could be taken with a minimum of disturb- ance. Olsson’s first sampler was followed by a number ‘of improved successors, and in 1949 Hivorslev in his ‘monumental thesis about sampling could write a set of specifications for fixed-piston samplers with thin-walled tubes, designed to take undisturbed samples in soft clays. Hyorslev's work has ever since formed the basis for design of samplers all over the world, and his systematic analysis of the sampling process has led to a critical ‘examination of other factors influencing the quality of clay samples, such as transport, storage conditions, extrusion, trimming, and mounting in the laboratory apparatuses, see for example Kallstenius (1963), Landva (1964), and Berre (1968). ‘Whereas the thin-walled fixed-piston sampler has been found superior for sampling of the relatively soft Sean- dinavian marine clays, in the slightly overconsolidated, sensitive clays in Canada block samples have been. pre- ferred, see for instance Adams and Radhakrishna (1971), Eden (1971); LaRochelle and Lefebvre (1971), Milovie (1971), Raymond, Townsend and Lojkasek (1971), and Bozozuk (1971). Itis beyond the scope of this report to review in detail all the problems involved in the design of samplers for soft clays. Very fortunately, in recent years an increasing interest has been paid to these questions, and an inter- national group on soil sampling is arranging regular inter- national meetings. A reference should be given to the Proceedings of the following meetings: International Group of Soil Sampling (1969 and 1971) and to ASTM ‘Symposium on Sampling of Soil and Rock, held in Canada in 1970. There are, however, two reasons for including in this report a chapter on sampling and sample disturbance. In the first place, research carried out in the past ten years has demonstrated that several types of soft and sensitive clays at a very small strain show a critical shear stress which in many cases governs their behaviour in practice (Bjerrum and Wu, 1960; Crawford, 1963; Kei- rnonen, 1963; Brown, 1969; Berre, 1969; Berre and Bier rum, 1973). This “smallstrain behaviout” is destroyed if the clay during the sampling operation is subjected tg even relatively small strains. In the second place, a type ‘of sample disturbance has recently been identified ang described, which proves to be especially detrimental to soft clays with a brittle structure, ‘Mechanical disturbance of samples ‘The mechanical disturbance of a clay is the most obvious souree of destruction of the original structure of the clay, being the result of overstressing or overstraining the soil during the penetration of the sampler, the cutting of the sample, the withdrawal of the sampler, or during the subsequent handling of the sampling tube. For example, the clay near the ends of the sampling tube is more of less remoulded due to shear distortion during the pene tration and withdrawal of the sampler, Due to friction between the clay and the sampling tube, the outer zone of the sample also becomes remoulded. The volume of these zones of badly disturbed clay and the degree to which the original structure of the clay in these zones is destroyed is, however, not the same in all types of elay, ‘The greatest amount of disturbance is, for instance, experienced in clays of low plasticity and low sensitivity, Clays with pronounced cohesive properties or clays with diagenetic bonds will undergo less disturbance, The same is the case with highly sensitive or quick clays, the remoulded strength being so low that the frition between clay and sampling tube is practically eliminated, ‘The mechanical disturbance of a clay leads to a break- down of the clay structure, The compressibility increases and reconsolidation to the original field stresses leads to large volume changes and deformations. Negative pore pressure in clay samples If p, is the effective vertical stress at a given depth and K,p, is the effective horizontal stress where K, is the coefficient of earth pressure at rest, the negative pore pressure set up in a perfectly undisturbed sample of a saturated clay taken from the considered depth should be (K, Py. When comparing the value of slp, a8 observed in vane tests with the value of x(pJp,) as decived from laboratory shear tests, it should be remembered thatthe value of x is very much dependent on the rate at which it is measured and the values observed in vane tests are therefore considerably larger than those derived from laboratory tests performed at a uch lower rate of strain In normally consolidated clays of low plasticity show- ing a low value of x, the values of 5,1, predicted from the above expression will be low. For a low plastic lay with @, = 30°, K, = 04 and Dy = 035, the equation will predict an ylp,value of about 0.10. These values are in fair agreement with the observations made for instance in sity clays and the Norwegian quick clays of very low plasticity (Bjerrum, 1961). From the above expression it is furthermore predicted that the ratio of the shear strength in the vertical and horizontal directions, as can be determined using vanes of different shapes (Aas, 1965), will be close to one ia plastic lays, the shear strength of which is primarily due to cohesion. In clays of low plasticity with a low value of 1 the ratio will approach the value of K,. This pre- diction is in fair agreement with the actually measured values, see for instance Fig. 14 ‘When applying the results of vane tests to a practical problem, it is necessary to corzect the directly observed values of the shear strength so that they with respect £0 time effects and anisotropy become representative for the actual stability problem. According to such a procedure the shear strength to be introduced in a stability analysis should be derived from the vane strength by use of the following expression Ca Granta in which ty “a factor correcting for the time effect, tq ™a factor correcting for the anisotropy of the clay and it varies depending on the inclination of the slip surface.