Technology in Society 70 (2022) 102038

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Technology in Society
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/techsoc

Social media, sleep difficulties and depressive symptoms: A case study of

South African youth in Cape Town
Kirk De Doncker *, Nyx McLean
Faculty of Informatics and Design, Department of Information Technology, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, South Africa

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: While the rapid evolution of social media has generated several positive outcomes, there is a growing concern of
Youth negative effects due to its excessive usage. The excessive use of social media, often termed as Problematic social
Social media media use has been generalised as an addiction-like behaviour that is very common with more established
Social media addiction
features of drug addictions. In this paper, the relationship between social media use, sleep difficulties and
Depressive symptoms
Sleep difficulties
depressive symptoms is evaluated using a survey sample of 205 youth participants, recruited from various areas
Smartphones in Cape Town. The participants completed questionnaires that included a social media addiction scale (SMAS-
SF), Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) and Center of Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). The results
suggest a high prevalence of social media use among the participants. Furthermore, the findings displayed a
positive relationship between social media use and sleep difficulties, while a positive effect of social media use on
depressive symptoms was also confirmed among the sample. The findings highlight the potential threats to the
health of youth from the excessive use of social media and digital devices. Further studies are required to
establish a deeper understanding of this phenomenon.

1. Introduction
There is an overwhelming concern that problematic use of social and
digital media technologies negatively impact youth’s mental and psy­
chological health [1]: 248 [2];: 69 [3];: 51; Alt, 2015: 111). This study
serves to explore the impact of mental health, attitude towards, and
overall behaviour of youth in Cape Town toward social media technol­
ogies. The study also seeks to examine the way youth relate to social
networking sites. By identifying and understanding the youth’s per­
ceptions of health, medical and privacy implications, this study seeks to
examine any prospective relationship between social media use, sleep
disturbance, and depression.
This study defines social media technologies as interactive web-
based platforms that allow users to communicate with specific people,
share content quickly across multiple digital platforms, such as smart­
phones, post or edit content, and to view, comment on, or like, or share
content that has been posted by others. This includes social media
platforms, also known as social networking sites, such as Facebook,
YouTube, Instagram, LinkedIn, and Twitter. With that in mind, the use
of social media technologies continues to rise at a rapid rate as tech­
nological progress continues to drive increased usage of social media
platforms as it becomes more fully integrated into everyday life [4,5]:
34; [6,7].
Consider, for example, that in 2010, a study of young adults, over the
age of 18, showed that 73% use Facebook, while 47% and 14% use
MySpace and LinkedIn respectively [8]. By 2018, a study among uni­
versity students indicated that WhatsApp had become one of the most
important social media platforms [9]: 185). The study also revealed that
the main uses of social media among the group were to be in contact
with friends, conversing with a partner, and maintaining contact with
other users. The same study showed that after WhatsApp, Facebook was
considered the second most important social media platform.
While, in 2015, a study done by World Wide Worx [10]; an inde­
pendent technology market research organisation in South Africa, re­
ported that 11.2 million people use Facebook in South Africa alone.
Similarly, BusinessTech [11]; an online IT publisher in South Africa,
reported that there are 12 million monthly active Facebook users, with
7.3 million using smartphones to access websites. While these studies
reveal a growing incidence of social networking on Facebook amongst
South Africans, a study in the U.S. showed that, in 2015, already 90% of
young people aged 18–29 years were using social media platforms [12].
In an effort to explain the increasing user numbers, Dogruer,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: kirk@africagrowth.com (K. De Doncker).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2022.102038
Received 16 March 2022; Received in revised form 10 June 2022; Accepted 13 June 2022
Available online 19 June 2022
0160-791X/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
K. De Doncker and N. McLean
Menevis, and Eyyam (2011: 2642) argue that the attraction to social
media networking sites lies in its ability to provide users with a platform
that enables them to connect and interact with others in a virtual
environment. But these sites not only connect people on a social and
emotional level where they can support each other, it also provides
opportunities for them to grow acquainted with others whose common
interests are shared [13] cited in Ref. [14]: 2642 [15];: 227). Social
media thus offers an array of facilities that are bound to keep the average
user connected throughout the day, which can substantially impact the
emotional state or wellbeing of the user [16]. For instance, studies
seeking to understand the link between social media technologies and its
impact on mental health have shown depressive symptoms such as
anxiety, mood changes, and a feeling of hopelessness among young
adults [17,18]. Community Behavioral Health Services (CBHS) Health
and Wellbeing [19] suggest that people with higher self-esteem post
more about their work, family and education; whereas individuals with
lower self-esteem concern themselves more about what other people
post, while continuously monitoring feeds and deleting unwanted posts.
