KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

BSc. PETROCHEMICAL ENGINEERING

CENG 291(ENGINEERING IN SOCIETY)

PRODUCTION OF BIOETHANOL FROM SEAWEEDS ON THE COASTAL AREAS IN

ESIAMA (NZEMA EAST MUNICIPAL DISTRICT).

NAME: GODWIN JEFFERY ACKAH

INDEX NUMBER:

NOVEMBER 2021
Declaration

I thus declare that the investigatory project "generation of bioethanol from seaweeds on the

coastal areas of Esiama (Nzema East Municipal District)" was carried out by my own efforts and

fact discovered by me and my supportive partners and under the supervision and motivation of

my partners; Mr. Ankomah and Mr. Isaac Hanson.

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Dedication

First and foremost, I devote this report to Almighty God, who has been present throughout, from the
beginning to the end. Mr. Ankomah and Mr. Isaac Hanson, my helpful partners, deserve special
recognition for their unwavering support and compassion for me during this project.

In addition, I'd want to dedicate this report to my lecturers, who have had such a positive impact on my
knowledge.

The glory belongs to God.

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Acknowledgement

I have always said that,” not everyone deserves reward, but everyone deserves recognition”.

First and foremost, I would like to express my profound gratitude to the Almighty God for His

guidance and protection throughout this project.

I would like to sincerely acknowledge the earnest efforts, precious time, patience, insightful

comments and practical advice given by my supervisor (Dr. Mizpah Rockson ) and also for

giving me the excellent opportunity to this remarkable project on the topic(Production of

bioethanol from seaweeds), which has helped me do a lot of research and has given me exposure

to so many things.

Any attempt at any level would not be adequately accomplished without the support of my

parent. I would like to thank my parent who helped me a lot in putting information together, data

collection, despite her busy schedules.

I would like to acknowledge my depth in all gratefulness and humbleness to Papa Ankomah and

Mr. Isaac Hanson who stood by my side throughout the project and helped me put these ideas

above the level of simplicity to something concrete.

I want to use this opportunity to thank the people of Esiama for having time to express and

explain their concerns on this project. God richly bless you all.

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 Content Page

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................ iii

BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................................................... 1
STATEMENT OF PROBLEM AND JUSTIFICATION ....................................................................................... 3
OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH ..................................................................................................................... 5
GENERAL OJECTIVE ................................................................................................................................... 5
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE .................................................................................................................................. 5
CHAPTER II .................................................................................................................................................... 6
LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................................................. 6
METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................................................................... 11
Study Area ............................................................................................................................................... 11
Research Design .......................................................................................................................................... 15
Data collection Techniques. .................................................................................................................... 15
Study Population ..................................................................................................................................... 15
Sampling Techniques .............................................................................................................................. 15
Data Analysis ........................................................................................................................................... 16
Limitation of Study .................................................................................................................................. 16
Experimental Design ............................................................................................................................... 16
Pre-Treatment............................................................................................................................................. 16
Pre-processing............................................................................................................................................. 17
Hydrolysis of Seaweeds .............................................................................................................................. 18
Biological pre-treatments ........................................................................................................................... 19
Fermentation .............................................................................................................................................. 20
Separate Hydrolysis and Fermentation (SHF) ............................................................................................. 20
Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation (SSF) ............................................................................. 21
3.2.1. Simultaneous Saccharification and Co-Fermentation (SSCF) & .................................................. 21
Distillation and purification......................................................................................................................... 22

Fuels and combustion technology; ....................................................................................................... 27

Electrochemical technology; ................................................................................................................. 27

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 Environmental Risk Management; ........................................................................................................ 27

Fertilizer technology; ............................................................................................................................. 27

Polymer technology; ............................................................................................................................. 28

Natural gas liquefaction and handling; ................................................................................................. 28

Refining process technology; ................................................................................................................ 28

Adsorption Separation Process; ............................................................................................................ 29

CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................................................... 30
RESULTS .................................................................................................................................................. 30
Demographic Characteristics of Respondents ........................................................................................ 30
Knowledge and Attitude toward Seaweeds ........................................................................................... 31
Association between demographic and knowledge of seaweeds .......................................................... 32
Quantity of seaweeds on the sea and quantity of seaweeds on the shore............................................ 33
Occupation of Respondents .................................................................................................................... 34
CHAPTER 5 .................................................................................................................................................. 35
DISCUSSION............................................................................................................................................. 35
Conclusion and Recommendation .............................................................................................................. 37
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................... 37
Recommendations .................................................................................................................................. 37
REFERENCE .................................................................................................................................................. 38
APPENDICES ................................................................................................................................................ 42
QUESTIONNAIRE ..................................................................................................................................... 42

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List of Tables

Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of Respondents ……………………………………………………..30

Table 2: Knowledge and attitude of seawees …………………………………………………………............31

Table 3: Association between demograhic characteristics and knowledge of seaweed ……..32

List of Figures

Fig.1. District map of Ellembelle ……………………………………………….14

Fig.2 Seaweeds on the coastline ………………………………………………..14

Fig.3. A typical flow chart of bioethanol production ……………………23

Fig.4. Flow chart of bioethanol extraction ……………………………………23

Fig.5. Petrochemical flow chart …………………………………………………….26

Fig.6. Do the quantity of seaweeds you come across on the sea outnumber the quantity of seaweeds you
come across on the shore? ……………………………………………………………33

Fig.7. Occupation of respondents …………………………………………………..34

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1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.1. BACKGROUND

In 2008, fossil fuels accounted for 88% of the global primary energy consumption (Brennan and

Owende, 2010). However, the use of fossil fuels is now widely accepted as unsustainable due to

depleting resources and the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the environment (Schenk et al.,

2008).

It has become increasingly important to develop abatement techniques and adopt policies to

promote those renewable energy sources to minimize the dependency on fossil reserves and also

to maintain environmental and economic sustainability (Brennan and Owende, 2010; Prasad et

al., 2007a, b; Singh et al., 2010a, b).

