Journal of Neuroscience Research 13:405-416 (1985)

Taurine Deficiency in the Developing Cat:

Persistence of the Cerebellar External
Granule Cell Layer
J.A. Sturman, R.C. Moretz, J.H. French, and H.M. Wisniewski
Departments of Pathological Biochemistry and Pathological Neurobiology, Office of
Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities of the State of New York,
Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island
Dietary taurine deprivation adversely affects feline pregnancy and is associated
with the frequent occurrence of fetal resorption, abortion, stillbirth, and low
birthweight of live kittens at term. Taurine-deprived, Iive-born kittens have a poor
postnatal survival rate and grow less well than kittens from taurine-supplemented
queens. The postnatal dietary taurine intake of such kittens is reduced if they are
nursed by their biologic mothers; the concentration of taurine in milk of taurine-
deprived mothers is less than 10% of that in milk from taurine-supplemented
queens. Surviving kittens from taurine-deprived mothers exhibit a constellation of
neurological abnormalities (abnormal hind leg development, a peculiar gait char-
acterized by excessive abduction and paresis, and thoracic kyphosis readily visible
by X-ray). These findings suggest the presence of a developmental cerebellar
deficit. Histological examination of the pre- and postnatally taurine-deprived
kitten’s cerebellum reveals a persistence of the external granule cell layer, which
was confirmed by electron-microscopic examination. Numerous mitotic figures
are present in the cells in the external granule cell layer of the cerebellum of
kittens born from and nursed by taurine-deprived queens, but not in those from
taurine-supplemented mothers. These findings suggest a maturational delay.

Key words: taurine, taurine deficiency, cerebellum development

INTRODUCTION
The developing mammalian brain taurine concentration is greater than that of
any other free amino acid. Taurine is transported axonally in optic nerve, to a much
greater extent in developing nerves than in mature nerves [Politis and Ingoglia, 1979;
Sturman, 19791. These facts support the hypothesis that taurine may play an important
role in brain development [Sturman and Gaull, 1975; Sturman and Hayes, 1980;
Sturman, 19831. Taurine has been proposed as an inhibitory neurotransmitter [Mandel

Address reprint requests to Dr. J.A. Sturrnan, Institute for Basic Research, 1050 Forest Hill Road,
Staten Island, NY 10314.
Received May 2 I , 1984; accepted July 7, 1984.

0 1985 Alan R. Liss, Inc.

406 Sturman et a1

and Pasantes-Morales, 1978; Oja and Kontro, 19781. No other biological role of brain
taurine is known. Taurine is conjugated with bile acids in the liver and it can be
chlorinated by neutrophils, when it removes the hypochlorous acid generated by the
inyeloperoxidase system [Zgliczynski et al, 1971; Weiss et al, 19821. It has recently
been suggested that taurine: may function in mammalian tissues as an antioxidant and
thus prevent cellular damage [Wright et al, 19841.
Taurine is an essential amino acid for cats. They become taurine-depleted if it
is not supplied in their diet and the known adult and juvenile manifestations of feline
taurine deficiency include severely impaired visual function that is associated with
degeneration of the retina amd tapetum [Hayes et al, 1975; Schmidt et al, 1976, 1977;
Knopf et al, 1978; Anderson et al, 1979; Wen et al, 1979; Sturman et al, 19811. No
pre- and early postnatal studies which examined the effect of taurine deprivation on
central nervous system development are known to the authors. Thus we report the
results of such a study. Our findings suggest that taurine deficiency during early
development interferes with the normal migration of cells from the cerebellar external
granule cell layer and is manifest by grossly evident nervous system dysfunction.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Female common cats were fed a completely defined synthetic diet (taurine-free)
(BioServe, Frenchtown, NJ) for at least 6 months prior to mating. These cats were
severely taurine-depleted plasma taurine concentrations less than 1 pmole/ 100 ml and
with ophthalmoscopically confirmed retinal lesions. Other females (controls) were
fed the same diet supplemented with 0.05% taurine. All were bred as follows: when
in estrus they were caged with a male for 1 wk; conception was defined as the middle
of this period. Male cats were fed the taurine-supplemented diet, except for the
interval of cohabitation with females receiving the taurine-free diet. This may be
important; taurine has been shown to affect the motility, and possibly other properties,
of sperm [Mrsny et al, 197’9; Ozasa et al, 1982; Gwatkin 19831. Pregnancies were
confirmed by X-ray 4-6 wk postconception. Food consumption was measured for
some of the cats and no difference was noted between the two diet groups.
The birth and semiwe:ekly weights of all kittens were determined. Maternal
samples of blood (weekly) and milk (semiweekly) were taken beginning within 48 hr
of birth.
Kittens were killed at the time of weaning, 8 wk after birth. Half of the brain
and one eye were removed rapidly and immersed in cold 0.1 M Sorensen’s phosphate
buffer, pH 7.4, containing 4 % glutaraldehyde. The cerebellum (midline sagittal
sections) was examined histologically using cresyl violet, hematoxylin and eosin, and
toluidine blue stains. Ultrastructural examination by electron microscopy (Philips EM
300) was performed after routine postfixation with osmium tetroxide. The remaining
brain and eye (along with other body tissues) were dissected, homogenized in 5 vol
10% trichloroacetic acid, and centrifuged at 20,000 X g for 30 min. The resultant
clear supernatant fluid was used for measurement of taurine concentrations (Beckman
120C automatic amino acid analyzer). Plasma and milk samples were deproteinized
with 5 vol 3% sulfosalicylic acid, centrifuged at 20,000 X g for 30 min, and the clear
supernatant fluid retained for measurement of taurine concentration [Sturman, 19811.
 Taurine Deficiency in the Developing Cat 407