Thus, individuals may experience an increase or decrease in their
self-esteem depending on how they perceive information that has been
posted. In light of this, studies in South Africa, similar to Shava and
Chinyamurindi [20]; captures the positive effects of social media tech­
nologies among young people, with minimal coverage on the adverse
effects [21,22]; Schoon, 2011). Thus, while social media technologies
have been shown to increase social well-being, there remains concerns
about the impact on the general well-being of users [23]: 652 [24];:
473). This concern persists because of evidence that suggests that the
problematic use of social networking sites (SNS) may lead to symptoms
which are generally akin to addictive disorders similar in nature to
substance abuse [25,26]: 321 [27];: 169). Addictive behaviours, such as
obsession and an inability to cease using social media, are likely a
consequence of Problematic Internet Use (PIU) where the problematic
use of the Internet may negatively affect wellbeing [28] cited in
Ref. [29]: 556). Yet, evidence relating to SNS addiction and social media
technologies in South Africa among youth and any associated potential
effects appears to be limited.
With this context in mind, this study seeks to determine whether
social media technology use has an impact on the well-being of youth
residing within the Cape Town area. The study focuses on youth, as it is a
period where young people are vulnerable and prone to poor mental
health, such as depression [30]: 408). The study examined if sleep dif­
ficulties are experienced with increased social media use, as good sleep
quality is an important component to achieving optimal well-being [31]:
912 [32];: 1). In this regard, the rationale for this study lies in its ca­
pacity to contribute to the body of knowledge on the experiences and the
effects of social media technologies among youth. The study achieved
this in two broad steps. Firstly, the study quantitatively assessed how
youth are making use of social media. Secondly, it sought to determine
whether social media use causes any evident negative effects among its
users.
The remainder of this paper is structured as follows: Section 2 re­
views the literature on the effect of social media use on health while
Section 3 explains the empirical methodology employed by the study.
Section 4 presents and discusses the results. Lastly, Section 5 presents
the conclusions and implications of the findings of the study.
2. Literature review
Social media is defined as an assembly of Internet-based applications
that has been constructed with both ideological and technological
foundations, which allow for the creation and exchange of user-
generated content [33]: 61). However, the quick and effortless sharing
of content was not always the case. In the 1990s, social media – such as
the Bulletin Board System – was a communication tool that was used on
personal computers [34]. It was not until the early 2000s that ad­
vancements in the functionality of communication technologies saw
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Technology in Society 70 (2022) 102038
social media applications move onto smartphones [35]. Initially, social
media was imagined to offer simple social communication while
allowing users to build reputations and establish career opportunities
[36]: 33). In the current moment, however, the Internet is ubiquitous
and exists in most electronic devices that society possesses. According to
Longstreet and Brooks [37]: 73), social media is popular among Internet
users with more time being spent on this group of technologies as
opposed to other forms of entertainment and news combined.
The increased enjoyment of social media can stimulate strong
habitual tendencies, which may result in the formation of increased
levels of addiction to usage [38]: 91 [39];: 706 [40];: 513). The exces­
sive use of online digital media may primarily stem from Internet
addiction, which is also known as Problematic Internet Use (PIU) [28]:
187). Moreover, incessant Internet use may cause individuals to become
too dependent on the technology, which could possibly result in users
feeling an inability to disconnect from the online realm. Longstreet and
Brooks (2017: 74) suggest that users’ becoming too dependent on the
Internet for their emotional health in particular, is where negative
feelings from deprivation become most pronounced. Dependency thus
results in a psychological state whereby users feel that there is a need for
Internet communication to be able to perform simple daily activities.
That said, Internet use should not be completely vilified, as it has
become an essential part of daily living [28]: 193). Thus, it is worth
acknowledging that healthy Internet use does exist, where users are not
frequently connected to their devices. Yet, in spite of this possibility,
negative consequences associated with Internet abuse continue to
persist. Internet addiction and abuse are concerning and treated seri­
ously. Some countries, such as China, Taiwan, and South Korea, have
even drafted specific treatment plans and advocate for professional help
for sufferers [41,42]: 1111).