Biofuels such as bioethanol, biodiesel, biogas and bio-butanol are currently advocated globally

as eco-friendly and sustainable sources of energy. Bioethanol is the most widely used biofuel

globally with the production of 106 billion litres in the year 2017 (Baeyens, J et al, 2015).

There is currently renewed interest in the conversion of macroalgae (seaweeds) to bioenergy

(Baeyens, J et al., 2015, Schiener, P et al, Black, K. D. et al. and Green, D. H., 2014, Adams, J.

M. M. T. A et al., J. a. Gallagher, 2011). Since brown seaweeds, particularly the giant kelp, grow

very rapidly and widely in coastal marine and estuarine environments they can potentially be

exploited by different countries to produce bioethanol (fuel alcohol) and thereby reduce

dependency on oil imports and increase energy security (Goh C. S. and Lee, K. T, 2010).

Macroalgal biomass contains storage polysaccharides which represent good substrates for

microbial degradation (Schiener, P et al., and Green, D. H., 2014.), although composition does

vary with the seasons (Black, W. A. P, and Adams, J. M. M., and Donnison, I. S., 2011. ) .
Brown seaweeds lack lignin and contain low amounts of cellulose making it simpler, compared

with terrestrial plants, to microbiologically convert them to biofuels (Black, W. A. P, and

Adams, J. M. M., and Donnison, I. S., 2011. ). Furthermore, with higher growth rates than most

terrestrial biomass, coupled with concerns over feedstock supply and of security issues, seaweeds

present distinct advantages (Wei, N. Quarterman., J. and Jin, Y. S., 2013,.and Enquist-Newman,

M et al and Stgaard, K.,2000 and Horn, S. J., Aasen et al., 2000).

The most extensive use of bioethanol is as fuel for engines and as fuel additive (Baeyens, J et

al., 2015). Commercial bioethanol production has been limited to the use of edible feedstock

such as sugarcane, corn, sweet sorghum and sugar beet (1st generation feedstock) (. Available

online: http://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/GSR_2018_ Highlights_final.pdf

(accessed on 9 November 2018). Usage of this first-generation feedstock for bioethanol

production leads to various discussions about increasing food prices and occupation of

agricultural land. These problems are solved partially by using second generation feedstocks;

lignocellulosic materials such as waste or forest residues. Second generation feedstocks have

some advantages over first generation feedstocks due to not being used as food source and less

land requirement. However, their harvesting, purification and various pre-treatment needs made

their production quite challenging and not economical. This could potentially result in food

security problems especially in many developing countries. Algae which are the third-

generation feedstock for biofuels are an alternative for the first- and second-generation

feedstocks due to their productivity, easily cultivation and convenient harvesting time [John R. P.

et al,2011 and Daroch M, et al, 2013). Seaweed (macroalgae) is receiving considerable global

attention as the primary source of 3rd generation biofuels (Kim, N.J et al. 2011.; Kostas, E.T et

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al. 2015). In view of this, this research is targeting production of bioethanol from 3rd generation

feedstock including macroalgae.

The production of bioethanol consists of the following stages: biomass pre-treatment, hydrolysis,

fermentation and ethanol recovery (Borines, M.G et al, 2013., and Gupta, A.; Prakash, J. 2015).

This review explores the hydrolysis and fermentation stages of seaweed bioethanol production

with emphasis on process efficiency and sustainable application.

1.2.STATEMENT OF PROBLEM AND JUSTIFICATION

The world’s population is expected to reach 9 billion by 2050, putting prodigious pressure on

environmental resources (Dupont-inglis, J.; Borg, A., 2017). Climate change, resource depletion,

and toxicity potentials are the concerning threats to the society for which a new solution is

urgently needed. Focusing on reducing our dependency on the fossil-based economy and shifting

toward a bio-based economy could help in tackling these situations, as well as for achieving

sustainable development goals (SDG’s) (Mengal, P., 2018). The accomplishment of a bio-based

economy is entirely dependent on the utilization of renewable resources, especially biomass, to

produce multi-functional applications, including food, animal feed, bio-based materials, energy,

and pharmaceuticals.

In the past few decades, the environmental outlook has changed from loss of biodiversity to

resource depletion and climate change. As a result, seaweed has been getting exponential interest

as an innovative feedstock for bio-based materials from different sectors as a sustainability

target.

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Esiama is a town near Axim in the Nzema East Municipal District, a district in the Western

Region of Ghana. The tropical climate and habitable marine environment make the oceanic area

so resourceful. There are also varieties of seaweeds found along with other oceanic resources in

the region. However, there is lack of research as well as development to make productive use of

the seaweeds found along the coastal areas in Ghana. The glut of seaweeds along the coast of the

western region poses serious environmental problems, as well as impeding and obstructing

canoeing and fishing. It is therefore urgently imperative to identify through research to develop a

sustainable technology for productive use of seaweeds. This research will test on the knowledge

and the utilization of seaweeds along the coast of Esiama to produce bioethanol.

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 1.3.OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH

1.3.1. GENERAL OJECTIVE

The general objective of the study is to investigate into the extraction of ethanol from seaweeds
found along the coast of Esiama in the Western Region of Ghana.

1.3.2. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE

To extract bioethanol from seaweeds.

To identify a sustainable solution to clean the coast line of Esiama from seaweeds.

To produce biofertilizer from the residue of bioethanol production.

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2.0.CHAPTER II
2.1.LITERATURE REVIEW

Seaweed is a macroscopic alga, with its usual habitat at the bottom of shallow coastal waters. It

typically grows at a depth of 180 m, and can be found on rocks, pebbles, shells, black water, and

seawater plants. Marine macroalgae (seaweeds) are a significant component of marine alien taxa

(Schaffelke et al. 2006) with current global estimates of introduced macroalgae ranging from 163

(Ribera Siguan 2002) to 260 species (J.E. Smith unpublished data). They are classified into three

groups: green algae (Chlorophyceae), red algae (Rhodophyceae), and brown algae

(Phaeophyceae) based on pigmentation (McHugh,2003).