RESULTS
Taurine-depleted females experienced difficulty in successfully completing nor-
mal pregnancies. Reproductive losses included fetal resorption (after radiographically
confirmed pregancies), abortion, stillbirth, and low birthweights of viable kittens at
term. An average of one pregnancy in three carried to term of 18 pregnancies in four
severely taurine-depleted queens. A total of 24 kittens were born at term to these
mothers, of which 18 were alive (mean birthweight 75 g) and six were stillborn (mean
birthweight 40 g). Of the 18 live births, only eight survived for more than 2 wk.
Queens fed the taurine supplemented diet throughout gestation usually experi-
enced no difficulties in completing normal pregnancies. A total of 18 pregnancies in
six mothers were followed and no abortions or resorptions were noted. One premature
birth occurred, approximately 10 days prior to term; four low birthweight luttens
were born alive (mean birthweight 65 g) and died within 5 days. This was the first
pregnancy in this cat, and the subsequent gestation resulted in normal, full-term
births. No stillbirths occurred. The average birthweight of the control kittens was 107
g.
Kittens from taurine-deprived mothers grew at a substantially slower rate than
controls (Fig. I). Their taurine deprivation included a taurine-deficient intrauterine
environment and a taurine-impoverished postnatal dietary source (Fig. 2). Surviving
kittens from taurine-deprived females exhibited abnormal hind leg development and
a peculiar gait characterized by excessive abduction and paresis (Fig. 3). The hind
limbs had palpably diminished muscle bulk and tone in comparison to the fore limbs
or to the hind limbs of age-matched kittens from a taurine-supplemented queen; the
patellar and achilles tendon jerks were reduced. A grossly apparent thoracic kyphosis
did not evidence radiologically demonstrable osseous pathology (Fig. 4).This obser-
vation was made on all five kittens X-rayed at 8 wk after birth. The brain weight of
kittens from taurine-deprived queens (18.4 f 0.2 g) was significantly smaller than
that of kittens from taurine-supplemented mothers (22.8 0.1 g).

Morphological Studies
The number of cells in the cerebellar external granule cell layer of 8-wk-old
kittens from taurine-deprived queens is greater than the number present in kittens
from taurine-supplemented mothers (Fig. 5 ) . Taurine-supplemented queens’ luttens
have only one or two cell layers in their external granule cell layer (Fig. 5a,c); kittens
from taurine-deprived females reveal the persistence of several layers of cells (Fig.
5b,d). These observations were confirmed electron microscopically (Fig. 6 ) . Numer-
ous mitotic figures are evident in the cells in the external granule cell layer of kittens
from taurine-deprived queens, suggesting that this layer is still functioning as a
germinative zone, even at 8 wk after birth (Fig. 7); none were observed in the cells
in the external granule cell layer of kittens from taurine-supplemented mothers, which
have a cerebellum with virtually complete morphogenesis, as would be expected at
this age. These observations were similar for the six kittens from taurine-deprived
mothers which were examined microscopically.
Degenerative changes were present in the retina and tapetum of kittens from the
taurine-deprived mothers. These changes are being documented in detail and will be
reported later.
408 Sturman et a1
I 1

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7 8
W E E K S AFTER BIRTH

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T a u i i n e Supplemenled
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WEEKS AFTER BIRTH

Fig. 1. Weight of kittens from taurine-supplemented and taurine-deprived queens throughout lactation.
The curve for the kittens from taurine-deprived mothers was dcrived from twice-weekly weights of the
eight kittens that survived to the end of lactation, and the curve for the kittens from taurine-supplemented
mothers was derived from semi-weekly weights of 24 kittens.