A further concern that stems from increased Internet use is the
addictiveness of social media [43]: 84 [44];: 177). The addiction to
social media is considered a specific form of technology addiction,
which exhibits tendencies such as changes in behaviour, mood modifi­
cation, withdrawal symptoms, and increased conflict [43]: 84). These
tendencies are further described as a state where users are so engrossed
in social media, due to the constant desire to participate, the high vol­
ume of time spent online interferes with other important life areas
[45]:7). The addictiveness of social media has been exacerbated by how
the Internet has infiltrated the lives of its users and the emergence of
smartphones has strengthened this occurrence [44]: 17). The extended
use of smartphones has explicitly been associated with many various
health concerns, such as headaches, loss of memory, road accidents,
cancer, and even male infertility [46]: 323 [47];: 298 [48];: 267 [49];:
431 [50];: 385). As a consequence, the combination of social media and
smartphones may offer a prelude to the dangers of the excessive and
problematic use of these technologies.
Amidst these concerns, there is reason to believe that social media
addiction is evolving into a growing problem amongst adolescents in
particular [51]: 478). For instance, a study of 36,950 students indicated
that 90% of them used social networking websites with 97% of that
group being on Facebook (Junco, 2012: 187). In 2014, Facebook
revealed that there were 1.28 billion users who were active per month
with 802 million accessing the platform daily [52]: 133). Facebook is
unsurprisingly widely accepted as one the most popular social
networking platforms because of its ability to continuously gratify the
needs of Internet users [52]: 135). Yet these numbers have led to many
researchers questioning the possibility that online social networking can
become addictive [53]. Lending credibility to this concern is research by
van den Eijnden et al. [51]: 478) whose work has confirmed that most
adolescent social media users portray some degree of addiction-like
symptoms, such as problematic use (Banyai et al., 2017). Similarly,
Griffiths [54]: 519) argues that even though Facebook has become
synonymous with social networking addiction among many researchers,
it has become a tool that serves many different purposes to a variety of
users, which suggests that problematic use is not directly linked to
K. De Doncker and N. McLean
addiction-like symptoms [53]. This is somewhat exemplified by users
who use social media as means of employment, whereby large amounts
of time are spent online to generate an income, and not necessarily from
Internet addiction.
Social media use at night has been associated with sleep difficulties,
such as trouble falling asleep and waking patterns [55]: 574 [56];: 386).
This is explained, in part, by how sleep disruptions are exacerbated by
the exposure of bright light from screens and a direct result of the sup­
pression of melatonin; a sleep promoting hormone [57]: 240). Research,
such as by Peixoto et al. [58]: 77), have confirmed that sleeping patterns
are disrupted when adolescents are exposed to artificial or electric
lighting. According to Hirshkowitz et al. [59]: 40), the recommended
sleep required for adolescents is between eight to 10 h, which equals the
average amount of time spent online in a study by Rideout [60]. The
finding is astounding as it becomes very difficult to believe that eight to
10 h of sleep can be achieved when such a high percentage of the day is
dedicated to online media. The concern expressed in this study is
mirrored by Zimmerman [61]; where consternation is expressed at the
fact that media use may be displacing an essential health component
such as sleep.
A further component responsible for continued exposure to bright
light is the use of smartphones specifically. According to a report, 17.7
million of the adult population access social networking applications
and the Internet via their smartphones (Mkwanda, 2015). Earlier studies
have linked smartphones with negative health issues such tiredness,
fatigue, and sleep disturbance [47]: 298 [62]; cited in Ref. [63]: 1). In
summation, there is a concern about the vulnerability of adolescents due
to the addictive design and systematic use of smartphones and social
media. It has been well documented that there is a growing dependency
on social media among young people, which has been associated with a
behavioural addiction, such as dysfunctional Internet behaviours and
online gambling [64]: 1; Kuss and Griffiths, 2011: 3529). Similarly, a
finding has reported that young people use an average of 9 h of online
media per day, with an average amount of 1 h of that time devoted to
social media [60] cited in Ref. [65]: 269). One of the reasons that has
been offered to make sense of this is that social networking sites give
young people a feeling of social connectedness and togetherness (Sapacz
et al., 2016: 154).
Feelings of togetherness are fostered by the abundance of options to
access that feeling of being together in an online community. Smart­
phones offer text messaging apps, online gaming, and social networking
which allow users a portal to the Internet 24 h a day. Due to prolonged
daily use, Lemola et al. (2015: 406) suggest that there may be a rela­
tionship between sleep difficulties and depressive symptoms in partic­
ular. The same study suggests that adolescents are particularly prone to
developing poor mental health such as depression. This concern about
how adolescents are prone to developing depression gathers some
weight when one considers how research on adolescents who are
deprived of sleep over a period of time have indicated higher levels of
depressive symptoms (Frederiksen et al., 2015: 556). Electronic media
use at night has been highlighted as a problem for sleep difficulties with
a pronounced increase of adolescent use in the last decade [30]: 406).