Seaweeds are also reported to be a source of pigments that are of commercial importance.

Phycobiliproteins are the primary light-harvesting pigments observed in red seaweed, which are

the only water-soluble pigments (Dumay, J. et al, 2014) and contribute nearly 50% of its total

protein content. It is commercially significant in various applications, including dairy products,

wasabi, and gums. Brown seaweed dominates the Fucoxanthin, a Xanthophyll pigment

responsible for the brown coloration. It has been reported that the Fucoxanthin is the most stable

compound, which can get through the drying and storage process at room temperature (Baweja,

P. et al, 2016). Moreover, it has been reported that chlorophyll-a contributes nearly 1.5% of

seaweed organic content (South, G.R.; Whittick, A, 2009).

Approximately 624 algal species have been identified in India alone, wherein green seaweed

contributes nearly 72%, red algae 27%, and brown algae nearly 1% (Saravanan, K.R. et al,

2008). It is essential to understand that seaweeds are the only species responsible for producing

several phytochemicals, including agar-agar, align, and carrageen which has extensive additional

applications (Ramani, G. et al, 2013). Various consumptive and non-consumptive applications

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such as, fertilizers, animal feed, medicines, building materials, soups, sushi, salads, and other

snacks are mentioned in the literature (Delaney, A. et al, 2016) Seaweeds have been prominently

used as a feedstock for thousands of years, and are mentioned in Greek texts extensively. It is

also reported that during the scarcity of fodder, seaweeds were dried and fed to horses, sheep,

and cattle until the early 1900s (Evans, F.D.; Critchley, A.T., 2014).

The most significant advantage with seaweed is that it does not contain distinct parts usually

found in other terrestrial plants; therefore, the whole seaweed can be used as biomass (Usman, A.

et al, 2017). Most of the green seaweeds, including Monostroma, Caulerpa, and Ulva species,

have the capability to produce Ulva. Ulva is a complex acidic polysaccharide, which has

cosmetic and medical applications (Usman, A. et al, 2017, Venkatesan, J, 2015). In red

seaweed, Palmaria palmata, Kapapaphysus, Pyropia Yezoensis, species are widely discussed to

produce a large quantity of carrageenan, agar with applications in pharmaceutical, textile, paint,

antibiotic, food, and biotechnology sectors (Werner, A. et al, 2004). Brown

seaweed, Ascophyllum nodosum, and Laminaria are known for their capacity to produce various

polysaccharides (alginate) with the primary application as a thickener, stabilizer, and gelling

agent (Usman, A. et al, 2017, Lunardello, K.A. et al, 2011., Jard, G. et al, 2013). Seaweed has a

relatively similar composition to other bioenergy crops. Seaweed has excellent nutritional value

and has a higher polysaccharide content, making it suitable for dried and fresh vegetables, as an

ingredient for the commercial production of phycocolloids (polysachharides that are derived

from seaweeds) (Hamid, N. et al, 2015). and a perfect candidate in the changing fuel market

(Lang, I. et al, 2011). Few macroalgae have high lipid content in their biomass, whereas some

other macroalgae are considered to have high protein content. Their composition may vary

according to the type, geographic condition, seasons, and cultivation method. Nevertheless, it is

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documented that green and red algal species have high carbohydrate content; moreover, brown

algal species have a high protein and carbohydrate content (Colin, B.; Fereidoon, S.; 2008).

Recently, various countries’ interest has increased for seaweed’s cultivation and application due

to its multi-dimensional functionality. However, historical aspects of seaweed functionality must

be considered in order to gain a better understanding. The first commercial use of seaweed was

reported in the 17th century, where it was used to replace wood ash in glass production,

especially in France and Norway (Delaney, A. et al,2016). Norway followed a similar path;

seaweed burning to produce potash was one of the significant incomes during the 18th century. It

was reported that during 1913, 150,000 tons of Kelp (a brown seaweed) was dried and burned for

the production and export of 6000 tons of potash (Delaney, A. et al,2016). In France, seaweed

was also an essential ingredient in the production of iodine in 1823. The production of seaweed

meals was first industrialized in 1937, produced in nine factories, all of which are still functional

(Delaney, A. et al,2016). Traditionally, algae cultivation was a household activity with a focus

on agricultural purposes only. However, the first commercial algal harvesting plant was

established in 1947 in the western part of Ireland to harvest enough algae for feed and food

applications.

The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the USA estimated that nearly 30 Mt of

seaweed was utilized in 2014, wherein most of it was produced via aquaculture and nearly 6%

was harvested through wild species. Seaweed usage has been increased by nearly 176% since

1995 due to the scientific and technical enhancement in harvesting practices worldwide (White,

W.L.; Wilson, 2015). It is estimated that if a special economic zone can be implemented for the

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marine aquaculture program globally, the seaweed yield could be increased exponentially to

300–1120 Mt (Buschmann, A.H.; 2017, Bruhn, A.;2011).

Carbohydrates are the primary constituent of seaweed, with these accounting for at least 40% of

its mass. The majority (approximately 45%) of the ash-free volatile solids found in Sargassum,

an all-season brown seaweed, are complex carbohydrates. Fucoidan, a sulfated polysaccharide,

has been extracted from brown seaweed in recent years (Kim, K., et al, 2010). Ulva, the most

discussed green seaweed, is observed to have a high content of monosaccharides, including

rhamnose, glucose, uronic acid, etc., (Popper,Z.A., et al, 2011). In the case of red

seaweed, Gracilaria, galactose and glucose are found to have a dominant presence. The variation

in carbohydrate content also originates from the season, temperature and is species-dependent

(Enquist-newman., M et al , 2014).