Fig. 2. Concentration of taurine in milk of taurine-supplemented and taurine-deprived mothers was

derived from the twice-weekly determinations from six queens that carried lactation through for the full
8 wk and the curve for the taurine-supplemented kittens was derived from the twice-weekly determina-
tions from 12 queens that carried lactation through for the full 8 wk.

Taurine Concentrations
Kittens born to taurine-deprived queens have significantly smaller concentra-
tions of taurine in the cerebellum than kittens born to taurine-supplemented females
(Table I). The concentration of taurine in the cerebellum of stillborn kittens was even
smaller. By the end of lactation, 8 wk, the concentration of taurine in the cerebellum
 Taurine Deficiency in the Developing Cat 409

Fig. 3. Photographs of kittens from taurine-deprived mothers illustrating the abnormal back leg devel-
opment, the excessive abduction and peculiar gait. The kittens are from different taurine-deprived
queens. Both were photographed 8 wk after birth.

Fig. 4. X-ray of kitten from taurine-deprived mother showing the grossly apparent thoracic kyphosis.
This is from the kitten on the lett side of Figure 3, taken 8 wk after birth.
410 Sturman et a1

Fig. 5 . Light micrographs of the external granule cell layer of midline sagittal sections of cerebellum
(lobe VI) of 8-wk-old kittens from taurine-supplemented (a,c,) and taurine-depleted (b,d) queens. Note
the increased thickness of the external granule cell layer of the taurine-deficient kittens as compared to
the controls. a, b, X30; c, d , X80.
 Taurine Deficiency in the Developing Cat 411

Fig. 6 . Full thickness electron micrographs of the external granule cell layer of midline sagittal sections
of cerebellum (lobe VI) of kittens from (a) taurine-supplemented mothers, and (b) taurine-depleted
mothers.

of kittens from both taurine-supplemented and taurine-deprived mothers had de-

creased by 30-40% (Table 11).

DISCUSSION
Earlier studies have conclusively demonstrated that dietary taurine is essential
to maintain the structural integrity of the feline retina and tapetum. Failure to provide
taurine in the diet results in tissue taurine depletion, and degeneration of the retinal
photoreceptors as well as the cells of the tapetum lucidum. Although the adult cat
brain taurine concentration is decreased many-fold, no investigations of brain struc-
ture and function have been performed in taurine-deprived cats. Taurine depletion
during early postnatal development of cats, when the brain taurine concentration is
maximal, has not been investigated either. Our studies address this question as well
as potential effects of maternal dietary taurine deprivation on feline reproductive
 412 Sturman et al

Fig. 7. Mitotic figures are still found frequently in cells in the external granule cell layer of thc 8-wk-
old kittens from taurine-depleted mothers. a. Light micrograph of I-pm section stained with toluidine
blue shows several mitotic figures (arrows). b. Electron micrograph shows a cell in late prophase.
Remnants of the nuclear membrane can be seen in close approximation to the condensed chromatin
(arrowheads).
 Taurine Deficiency in the Developing Cat 413

TABLE I. Taurine Concentration in Newborn Kitten

Cerebellum*
Taurine concentration
Source of kittens (pmolig wet weight)
Taurine-supplemented queens 8.0 k 0.5
(controls) (12)
Taurine-deprived queens 1.1 f 0.4
(stillborn) (6)
Taurine-deprived queens 2.4 f 0.3
(live birthsa) (14)
*Each value represents the mean k S.E.M. from the number of
kittens in parentheses.
aKittens born alive and killed or died naturally within 3 days of birth.

TABLE 11. Taurine Concentration in 8-Week-Old Kitten

Cerebellum*
Taurine concentration
Source of kittens (pmoles/g wet weight)
Taurine-supplemented queens (10) 5.0 i 0.4
Taurine-deprived queens (7) 1.6 k 0.3
*Each value represents the mean & S.E.M. from the number of
kittens in parentheses.