Social networking sites have been earmarked as the reason for this in­
crease as it gives young people a feeling of social connectedness and
togetherness [66]: 154). The finding refers to adolescents at a critical
juncture where they are developing their social identity while also
seeking acceptance from other young people [67]: 324).
Problematic electronic media can strain mental, emotional, and
physiological arousal, thereby resulting in an increased heart rate,
which results in a decrease in sleepiness [30]: 407). A study by Van
Zundert et al. (2015: 558) determined that decreased sleep quality as
well as increased levels of disturbances in sleep patterns results in
negative effects the following day. These negative effects were
confirmed in an experimental study that discovered increased
self-reports of anxiety, tension, and fatigue [30]: 408). A different study
involving 390 adolescents deduced that these sleep difficulties are an
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Technology in Society 70 (2022) 102038
occurrence of media use at night [30]: 411). Van Zundert et al. (2015:
566) back up these effects by providing evidence to suggest that sleep
difficulties may encourage depressive behaviour, especially amongst
adolescents. Furthermore, Lemola et al. (2015: 416) also show that so­
cial networking via smartphones are related to increased electronic
media use of adolescents at night, which in turn points to further find­
ings of increased sleeping difficulties. They argue that the absence of
media use before sleep may contribute to a decreased likelihood of
depression.
3. Methodology
Due to an increase in the use of smartphones and social media over
the past decade, research has focused on the problematic use of social
media, commonly referred to as problematic social media use or social
media addiction (Banyai et al., 2017: 1; Worsely et al., 2018: 88). In light
of this, there are four main theoretical frameworks that underpin this
study. These four frameworks are:
1. Uses and Gratification Theory: The Uses and Gratifications theory
is linked to research on the effects of media, and is a framework that
seeks to shed light on the reasons behind the particular media that is
selected for the satisfaction of particular needs among individuals
(McQuail, 2005).
2. Media Dependency Theory: The Media Dependency theory ex­
pands on the foundations of Uses and Gratification Theory by
enabling an analysis of the relationship between individuals and the
choice of media they wish to engage with in further detail.
3. Problematic Internet Use (PIU): The excessive use of social media
or any internet driven activity may be characterised by Problematic
Internet Use (PIU), which negatively impacts on one’s social and
emotional life (Nezgovorova et al., 2018) [28]. conceptualises this
theory as a distinctive template of Internet-related cognitions and
behaviours that negatively affect the outcomes of life (cited in
Ref. [29]: 556).
4. Pathway Model of Problematic Mobile Phone Use: The Pathway
Model of Problematic Mobile Phone Use is one of few theoretical
frameworks that exist to make sense of the various pathways which
may lead to PIU. Evidence suggests that smartphones are the most
frequently used digital platform when accessing media via the
Internet (Goldstuck, 2017; Griffiths, 2018), which justifies the in­
clusion of the pathway model of Problematic Mobile Phone Use
(PMPU) to understand the potential concerns from PMPU and social
media use more generally.
3.1. Population and sampling
The advantages of using the sampling method is to make research of
any type and size more manageable which will, in turn, result in more
accurate research findings [68]: 23). Sampling can be divided into
non-probability and probability sampling [69]: 1). This paper employed
the simple random probability sampling technique, as no participant
was favoured ahead of the other, thereby indicating an equal probability
of being selected.
Participants of the study were recruited within the Cape Town area.
The research subjects consisted of young individuals that ranged be­
tween the ages of 18–34 years. This year range was intentionally chosen
as it is a period where young people are at their most vulnerable to
developing poor mental health, including depression [30]: 408). In
South Africa, people between the ages of 15–34 are regarded as youth,
where it is estimated that the youth represent 36% of the population
[70]. As part of the recruitment process, a letter was distributed to the
participants pertaining to information on the study aims and procedures.
These individuals were then contacted to establish whether they would
be interested in participating. Youth who agreed to participate
K. De Doncker and N. McLean
determined the sampling size for the study. The sample size refers to the
number of people chosen from the sampling frame who will take part in
the data collection process.