Cascading theseaweed valorization has a great potential in yielding various by-products and

other chemicals, which could ultimately reduce its environmental burden and improve the socio-

economic potential. Provided that food and energy are the primary concerns in the 21st century,

a strategy can be made to process the seaweed to utilize food, animal feed, and energy. In

contrast, the technology can be improvised to use the leftover biomass (Geldermann, J et

al,2015) for other applications such as the production of biofertilizer. In this functional order, the

seaweed biorefinery concept has recently been upgraded to utilize the excess seaweed biomass to

produce biofuels, biofertilizers and biogas. In this manner, the seaweed biomass value can be

increased to multiple folds, which would benefit the supply chain, and promote the circular

economy.

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The red alga Gelidium amansii (GA) is a potential biomass source for bioethanol production. It

has high carbohydrate content and can be easily hydrolyzed to fermentable sugars such as

glucose and galactose, which are then fermented to bioethanol. Furthermore, the annual global

production of red seaweed has increased from about 5.3 million tons in 2006 to approximately

10.8 million tons in 2011 (Fishery and Aquaculture statistics, 2011).

Seaweed has wide applications in biofuels, food and animal feed, energy, pharmacy, cosmetic,

and other chemical industries. Interestingly, all the seaweed species have little to no lignin

content, making them directly suitable for producing third-generation biofuels such as

bioethanol. After harvesting, seaweed traditionally goes through enzymatic hydrolysis and/or

saccharification to separate the polysaccharides. The extracted C-5 or C-6 sugar is then used for

the fermentation process to obtain various biofuels such as bioethanol which has stretched the

economic, social, and environmental considerations.

Bioethanol is chemically known as ethyl alcohol with the chemical formula C2H5OH. It is

produced from fermentation of simple sugars from plant sources using microbes. Bioethanol is

biodegradable, low in toxicity and less likely to affect the environment. Among the advantageous

properties of bioethanol as fuel energy include higher octane number (108), evaporation

enthalpy, and flame speed and wider range of flammability. Other than that, it gives higher

compression ratio (CR) with shorter burning time (Zabed et al., 2014). Bioethanol produces

carbon dioxide (CO2) and water when burned. This CO2 is absorbed by the plant and at the same

time, oxygen is released in the same volume. This proves to be advantageous over fossil fuels

which emit CO2 along with other toxic gases. Some bioprocesses have recommended possible

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routes to produce bioethanol in large volumes using low cost substrates (Gunasekaran and Raj,

1999).

Production of bioethanol from seaweed can reduce agricultural land, freshwater consumption,

and chemical fertilizer usage, ultimately reducing the environmental impacts throughout the

lifecycle. The pulp, which remains after seaweed processing, creates an unnecessary burden if

not utilized. The pulp contains many carbohydrates, which can be used for bioethanol

production, and the leftovers from the fermentative bioethanol production can be used as a

fertilizer (Chung, I.K.; et al 2011).

It has been assumed that the CO2 absorption in the algal biomass is nearly seven times higher

than that of terrestrial woody biomass (McHugh, D.J., 2003). Therefore, the ultimate carbon

sequestration can further reduce the environmental impacts associated with the lifecycle of

bioethanol production from seaweeds.

3.0.METHODOLOGY

3.1.Study Area

The Nzema East Municipality is one of Ghana's twenty-two (22) district municipalities. Nzema

East District was separated into two municipalities in 2008, Nzema East Municipality and

Ellembelle Districts, by Legislative Instrument (L.I.) 1840. The Municipality's capital is Axim,

which is situated between longitudes 20 05' and 20 35' west and latitudes 40 40' and 50 20' north

in the southern end of the region. As a result, it is one of the greatest tourist spots in the region.

The Municipality has a total area of 1084.0 kilometers squared.

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Esiama is a settlement in Ghana's Western Region, near Axim, in the Nzema East Municipal

District. It is a significant fishing community in the Western Region. It is at a height of 59 feet

above sea level. It is located at latitude 2 20'49"W and longitude 4 55'58"N.

According to the 2010 Population and Housing Census, the population of Nzema East

Municipality is 60,828 people, accounting for 2.6 percent of the region's total population. Males

make up 49.2 percent of the population, while females make up 50.8 percent. Rural areas

account for nearly two-thirds of the municipality's population (66.0 percent), with a male-to-

female ratio of 97 to 100. About two-fifths (41.0 percent) of the municipality's population is

under the age of 14, indicating a broad base population pyramid that tapers off with a tiny

number of old people (5.6 percent ). The municipality's overall age dependence ratio is 81.2,

with males having a greater dependency ratio of 84.1 than females, who have a dependency ratio

of 78.4. 57.1 percent of the employed population works in skilled agriculture, forestry, and

fisheries jobs, 13.3 percent in service and sales jobs, 13.3 percent in craft and related trade jobs,

and 6.3 percent work as managers, professionals, and technicians.

In terms of marine fishing in the country, the municipality is a prominent role. The Municipality

is home to four of the region's 90 landing beaches. The main fishing season is from July to

September, with a secondary season from November to January. Sardinella and tuna are two

common fish species. The municipality is one of the region's key fish-producing locations.

Despite this potential, traditional fishing techniques continue to be used.

Agriculture is the Municipality's most important economic sector in terms of employment and

income creation, employing around 65.0 percent of the economically active population. The

municipality's major sources of family income are fishing and agro-processing.

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Figure 1. Shows The District Map of Ellembele.

Figure 2. Shows seaweeds along the coast of the study area.

Figure 2. Shows seaweeds on the coast line

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 3.2.Research Design

This study was conducted in two parts, thus, the first part was administering of questionnaires to

ascertain the knowledge and attitude of the people of Esiama on seaweeds, and the second part

was the laboratory experimental work to extract bioethanol from the seaweeds.

The researcher utilized a cross-sectional study design. The study participants' replies were

elicited using a quantitative manner. Because the researcher was able to provide as much

information and detail on seaweeds as possible

3.3.Data collection Techniques.

The most common tool for data collection was the questionnaire. There are open-ended questions

as well as closed or multiple-choice questions, which require responders to select from a list of

options. The questionnaire was written in English; however, the interviews were conducted in

the respondents' chosen language.