wastage. The taurine-deprived queens’ frequent pregnancy terminations via fetal

resorption or abortion, the high incidence of stillbirth, the significantly smaller birth-
weight of live kittens at full term, and a high neonatal death rate suggest that normal
taurine concentrations are essential for normal fetal growth and development. This
observation may be of relevance to pregnant women who consume a partly or totally
vegetarian diet with an associated low dietary taurine intake.
Our experimental taurine insufficiency continues postnatally; the milk from
taurine deprived queens contains much lower concentrations of taurine than the milk
from their taurine supplemented counterparts (Fig. 2). The growth rate of the exper-
imental kittens is reduced (Fig. 1). We cannot totally exclude compositional differ-
ences in the milk other than taurine, although preliminary studies have found no
differences in protein content and protein amino acid composition. These investiga-
tions are being continued and extended.
A wide range of pediatric problems have been observed in children from strict
vegetarian communities, including death. Although these problems have usually been
attributed to malnutrition and nutritional deficiencies of currently defined primary
nutrients, a taurine deficiency effect cannot be excluded [Zmora et al, 1979; Shinwell
and Gorodischer, 19821. There is increasing evidence which supports the suggestion
that dietary taurine may be essential for normal retinal development and function in
human infants and in infant primates [Sheikh, 1981; Geggel et al, 1982a,b; Sturman
et al, 19841.
The reduced brain weight of kittens from taurine-deprived mothers may be
caused by a generalized reduction in growth rate. It has been demonstrated that
taurine enhances the proliferation of human lymphoblastoid cells in culture [Gaull et
al, 19831. The observation of a delayed and/or decreased migration of cerebellar cells
from the external granule cell layer, however, may have more specific implications.
414 Sturman et a1

The posture (scoliosis), gait, muscle tone, and tendon reflex abnormalities of the
afflicted kittens are recognized clinical manifestations of cerebellar dysfunction
[French and Familusi, 19831. Thus, the results of this study suggest that dietary
deprivation of taurine during the pre- and postnatal period can cause kitten scoliosis
and other cerebellar dysfunction manifestations.
Neurons in the cerebellum differ from those in most other brain regions because
they undergo marked morphological and biochemical differentiation during the post-
natal period. Thus, the cerebellum is susceptible to dystrophic influences in both the
in utero milieu and the postnatal environment. Postnatal cerebellar ontogeny is
characterized by neuronal proliferation, migration, differentiation, synaptogenesis,
;and myelination. These events occur sequentially and follow precise schedules [Palay
and Chan-Palay, 19741. The results reported in this paper suggest that an abnormally
low taurine concentration in the kitten cerebellum in utero and early postnatal life is
associated with an abnormal granule cell ontogeny. The postnatal development of
kitten cerebellar granule cells is similar to that described for other mammalian
species. The width of the external granule cell layer increases to a maximum, 2 wk
after birth, and then declines rapidly. This developmental change in morphology is
the result of cell proliferation, immediately after birth, followed by migration [Smith
and Downs, 19781.
Our observations indicate that the thickness of the external granule cell layer in
the cerebellum of kittens from taurine-deprived queens is substantially greater, 8 wk
after birth, than in similar kittens from taurine-supplemented females. This change is
associated with a greatly reduced concentration of taurine in the cerebellum (approx-
imately 30% of that in kittens from taurine-supplemented mothers). Most cells should
have migrated from the external granule cell layer by this age. It is not known whether
this effect is on the migration process, with taurine acting as a chemotactic factor, or
directly on the granule cells, causing some abnormality that retards granule cell
g,rowth and migration, or both. The numerous mitotic figures in cells in the external
granule cell layer of the cerebellum of 8-wk-old kittens from taurine-deprived females
is consistent with a severe developmental delay. Normally the thickness of the feline
external granule cell layer reaches a maximum at 2 wk after birth; cell division is
completed at or soon after this time [Smith and Downs, 19781. No mitotic figures
were observed in cells in the external granule cell layer of the cerebellum of kittens
from taurine-supplemented queens.
Other nutritional deficiencies, e.g., zinc, and mutations, e.g., staggerer mice,
cause an external granule cell layer persistence, accompanied by a reduction in the
thickness of the molecular layer, a decrease in the area of the internal granule cell
layer, and a general underdevelopment of the cerebellum [Hirano and Dembitzer,
1975; Landis and Sidman, 1978; Dvergsten et al, 1983; Sonmez and Herrup, 19843.
The role of taurine in the migration of cerebellar granule cells is being studied further,
but the implications for human nutrition are important. Human infants and adults
require a dietary source of taurine to maintain their body taurine pools. The possibility
of infants, born to mothers eating vegetarian diet and infants raised on commercially
available synthetic formulas which contain little or no taurine, having a similar
persistence of cells in the external granule cell layer must be considered. If this does
occur such children may have a reduced number of cells migrating to the internal
molecular layer where they normally differentiate and undergo synaptogenesis .
 Taurine Deficiency in the Developing Cat 415

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The technical assistance of Mr. Jeffrey Messing and Mrs. Alice Gargano,
photography and art work of Mr. Richard Weed, and practical help from all members
of IBR Animal Colony Facility throughout this study is gratefully acknowledged.This
research was supported by NIH grant HD-16634.

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