3.2. Participants
In total, 205 youth representatives aged 18–34 years completed the
questionnaires under the supervision of the researcher, where four
questionnaires were deemed unusable due to the ineligibility of certain
criteria, such as age requirements, and incomplete feedback. Among the
205 participants, 101 (49%) self-identified as men and 100 (49%) self-
identified as women. A majority indicated to having active social
media accounts (99%), while the other 1% acknowledged that they
sporadically use social media.
3.3. Data collection methods
In this study, the collection of data and information was done
through means of a self-administered questionnaire. The self-
administered questionnaire covered questions on social media addic­
tion and health, including sleep, social media consumption before going
to sleep, and depressive symptoms. The structure of the questionnaire
included open-ended questions, multiple-choice questions, as well as
scale-based questions. Participants had a better understanding of the
question, which contributed to fewer participants failing to answer due
to its structure [71]: 118). Permission was obtained from the from the
institution to conduct the study involving human participants. Ethical
clearance was received on June 26, 2019 and data was collected within a
4-month period thereafter.
The survey method used was closely associated with descriptive
research and consisted of large samples [68]: 73). Descriptive studies, as
[72] highlights, is an ideal approach to collect data from selected par­
ticipants because subjects can be observed without intervening. Ques­
tionnaires were also used due to their increased speed of data collection,
low cost requirements, as well as ability to obtain higher levels of ob­
jectivity. In addition, a valid and reliable social media addiction scale
(SMAS-SF) was expended to examine the existence of social media ad­
dictions [73]: 179). Thus, the consumption of various social networking
sites was also investigated, such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and
general Internet use. Lemola et al. (2015: 406), for instance, suggests
that there may be a relationship between sleep difficulties and depres­
sive symptoms. In light of this, the questionnaire also sought to gather
information on sleep duration and sleep difficulties from the Insomnia
Severity Index (ISI) [74]: 299 [30];: 410). This study also sought to
assess depressive symptoms using five elements from the Center of
Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), such as “feeling
depressed”, “feeling fearful”, “feeling sad”, “feeling everything one does
is an effort”, and “that one enjoyed life” [30,75]: 411).
3.4. Data analysis: regression models
The regression equation to examine the effect of social media
addiction on sleep difficulties is specified in equations (1) and (2) as:
sdi = β0 + β1 smai + β2 Xi + εi (1)
sdi = β0 + β1 virti + +β2 vircomi + β3 virpri + β4 virinfi + β5 Xi + εi (2)
where i denotes respondents; sd and sma denotes sleep difficulties and
social media addiction, respectively; virt; vircom; virpr and virinf denotes
Virtual Tolerance, Virtual Communication, Virtual Problem, and Virtual
Information, respectively. Finally, X is a vector of control variables made
up of age, gender, and sleep hours.
The regression equation to examine the effect of social media
addiction on depressive symptoms are specified in equations (3) and (4)
as:
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Technology in Society 70 (2022) 102038
dsi = α0 + α1 smai + α2 Xi + εi (3)
dsi = α0 + α1 virti + α2 vircomi + α3 virpri + +α4 virinfi + α5 Xi + εi (4)
where ds denotes depressive symptoms and all other variables are
defined as above.
The four regression equations estimated using the ordinary least
squares (OLS) estimation technique in STATA to identify the signs and
significance of the coefficients β and α and strength of the relationship
between excessive social media use, sleep difficulties, and depressive
symptoms.
4. Findings and discussion
The study’s findings reveal in Table 1 that instant messaging appli­
cations, particularly WhatsApp, are the most used and preferred social
networking platform. This substantiates the study by Jasso-Medrano and
Lopez-Rosales (2018: 185) where similar results were uncovered. Un­
surprisingly, it was further revealed that smartphones were unequivo­
cally the most desired form of digital technology possessed among
youth. Particularly, instant messaging applications in conjunction with
smartphones [14]: 2642), which provide users with a platform that
enables them to connect and interact with individuals in a virtual
environment. These sites connect people on a social and emotional level
where they can support each other, while also growing acquainted to
other individuals where common interests are shared [13] cited in
Ref. [14]: 2642).
It must further be mentioned that smartphone use on its own may
possess its own set of disadvantages where frequent use could be labeled
as Problematic Mobile Phone Use (PMPU). PMPU is defined by Billieux
[76]: 299) as excessive mobile phone use that leads to negative conse­
quences in daily life. Problematic use of smartphones is not particularly
new; earlier studies have provided evidence of PMPU in countries such
as Korea and Tunisia [77] cited in Ref. [78]: 1 [79];: 957). Furthermore,
the findings are consistent with evidence from the literature that justifies
the growing concern of smartphones and problematic use [80]: 41 [81];:
16 [66];: 158).