3.4.Study Population

In this research, the target populations were the people of Esiama.

3.5.Sampling Techniques

Convenience and purposive sampling were used to choose the research area and unit.

Convenience sampling is a sort of non-probability sampling in which units of the target

population that meet particular practical requirements, such as simple accessibility, geographic

closeness, availability at a specific time, or desire to participate, are included in the study.

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Purposive sampling is a non-probability sampling approach in which "elements picked for the

sample are chosen by the researcher's judgment, where the researcher believes that by applying

sound judgment, he may acquire a representative sample, saving time and money."

3.6.Data Analysis

Data were analyzed using STATA statistical software package for analysis. The results were

presented in the form of tables, frequencies and percentages. Chi square test was used to detect

the association between demographic characteristics, knowledge and attitude about seaweeds (p

0.05) was considered statistically significant.

3.7.Limitation of Study

The study was conducted only at one purposefully selected coastal area in Ghana. This is seen as
limitation because prevalence and nature of seaweeds vary depending on the environment where
it is found.

3.8. Experimental Design

Brown seaweeds will be obtained randomly from along the coast of Esiama and it nearby
communities.

3.9.Extraction of bioethanol

3.9.1. Pre-Treatment

Seaweeds will be collected and washed in fresh water for about three times to remove sand,

debris and other foreign materials. Hydrolysis will be done by soaking the seaweeds in three

different fresh waters for about 24 hours to reduce the salt content. Seaweeds will be dried in sun

to reduce the moisture content to less than 22% and then subjected to shredding. The shredded

seaweeds will be grinded to a size of -250 µm. sample will be split to achieve a homogenous

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mixture using a rifle splitter. About 2kg of grounded seaweeds will be subjected to fermentation

using enzymes for the saccharification and extraction process.

3.9.2. Pre-processing

The first step of pre-treatment is to remove foreign objects from the seaweed biomass. The most

regularly encountered debris are stones collected with the holdfast of Laminaria and snails on the

surface of the seaweed. However, other objects are often found such as plastic bags and other

rubbish. Debris screening is mandatory for all applications.

Dewatering to 20-30% water content is usually a good objective. It stabilizes the biomass, allows

transportation without too much water and reduces the energy required for any further drying

step.

Drying of seaweed is a major and energy-consuming handling process in bioethanol production

because the moisture content in freshly harvested seaweed is enormous (85–90%) . Methods that

have been used in drying seaweeds include freeze-drying , sun drying and oven drying. The

current practice in Ireland for industrial seaweed processing is to dry it down to a low moisture

content, to allow for stable storage and cost-effective transportation to its customers. Sun drying,

which is currently most convenient for seaweed farmers, is an alternative drying method which

has been used in several studies .

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Size reduction or milling (mechanical comminution) is also a critical handling and pre-treatment

method, which increases the surface area of the biomass especially for the action of catalysts in

the hydrolysis and fermentation stages . seaweeds will be grinded to a size of -250 µm. sample

will be split to achieve a homogenous mixture using a rifle splitter. Size reduction also reduces

the bulk volume of the seaweed enhancing the efficiency of transportation and storage. Milling

has been noted to have some hydrolytic effect on seaweed biomass when applied. This improves

the efficiency of the process for the next steps by reducing the polymerization degree and

increase the specific surface by reducing cellulose crystallinity and to assist hydrolysis.

3.9.3. Hydrolysis of Seaweeds

The hydrolysis process of bioethanol production involves the breakdown of complex sugars

(carbohydrates) such as laminarin, cellulose, mannitol, alginate, ulvan, carrageenan and agar in

seaweeds to simple sugars such as glucose, galactose, mannose, fucose, xylose and arabinose for

fermentation to ethanol. Various treatments have been used during hydrolysis of seaweed for

bioethanol production. These treatments include dilute acid thermal, dilute alkaline thermal,

enzymatic, thermal, ball milling, hydrothermal (HTT) and ultrasound. These are usually grouped

into physical, chemical, thermal and enzymatic treatments. Two or more of these treatments are

also combined in some studies to maximize yield. To date however, there has been no study on

the effect of each hydrolysis method on the different groups of seaweed to determine, which

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method is most suited to a particular group of algae. This research will focus on the use

biological pre-treatments.

3.9.4. Biological pre-treatments

Compared to the above methods applied to the production of bioethanol, using fungi in pre-

treatments is considered environmentally friendly because of not using chemicals, less energy

input, not required reactors that resistant to corrosion and pressure, and minimum inhibitor

formation . Fungi which are used in biological pre-treatments are generally brown, white and soft

mold. These fungi can degrade lignin, hemicelluloses and cellulose partially

Enzymatic hydrolysis is the step of hydrolysis of cellulose by specific cellulase enzymes.

Obtained products after hydrolysis are reducing sugars that include glucose. Cost of the

enzymatic hydrolysis are less than acid or alkaline hydrolysis due to reaction is carried out under

mild conditions (4.8 pH, temperature of 45-50 °C) . Cellulase enzymes that are used in

hydrolysis can be produced by bacteria and fungi. These microorganisms can be aerobic,

anaerobic, mesofilic or thermophilic. Bacteria which produce cellulase can be exemplify as

Clostridium, Cellulomonas, Bacillus, Thermomonospora, Ruminococcus, Bacteriodes, Erwinia,

Acetovibrio, Microbispora and Streptomyces. Trichoderma, Penicillium, Fusarium,

Phanerochaete, Humicola and Schizophillum sp. are identified as cellulase produced fungi

among the fungi. Cellulase enzymes consist of mixture of endoglucanase, exoglucanase and b-

glucosidase. While endoglucanase attacks the regions where cellulose fibers have low

crystallinity, exoglucanase removes the cellulose units from released chains with the effect of

endoglucanase and then degrades the molecule. B-glucosidase hydrolyzes the cellulose units and

enables the formation of glucose. Enzymatic hydrolysis can be affected by certain factors which
19 | P a g e
are enzyme-related and substrate-related factors. Substrate-related factors have a directly

influence on enzymatic hydrolysis. These factors are connected to each other and effect the

enzymatic conversion. These factors can be defined as degree of polymerization and crystallinity

of cellulose, accessibility of the substrate, and hemicelluloses content and pore size.