‘The value of tg will have to be selected according to tne type of stability problem and first and foremost, the (Beg of time over which stability is required will govern choise. The value of ji, will be lower the more plastic ihe cy. For temporary problems or for stability pro- lens where the safety factor will reach a minimum fae a few weeks or some months after the construction Fecod the Values of jy shown in Fig. 9 may be used “The value of yi, will vary from point to point along curved sliding surface depending on its inclination, The Salue will be larger the less plastic the clay. In Fig. 16 Tre shown thee series of curves showing the theoretical alues of jy for three normally consolidated clays repre- Tenting a Tow plastic, a medium plastic, and 2 highly laste clay. For solution of practical problems, where the anisotropy isa factor of major importance, the range of variation of jy can be determined from triaxial com- pression and extension tests on undisturbed samples con- folidated in the triaxial cell at the same pressures they tarred in the field. A comparison between the vane shear strength and the shear strength determined by these types of tests is shown in Table TL. Undrained shear strength, laboratory tests Since the first undisturbed samples were taken, the un- rained shear strength has been determined routinely in the laboratory by such tests as unconfined compression tests, fall-cone tests, for vane or laboratory vane tests. ‘Undrained triaxial tests have also been used, but provided the clay is not fissured and that itis saturated, these tests have proved to give the same results as the unconfined compression test, Provided the samples are relatively un- disturbed, the results of tests of this type lead to shear strength values which are comparable to the values deter- ined by vane tests, However, due to sample disturbance and disturbance caused by the handling and trimming ‘of the specimen, the laboratory tests will in general show considerably greater scattering than the vane tests. The tundrained shear strength determined from unconfined compression tests can thus be used empirically in the same ‘way as the vane strength, both requiring a correction for anisotropy and time effect before being applied to a practical problem. ‘A correct determination of the undrained shear strength of a soft clay can only be obtained from undisturbed samples in the laboratory, provided they are consolidated anisotropically at the same stresses they carried in the field, Based on this finding, a standard laboratory proce- dure for measuring the undrained shear strength on undisturbed samples has already been developed. It includes a compression and an extension test carried out in a triaxial cell or in plane-strain device, and possibly ‘also a direct simple shear test representing the shear 25 T Low pLastic cLaY 20 15 MEDIUM PLASTIC CLAY sia) 3ylvane) 1.0 HIGHLY PLASTIC CLAY os fe | ay Mt, ote ye tee j SS 0.0 =e SOp ec piu code ent c0geen 0s fy 0 [— PASSIVE "ACTIVE >} Re hh Low ptastic to | os0 | oo3} s0°| 1.2 | 030 weoium puastic| 50 | ass | ors] ast] 16 | 0.48 niouiy ptastic | 100 | 080 | o30| 10° | 20 | o.60 Fig 16, Ratio of undrained shear strength to vane “a shear strength predicted for three types of clay.strength in the three different directions in Fig. 12. This procedure has already been successfully applied for solu- tion of practical problems (Ladd, 1968 and 1969). It is the opinion of the reporter that in future this procedure will find an increasing application in practice, ‘However, as it is complicated and expensive to carry out complete series of tests of this type with samples repre- senting all clay layers and all depths, it will, in general, bbe advantageous to carry out a complete series of aniso- tropy tests on a few representative samples, and to corre- late the results of these tests with the results of vane tests which can be carried out in Jarge numbers at relatively ow costs. Drained shear strength ‘The drained shear strength of soft clays is in general measured in the laboratory by a series of three or more drained triaxial tests carried out at different confining pressures. c/, and ’, are determined as the parameters in the equation ate tangs which most closely describes the peak shear strengths of the tests carried out. ‘The triaxial tests are usually carried out as compression tests. The strength is then in general first mobilized at a relatively large strain and after the clay has undergone ‘considerable consolidation. A. similar