The study provided evidence to suggest a high prevalence of social
media addiction among the sample. This section consisted of the Social
Media Addiction Scale (SMAS-SF) acknowledged by Sahin (2018: 179),
which was used to test for social media addiction. The SMAS-SF con­
sisted of 29 items with a 5-point Likert-type scale. The options for the
scale were “strongly disagree”, “disagree”, “neither agree nor disagree”,
“agree”, and “strongly agree”. On a scale of 1–5, “strongly disagree” was
linked to 1, while “strongly agree” was linked to 5 points. Higher mean
values of the scores indicate a higher incidence of social media addic­
tion. It ranges between a minimum of 29 and a maximum amount of
145, thereby representing a 116-point range. On this scale, values above
the median value of 58 reflect a high incidence of social media addiction
and vice versa. The SMAS-SF was structured according to four sub di­
mensions, namely “Virtual Tolerance”, “Virtual Communication”, “Vir­
tual Problem”, and “Virtual Information”. The “Virtual Tolerance” sub
dimension measures the extent to which participants are consumed with
social media applications in their daily lives. Secondly, the “Virtual
Table 1
Most popular social media applications.
Social Media Platform Percentage
WhatsApp 81%
Games 2%
Facebook 10%
Twitter 3%
Instagram 4%
Total 100%
Source: Research data 2020.
K. De Doncker and N. McLean Technology in Society 70 (2022) 102038

Communication” sub dimension captures the lack of self-presentational Table 3

skills inciting users to communicate via social media applications as Frequently used applications before going to sleep.
opposed to face-to-face interaction. Thirdly, “Virtual Problem” discerns Never Rarely Occasionally Most of the time Always
the participants’ ability to control their social media use. Finally, “Vir­
Facebook 33.33% 16.41% 17.91% 19.40% 12.93%
tual Information” evaluates whether the participants are compulsive WhatsApp 2.98% 5.97% 13.93% 38.30% 38.81%
social media users due to the speed, accessibility, and intensity of the YouTube 22.88% 19.40% 21.39% 16.91% 11.94%
information that appears online. Table 2 clearly shows that the youth Twitter 66.67% 9.45% 9.45% 9.95% 2.98%
sampled demonstrate high levels of social media addiction. This finding Instagram 36.82% 9.45% 21.89% 22.89% 8.46%

is alarming as social media addiction has extensively been associated Source: Research data 2020.
with harmful and potentially disturbing behaviours that were high­
lighted in the literature review [82]: 160 [30];: 405 [26];: 321; Sapacz
et al., 2016: 155). The sub-dimension of the social media addiction scale Table 4
that is prevalent among the study sample is “Virtual Communication”, Frequently used applications during the day.
which captures the lack of self-presentational skills where users prefer to Never Rarely Occasionally Most of the time Always
communicate via social media applications as opposed to face-to-face Facebook 26.87% 20.40% 24.39% 14.42% 15.42%
interaction. The prevalence of social media addiction is further illus­ WhatsApp 0.99% 3.48% 14.43% 31.84% 49.25%
trated in Table 3 and Table 4, which highlighted the frequent use of YouTube 19.91% 21.89% 35.32 13.43% 9.45%
instant messaging applications. This mirrors the study by Sapacz et al. Twitter 66.17% 10.48% 9.45% 10.48% 2.99%
Instagram 36.32% 10.95% 2.34% 19.40% 9.95%
(2016: 154) where they provide evidence that social networking gives
adolescents a feeling of connectedness and togetherness. Furthermore, it Source: Research data 2020.
should be noted that this study does not discourage social networking,
but rather advocates more face-to-face engagement in the social realm.