3.9.5. Fermentation

Fermentation is also a very critical stage of the entire bioethanol production process primarily

because it is at this stage that ethanol is produced by an organism from the reducing sugars

obtained after hydrolysis. It may not be the rate limiting stage of bioethanol production but its

efficiency contributes enormously towards the final ethanol yield. The techniques or pathways

used generally in the fermentation of seaweed are Separate Hydrolysis and Fermentation (SHF)

and; Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation (SSF).

Fermentation is a process that based on disciplines of chemistry, biochemistry and microbiology

and which fermentable sugars are converted to ethanol by microorganisms. Process consists of

conversion of glucose to alcohol and carbon dioxide

Practically, microorganisms also use glucose for their growth, the actual yield is less than 100%.

Microorganisms used in fermentation are utilized from 6-carbon sugars in ethanol production.

Therefore, cellulosic biomass which have high amount of glucose are the materials that have

easiest conversion capability. One of the most effective yeast which produces bioethanol is

Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

3.9.6. Separate Hydrolysis and Fermentation (SHF)

20 | P a g e
Enzymatic hydrolysis is performed separately from fermentation in this process. Liquid which

comes from hydrolysis reactor first converted to ethanol in a reactor that glucose fermented in,

and then ethanol is distilled and remained unconverted cellulose is converted to ethanol in a

second reactor. Advantage of the process is performing reactions in optimum conditions. On the

other hand, usage of different reactors is increasing the cost. Also, glucose and cellulose units

that obtained after hydrolysis, inhibit activity of the enzyme and decrease hydrolysis rate.

3.9.7. Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation (SSF)

In this process, pre-treatment and enzymatic hydrolysis steps are carried out with fermentation step in the

same reactor. It is very efficient when dilute acid or hot water at high temperature is applied in the

process. High bioethanol yields can be achieved with SSF process. Also inhibiton of enzyme activity is

very low due to fermenting glucose and cellulose units in the same media by yeast. Therefore, this

process needs low amount of enzyme. In addition to that, process cost is reduced because of the reactions

are carried out in one reactor. As a disadvantage, temperatures differences between saccharification and

fermentation cause various effects in growth of microorganisms. Saccharomyces cultures are used in pH

of 4.5 and temperature of 37 °C this process.

3.9.8. Simultaneous Saccharification and Co-Fermentation (SSCF) & Separate

Hydrolysis and Co-Fermentation (SHCF)

Saccharomyces cerevisiae which used in fermentation cannot convert carbohydrates like pentos

under moderate conditions and this causes impurity for biomass and decreases bioethanol yield.

In order to overcome this, recombinant yeasts can be used to convert residues such as pentose to

ethanol. In SSCF, recombinant yeasts and cellulase enzyme complex are fed to the same vessel

to convert biomass to ethanol. This system is generally the same as SSF process. SCHF process

is a combination of SSCF and SHF. In this process, fermentation and hydrolysis are carried out

21 | P a g e
in different vessel. This process can produce ethanol with high productivity in comparison with

SHF process.

3.9.9. Distillation and purification

A distillation process is necessary for separation of ethanol from mixture and purification of

ethanol after fermentation process. Process is performed simply with boiling ethanol-water

mixture. Because of boiling point of water (100°C) is higher than boiling point of ethanol (78

°C), ethanol vaporized before water. However, due to being an azeotrop mixture, high amount of

energy is used for distillation. In order to separate azeotrop mixtures, an agent which changes the

azeotrop structure must be added to the mixture. Added substance changes the volatility of

mixture by effecting the molecular attractions in the mixture. Various separation agents such as

benzene, pentane, cyclohexane, hexane, acetone, and diethyl ether can be used in this process.

Distillation column which has two streams as top and bottom, separates most of the bioethanol

from the mixture. While top stream is rich in bioethanol, bottom stream is rich in water. 37%

bioethanol then concentrated in rectifying column to approach concentration of 95%. Product

which is remained in the bottom is fed to stripping column in order to remove excess water.

Mostly in plants, recovery of bioethanol in distillation columns is fixed to be 99.6% due to

decrease bioethanol loss.

22 | P a g e
Figure 3. Shows A Typical Flow Chat Of Bioethanol Extraction.

Figure 4: Flow chart of bioethanol extraction.

3.9.10. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM

Esiama is a community near Axim in Ghana's Western Region's Nzema East Municipal District.

Because of its tropical climate and habitable aquatic environment, the oceanic area is extremely

resourceful. Upon a thorough survey of the Esiama Township as well as various questionnaires

posed to the people of the community it was realized that, the plethora of seaweeds along the

23 | P a g e
coast is a serious challenge to the community and if not solved urgently poses a great threat to

the inhabitants of the community.

The data requirement for this study was met using a combination of methods. Majorly,

information was sorted from the internet from previous research works on this particular topic,

personal interviews, questionnaires, key informant and transect walk among others. The

community faces a lot of societal issues, one of which is the abundance of seaweeds along the

coast, which poses a significant threat to fishermen, fisherfolks, and other Esiama residents. The

abundance of seaweeds on Esiama's coastal areas affects fishermen by impeding canoe

movement (by attaching themselves around the propellers), affecting catch, producing bad odor

when it rots, thereby causing air pollution, affecting swimming, and forming heaps along the

coast, causing the sea to overflow its banks and flood nearby houses, as well as causing many

socio-economic problems such as stealing, bullying, and armed robbery.