expression with dif- ferent values of c/, and g', can be determined for the case of a decrease in pressures, ‘Samples of normally consolidated clays will usually show a very low value of o, 80 that seo tangy approxi- mately a straight line passing through origin, This does ‘not imply that a normally consolidated clay is frictional ‘material and that the cohesive contribution is negligible, In terms of Hvorsley’s parameter, the drained shear strength is seo! tan g,tup, Py is the equivalent consolidation pressure and in ained tests cartied out at an increasing stress level exceeding the original p-value of the undisturbed clay, is of the same order of magnitude as the major prin- cipal stress at failure (Rutledge, 1947), For samples con- solidated at different pressures p, will therefore increase linearly with of, so that the above expression defines a straight lin through the origin, ie. the effective friction and the effective cohesion increases both linearly with the stress level, ‘Wen applying the results of a series of drained tests to-a practical problem, itis necessary to appreciate that part of the drained strength is of a cohesive nature and therefore depends on the rate at which the samples were sheared, In plastic clays the direct use of the results of drained tests without correction for the time effect could lead to dangerous designs. As an example it can be men. tioned that Lo (1962) carried out a series of drained tc. anial tests on undisturbed samples of the highly plastic Mexico City clay (w = 330 %, w,, = 426 %, wp = 140 96, p= 286 %), performed at such a rate that failure was reached after a few days. He found that cy was very small but gf, was 47°, ie. comparable to the values obtained for a loosely deposited rock fill. Obviously, the shear strength of a clay of this plasticity is almost exelu sively of a cohesive nature and when applied to a prae. tical problem it has to be reduced, taking into account the time factor in an appropriate way. ‘The experimental determination of the time effect in drained tests has proved to be connected with consider. able problems. If parallel tests are carried out at different rates of loading (Bjerrum, Simons and Torblaa, 1958), the expected decrease in the x value with time will partly or completely be offset by an increase in the p-value due to a decrease in water content resulting from delayed consolidation occutring during the tests, The relative rate ‘at which these two processes are occurring in a triaxial specimen is not necessarily identical to what can be expected in a large mass of clay in nature, and the net effect observed in the tests is therefore not always repre. sentative for the field conditions. Attention is also drawn to the fact that the two components are acting in a dif ferent way in the case of a loading and an unloading In the case where a clay is brought to a drained failure under conditions of an increasing stress level, the increase jn cohesion due to delayed consolidation will tend to compensate for the reduction in strength with time. In the case of unloading, as in cuttings and natural slopes, there will be the tendency for delayed swelling and an increase in water content leading to a reduction in cohe- sion in addition to the rate effect. In the case of unload ing, the effect of time on the drained shear strength will be of the same order of magnitude as that observed in ‘undrained tess, or slightly greater, Sensitivity The sensitivity of a clay is a parameter of considerable importance for its classification and for evaluating its behaviour in the field, It is defined as the ratio of the shear strength in an undisturbed and a completely re- moulded condition. Due to the fact that a soft clay, when remoulded, has a shear strength so low that it cannot reliably be measured by compression tests, the most suit> able determination of the sensitivity is catried out either by laboratory vane tests or fall-cone tests. The sensitivity ‘determined in the field by in-situ vane tests is in general somewhat lower than the values observed in the labors tory, the difference being the result of friction in the vane ‘equipment influencing the measurement of the strength after remoulding, -2-Compressibiity A prediction of settlements in soft clay and their rate is ‘usually based on the assumption that three principally | | mm | a6 [oscam| o | tata 14] Eebtrieetcature | 2 | = mar | 6 | 09) | 0 | sm eoronarm 2 Authors caeuaon of Sacred fur based op combination of vane and laboratory tess 13} Recalculation of observed failure based on vane tests. {2 Crack through fill materi 15 Full shear stfength mobilized infil material NOTE: All slip surfaces are assumed to be circular arcs. strength should be multiplied before it is introduced in ‘an analysis of the stability of an embankment. Such 2 procedure is outlined in Fig. 21, the values of the correc tion factor, y, being shown graphically as 2 function of the plasticity index of the clay. ‘To a design procedure belongs also recommendations, of which safety factors should be applied. Taking into consideration that the correction of the vane strength as proposed in Fig. 21 removes an essential part of the uncertainties involved in the method applied hitherto and bearing in mind