Social media addiction stems from Internet addiction, which according Table 5
to an earlier study, is known PIU [28]: 187). Consistent with similar Regression results on sleep difficulties and social media addiction.
research, Internet addiction is very prone among young Internet users Dependent variable: Sleep Difficulties
[83]: 960 [84];: 209). Model 1 Model 2
The next step sought to examine the relationship between social
Coef. Std. t Coef. Std. t
media addiction and sleep difficulties amongst youth. Table 5 presents Err. Err.
the results of the regression analysis on the effect of social media
Constant 8.374*** 1.784 4.69 7.655*** 1.806 4.24
addiction and its sub dimensions on sleep difficulties among the sample SMA 0.019 0.013 1.52
surveyed. The results in Model 1 show a positive, but insignificant, effect VIRT 0.108 0.073 1.49
of social media addiction on sleep difficulties. In Model 2, the sub di­ VIRCOM − 0.086 0.058 − 1.48
mensions “Virtual Information”, “Virtual Tolerance” and “Virtual VIRPR 0.028 0.061 0.47
VIRINF 0.094 0.061 1.54
Problem” are found to have a positive effect on sleep difficulties.
Age − 0.012 0.050 − 0.25 − 0.004 0.049 − 0.07
However, the effects are all observed to be too insignificant to suggest Gender − 1.145** 0.459 − 2.49 − 1.041** 0.466 − 2.24
that social media addiction has an effect on sleep difficulties. On the (Men)
control variables, the researcher observed a relationship between gender Sleep hours 0.945** 0.371 2.55 0.923** 0.370 2.5
and sleep difficulties at a 5% level of significance in both Models 1 and 2, F (4, 194) 3.74 3
Prob > F 0.0059 0.0052
which indicates that male respondents were more likely to experience R-squared 0.0716 0.0991
lower levels of sleep difficulties compared with women. In addition, the Adj R-squared 0.0524 0.0661
positive effect of sleep hours at 5% significance in both models indicates Root MSE 3.2237 3.2004
that longer sleeping hours result in sleep difficulties. Lastly, the negative Observations 199 199
effect of age is observed to be insignificant across both models. In Note: SMA= Social Media Addiction; VIRT= Virtual Tolerance; VIRCOM= Vir­
Table 5, the overall results revealed that social media addiction had a tual Communication; VIRPR= Virtual Problem; VIRINF= Virtual Information.
positive effect on difficulties experienced during sleep episodes. For Age = Age of respondents in years; Gender = 0 for women and 1 otherwise ***,
example, participants aged 18–23 years experienced an increased exis­ ** and * denotes significance at 1%, 5% and 10% respectively.
tence of difficulties during sleep episodes. This is not too dissimilar from Source: Research data 2020.
the findings in the social media addiction assessment that indicate a
higher existence in the 18–23 year bracket. The findings are congruent [85]: 558). The pessimism around the discovery of social media and
with earlier studies that indicate that unhealthy use of social media is a sleep difficulties among youth is disconcerting as it may negatively
trigger for sleep disturbance and sleep interference amongst youth [47]: affect academic performance in this age group specifically. Moreover,
298 [30];: 406). In addition, earlier research suggests that a reduction in the subsequent results are an emulation of the initial examined literature
sleep quality may result in adverse effects being felt the following day where it was established that a relationship between social networking
and sleep difficulties exist [86]: 9 [47];: 298 [87];: 2 [30];: 406).
However, regardless of the positive effect that social networking has on
Table 2 sleep difficulties, it should be noted that the general findings are not
Social media addiction scores of participants. statistically significant to cause an apprehension towards social media
Age Group (in years) VIRT VIRCOM VIRPR VIRINF SMA use.
The final step in the regression analysis sought to provide further
18–23 14.35 21.44 19.26 18.60 73.65
insights about the relationship between social media addiction and
24–29 13.15 20.37 17.99 16.63 68.03
30–34 12.17 19.33 16.57 16.61 64.67 depressive symptoms amongst youth. The results of the effect of social
Average 13.41 20.57 18.12 17.43 69.54 media addiction (SMA) and its sub dimensions on depressive symptoms
Note: SMA = .Social Media Addiction; VIRT= Virtual Tolerance; VIRCOM=
are presented in Table 6. From Model 1, we observe a positive effect of
Virtual Communication; VIRPR= Virtual Problem; VIRINF= Virtual Informa­ SMA on depressive symptoms at 1% significance. In Model 2, the sub
tion. dimension of “Virtual Problem” is positively related to depressive
Source: Research data 2020. symptoms at 5% level of significance. “Control Communication” and

5
K. De Doncker and N. McLean Technology in Society 70 (2022) 102038

Table 6 findings reported a minor incidence of this concern, although higher

Regression results on depressive symptoms and social media addiction. levels were prevalent amongst the younger age group. This was slightly
Dependent variable: Depressive Symptoms inconsistent with earlier studies where a much higher prevalence of
sleep difficulties had been pronounced. It should be noted that data
Model 1 Model 2
received in the form of a survey could contain fabricated feedback,
Coef. Std. T Coef. Std. t which may affect the nature of the results [88]: 1). A further cause for
Err. Err.
the inconsistency may be a direct result of a smaller sample size that was
Constant 7.452*** 1.320 5.65 7.870*** 1.343 5.86 used for this study, which contrasts previous research. However, there is
SMA 0.058*** 0.009 6.18
enough evidence to suggest that youth need to adopt a cautious
VIRT 0.084 0.054 1.56
VIRCOM 0.041 0.043 0.95 approach with respect to their social media use and sleeping patterns.