3.9.11. Organization of the Thesis.

The tittle page, acknowledgement, table of contents, list of tables and figures, and abstract will

be in order in the thesis plan. The first chapter will start with an introduction, a problem

statement, the study rationale, research questions, and objectives. The second chapter will

discuss seaweeds in a broader context, as well as other studies on seaweeds (macroalgae). The

third chapter will begin with a description of the study area, description of the problem, sample

method, and design, as well as a description of how the study will be carried out. It will conclude

by outlining the methods utilized to arrive at the various outcomes offered, description of the

course of study. The study's findings will be presented in Chapter four. The findings will be

discussed in Chapter 5 in contrast to the findings of other studies reported in the literature

24 | P a g e
review. The final chapter will summarize the study's findings and, possibly, a proposal for future

research into other methods for producing bioethanol from seaweeds.

3.9.12. Petrochemical Engineering and its Branches

Petrochemical Engineering is the application of science, particularly; Chemistry, Physics and

Mathematics in the process of converting raw materials of petroleum or other hydrocarbon origin

into more useful products. It can also be described as the focused division of Chemical

Engineering which deals with refinery technology. The term petrochemicals refer to the organic

chemicals obtained directly or indirectly from crude petroleum hydrocarbons and natural gas.

These hydrocarbons are obtained from the fractioning of petroleum obtained from underground

fossils. The common hydrocarbons include; olefins, Aromatics and synthesis gas.

25 | P a g e
Figure 5 Petrochemicals Flow chart

The petrochemical engineering programme covers the engineering principle required to develop,

design, operate and control the processes that involve molecular changes. Petrochemical

engineers work in the downstream petroleum industry which involves the refining of crude oil

and processing of natural gas. They are engaged in the development and production of a diverse

range of products, commodities and specialty chemicals. These products include high

performance materials needed for aerospace, automotive, biomedical, electronic, military and

environmental and health application which lead to a sustainable and improved quality of life.

26 | P a g e
 3.9.13. Areas of specialization include;

Fuels and combustion technology;

It is concerned with the analysis, optimization and design of fuel and combustion processes.

Electrochemical technology;

It deals with the technological application of electrochemical phenomena such as electrolysis of

chemicals.

Computer optimization methods;

It deals with the modification of a system to make its features work more efficiently.

Environmental Risk Management;

It deals with identification and management of environmental risks in a best way to suited to
protect human health and the environment.

Fertilizer technology;

It deals with the utilization of petrochemicals in fertilizer production.

27 | P a g e
 Polymer technology;

It is concerned with the manufacture, processing, analysis and application of long chain
molecules (Polymers).

Natural gas liquefaction and handling;

It deals with the removal of certain components such as acid gases and heavy hydrocarbons
which could cause difficulty downstream.

Refining process technology;

It concerns all processes involved in refining.

28 | P a g e
 Adsorption Separation Process;

It covers all technology involved with the separation of products into purer and more valuable
forms.

29 | P a g e
4.0.CHAPTER FOUR
4.1.RESULTS
4.1.1. Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

The study included 20 respondents from the people of Esiama in Elembelle East Municipal. The

total 20 respondents completed the questionnaire appropriately. More than half of the

respondents were male (65.0%) and (35.0 %) were female. Majority of the respondents from

Esiama since the research was conducted in the area (Esiama community). The education level,

Age, Marital Status, Occupation, and Religion of the respondents are more detailed in Table 1.

Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of Respondents.

Characteristics Number (%)

Age
Below 18 1(5.00)
Between 18-30 6(30.00)
Above 30 13(65.00)
Gender
Male 13(65.00)
Female 7(35.00)
Marital Status of Respondents
Single 3(15)
Married 17 (85.00)
Religion of Respondents
Christianity 16(80.00)
Islamic 2(10)
Other 2(10)
Level of Education
Basic Education 13(65.00)
Secondary Education 1(5.00)
Tertiary Education 2 (10.00 )
None 4 (20.00)
Occupation
Fishermen 10(50.00)
Farmer 2(10.00)
Civil Servant 2(10.00)
Fishmonger 5(25.00)
Other 1(5.00)
Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

30 | P a g e
 4.1.2. Knowledge and Attitude toward Seaweeds

All the respondents (100%) believed they heard about seaweeds and are weeds from the sea.

Majority of the respondents (85.0%) have not used seaweeds before and (15.0%) have used

seaweeds before respectively. Many of the respondents (85.0%) have not used seaweeds before,

(10.0%) for medicinal purpose, and (5.0%) have used seaweeds as food additives respectively.

Majority of the respondents (25.0%) have observed seaweeds along the coast of Esiama for 5

years, (20.0%) for six years, (20.0%) for7 years, (15.0%) for 3 years, (10.0%) for 4 years, (5.0%)

ten years, (5.0%) for eight years respectively. Many of the respondents (65.0%) have worked as

fishermen for over 30 years, (30%) have worked as fishermen between the ages of (18 -30

years), and (5.0%) have worked as fishermen below the ages of eighteen years.

Table 2: Knowledge and Attitude toward Seaweeds

Items Number (%)

Do seaweeds
affect your
job as a
Fisherman?
Yes 20(100)
If Yes, how do they affect fishing?
No catch 20(100)
Impede canoe movement 20(100)
Less catch 20(100)
What causes the seaweeds to float |
on the sea?
Activities of oil rig and Ghana Gas 20(100)
Table 2: Knowledge and Attitude toward Seaweeds

31 | P a g e
 4.1.3. Association between demographic and knowledge of seaweeds

There was a significant association between the age and how long have you worked as a

fisherman. There was also a significant association between gender and occupation. (p=0.045)

and (p=0.004).

Table 3: Association between demographic characteristics and knowledge of seaweeds

Demography Occupation Gender Age Religion Marital Level Of

Status Education
Item
Occupation 0.464 0.004 0.075 0.558 0.263 0.998
Knowledge 0.638 0.230 0.045 0.324 0.257 0.443
P-value calculated through chi square test. P< 0.05 considered statistically significant. P-values
presented in bold.