that the safety factor will reach a mini- mum Value at the end of construction and that it will increase from then on, it is considered justified for em- bankments to use a safety factor of 1.3. Exceptions are ‘cases where a failure is associated with special risks or ‘the permeability of the foundation clay is so low that exceptionally Jong time is required for an increase in safety factor due to consolidation of the clay. It is customary practice in analyzing the stability of an ‘embankment on a clay foundation to include in the resist- ing forces the full shear strength along that part of the slip surface which passes through the fill of the embank- ment. This practice is justified only in cases where there is no danger of formation of vertical longitudinal cracks in the central part of the embankments, of such an extent that a slip surface could conveniently follow them with cout meeting any resistance. The formation of a crack is, however, also associated with a reduction in horizontal ‘earth pressure acting on the sliding body which has an effect in the opposite direction. The net effect of the formation of a crack will therefore vary from case t0 cease and will have to be considered individually, depend= 26 -FACTOR OF sarery oe wo m0 Plasticity ioex Fig.20. Theoretical factor of safety at failure of embank- ‘ments on soft cay plotted against the plasticity index of the clay (Bjerrum, 1972), ing on the height of the fill and ite cohesive properties. Unfortunately, no procedures are today available which permit an evaluation of the straining of the surface of the clay below an embankment, nor do we have much know- ledge of the strain required for the formation of a erack in a fill of a given height. There is an urgent need for further studies of these questions. ‘The discrepancy between vane shear strength and the values computed from embankment failures is primarily the result of the fact, discussed above, that the undrained ol nata™ Ueno” a2 10 = ; | 08 | os}-—t Ss as a rs Plasicty index in % Fig.21. Principle of analysis of the stability of embankments and bearing capicity of footings on soft clay based ‘on corrected vane shear strength. shear strength which can be mobilized in'a soft clay is a function of time. The more rapidly the load is applied, the greater isthe shear strength measured, and this effect is greater the more plastic the clay. It is therefore not surprising that a vane test in which the clay is brought to failure within a few minutes leads to values of un- rained shear strength which, especialy in’elays of high plasticity, can be considerably greater than the strength mobilized in the field over a much longer period of time, ‘The correction factir shown in Fig, 21-thus represents the values required to bring the undrained shear strength determined by a test with a duration of a few minutes into agreement with the field shear strength mobilized ‘when the load is applied over a period of a few weeks or several months. The validity is therefore also limited to conditions where the safety factor after this length of time starts to increase again due to gain in strength by ‘consolidation. ‘The semi-empirical procedure based on the correction factors shown in Fig. 21 may at the present stage of development be the best possible solution for computing the stability of embankments on soft clays for practical purposes. However, the method has its limitations, and it is therefore desirable to replace it with a generally valid procedure in which the two main factors which influence the shear strength ~ the effect of time and the effect of anisotropy ~ can be considered separately. According to such a procedure, the shear strength to be introduced in the stability calculation should be derived from the vane strength by use of the following expression presented above: toa rant in which 1p is a factor correcting for the effect of time and jig is a factor correcting for the anisotropy which varies along the sliding surface, depending on its incline ation. The variation of 14 with the inclination of the slip plane can be reliably determined from a series of un- drained tests on undisturbed samples in the laboratory, provided they are consolidated anisotropically at the same stresses as they carried in the field, The series should preferably include compression and extension tests carried ‘out in the triaxial apparatus or in a plane-strain device, and direct simple shear tests representing the shear strength in the three different directions shown in Fig. 12. Work is at present being done in order to test the reli- ability of such a procedure (Ladd, 1969 and 1972; Bjer- rum, 1972) ‘The experience gained from available studies of the anisotropy indicates, as mentioned above, that in clays of medium and high plasticity the vane shear strength is very nearly equal to the average shear strength along a circular slip surface beneath an embankment of the ‘type shown in Fig. 12. In clays of low plasticity, however, the vane strength is lower than the average value. This finding explains why the theoretical safety factors cal- culated at failure of embankments built on soft clay of low plasticity is lower than 1.0, as observed from Fig. 20. ‘The stability of embankments built on soft clays of -2-