32 | P a g e
 4.1.4. Quantity of seaweeds on the sea and quantity of seaweeds on the shore

Majority of the respondents (78.0%) believe seaweeds on the sea outnumber seaweeds on the

shore and (22.0%) of the respondents believe seaweeds on the shore outnumber seaweeds on the

sea. (Fig 3).

22%

78%

Yes No

Figure 6: Do the quantity of seaweeds you come across on the seaweeds outnumber the quantity
of seaweeds on the shore?

33 | P a g e
 4.1.5. Occupation of Respondents

On the type of occupation they do, many respondents (50.0 %) are fishermen, (25.0%)

fishmongers, (10.0%) farmers, (10.0%) Civil servants, and (5.0%) other respectively (fig 4)

Occupation of Respondents

10 `

2 2
1

Civil Servant Farmer Fishermen Fishmonger Other

Occupation

Figure 7: Occupation of Respondents

34 | P a g e
5.0.CHAPTER 5

5.1.DISCUSSION

This recent study found that most of the respondents do not know the benefits of seaweeds but

only see the seaweeds as a nuisance along the coastal areas in Esiama in Elembelle Municipal.

This does not coincide with the results of the previous studies conducted in India, Norway and

Australia where it suggests that the consumption of seaweed in the form of sushi as well as

ingredient in snack foods has experienced significant growth in recent times. Their vegetarian

origin, sustainable production technologies and proven accrued health benefits make seaweeds a

highly innovative enterprise and ideal candidate for the establishment of small businesses to

cater to local needs (Birch et al., 2019).

The current study revealed that the glut of seaweeds along the coast of Esiama negatively affects

the activities of fishermen and individuals who go to the beach for refreshment activities, this

agrees with the studies conducted in United State of America where it states that, due to floating

seaweeds on the sea and piles of decaying seaweeds on the beach, the operations of marine

fishers have become less productive as fishers frequently catch seaweeds instead of fish and

spend productive hours removing entangled seaweeds from their fishing nets. Coastal tourism

has been threatened by beach fouling caused by heaps of rotten Sargassum on the beach that

produce offensive odors, emit poisonous hydrogen sulfide that is dangerous to human health, and

cause eye and skin irritation (Louime et al., 2017).

The current study revealed that aged population above thirty years know more about seaweeds

compared to the younger population below thirty years. The reason could be that most

35 | P a g e
population above thirty years have been in fishing activities for a very long time and had had

many encounters with seaweeds.

The findings of this current study revealed significant association between age , gender ,

occupation and fishing experience but no significant association in male and female.

36 | P a g e
6.0.Conclusion and Recommendation

6.1.Conclusion

Majority of the respondents had little or no knowledge about seaweeds. In addition, more males

engaged in fishing while females engaged in fish processing and selling. The emergence of

seaweed on a large scale along the coast of Esiama affects socio-economic activities therefore

contributing to rife in social vices such as theft.

6.2.Recommendations

It is recommended that institutional bodies such as Environmental Protection Agencies (EPA),

Ministry of Fisheries and Aquaculture should help in promoting mass education, and research on

benefits of seaweeds and its proper usage.

Future research should be carried out in other areas to confirm these results to reduce the

inadequate knowledge on seaweeds among coastal communities.

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S.-K. Seaweed polysaccharides and their potential biomedical applications. Starch 2015,
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producing fuels and chemicals, Trends Biotechnol., 2013, 31, 70–77
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National Development Plan: Galway, Ireland, 2004; pp. 1–123.
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Inc.: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2015; pp. 7–26.
52. Bledzki, A.K.; Sperber, V.E.; Faruk, O. Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in
Polymers; iSmithers Rapra Publishing: Akron, OH, USA, 2002
53. Keller F. A, Hamilton J. E, Nguyen Q. A. Microbial pretreatment of biomass, Applied
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 APPENDICES

QUESTIONNAIRE

KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

This is a questionnaire prepared by GODWIN JEFFERY ACKAH; a second year

PETROCHEMICAL ENGINEERING student of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science
and Technology to assist him embark on research on PRODUCTION OF BIOETHANOL
FROM SEAWEEDS ON THE COASTAL AREAS IN ESIAMA .

This questionnaire is designed for purely academic purposes and I therefore humbly appeal to
you to be sincere in filling them.

The success of this research will be greatly based on your co-operation. You are highly assured
that any demographical information given is subjected to confidentiality.

Please thick in the boxes and fill in the spaces provided below.

SECTION A (DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS)

1. Gender

a. Male b. Female

2. Age

a. Below 18yr b. Between 18-30yr c. Above 30

3. Marital status:

a. Single b. Married

4. Level of education:

a. Basic education b. Secondary education c. Tertiary education d. None

5.Religion:

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a. Christianity b. Islamic c. Other

6.Occupation

a. Fisherman b. Farmer c. Fishmonger d.Civil Servant e.Other

SECTION B

1.Have you heard about seaweeds?

a. Yes [ ] b. No [ ]

2.If Yes, what do you know about seaweeds?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3.Have you used seaweeds before?

a.Yes [ ] b. No [ ]

4.If Yes,what did you use seaweeds for?

a. Eat raw [ ] b.Food additive [ ] c.Medicinal purpose [ ] d.Other uses [ ]

5.For how long have you observed seaweeds on the coast of Esiama?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

6.How long have you worked as a fisherman?

a.1 - 5 years [ ] b. 6 – 10 years [ ] c. More than 10 years[ ]

7.Do seaweeds affect your job as a fisherman?

a. Yes [ ] b. No [ ]

8.If Yes,how do they affect fishing?

a.No catch [ ] b.Less catch [ ] c.Impeed canoe movement[ ] d.Other [ ]

9.Do you mostly come across seaweeds while fishing on the sea ?

a.Yes [ ] b.No[ ]

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10.Do the quantity of seaweeds you come across on the seaweeds outnumber the quantity of
seaweeds on the shore?

a.Yes [ ] b.No [ ]

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