VIRPR 0.111** 0.045 2.47 The next step involved the examination of the relationship between
VIRINF − 0.022 0.045 − 0.49 social media addiction and depressive symptoms. Depressive symptoms
Age − 0.004 0.037 − 0.11 − 0.006 0.037 − 0.15 were measured according to the Center of Epidemiological Studies
Gender (Men) − 0.661* 0.340 − 1.95 − 0.717** 0.346 − 2.07
Sleep hours 0.357 0.274 1.3 0.405 0.275 1.47
Depression Scale and the outcome indicated that high levels of social
F (4, 194) 11.71 7.25 media use might affect psychological health. The findings are consistent
Prob > F 0 0 with the results from previous studies and young social media users
R-squared 0.1945 0.21 should take cognisance of how their mental health could be negatively
Adj R- 0.1779 0.1811
affected.
squared
Root MSE 2.3845 2.3798 Conclusively, similar to conventional addictions, technologies such
Observations 199 199 as smartphones with facilities such as viewing videos, browsing the
Internet, and connecting to social networks could result in new addic­
SMA= Social Media Addiction; VIRT= Virtual Tolerance; VIRCOM= Virtual
Communication; VIRPR= Virtual Problem; VIRINF= Virtual Information. Age = tions. Social media can offer more than a mindless escapism; it is a real
Age of respondents in years; Gender = 0 for women and 1 otherwise ***, ** and * reflection of one’s physical reality in a virtual space. The results of this
denotes significance at 1%, 5% and 10% respectively. study suggest that social and psychological health may be affected by the
Source: Research data 2020. excessive use of social media technologies. Until now, most researchers
agree that more research on digital technologies should be conducted,
“Virtual Information are also found to be positively related to depressive especially in long-term use among young individuals. It is recommended
symptoms but insignificant. The negative effect of age on depressive that youth receive the necessary education regarding sleep hygiene and
symptoms is insignificant in Models 1 and 2. Similar to sleep difficulties, social media use, as improving sleep quality may be a significant factor
the relationship between negative effects on sleep and gender can be in the prevention of psychological health disorders.
observed at 10% and 5% significance in Models 1 and 2 respectively, This may serve to educate young people on the potential risks and
which indicates men have lower levels of depressive symptoms. Parallel make the user more mindful about the time spent on their digital de­
to earlier studies, it was discovered that a positive relationship exists vices. It will be beneficial to establish healthy boundaries regarding time
between social networking and depressive symptoms [26]: 324). spent on digital devices. It may also provide the basis for future research
Referring to Table 6, there was significant evidence to suggest that into the impact of social media technologies and health implications of
higher levels of social media use result in depressive behaviour. The root its users. Technology has exponential benefits when used correctly and a
of this problem may have stemmed from the excessive reassurance balanced lifestyle should be adopted to avoid an overdependence of
pathway as previously discussed in the theoretical framework chapter. digital devices. Parents should offer clear advice about online behaviour
The pathway illustrated high levels of anxiety, which was a result of and provide their children with the necessary tools on how to negotiate
social networking that originated from a fear of being disconnected. social media platforms. This includes sharing information about in­
cidences of cyberbullying and FOMO to prevent young people experi­
5. Conclusion and recommendations encing the negative aspects of online media. Ultimately, social media is
significant for young people today as they build peer connections online,
The central problem addressed in this study is whether social media which has the potential to support overall well-being. Further research
use may lead to adverse effects on the psychological health of youth. The on the relationship between social media use and psychological health
study surveyed 205 youth individuals in Cape Town to assess whether should be conducted, using a larger sample size than this study. Sup­
social media addiction exists among the sample group. In doing so, each plementary to a quantitative approach, qualitative methods such as in-
participant was examined in accordance with the social media addic­ depth interviews should prove useful in determining motivations and
tions scale (SMAD-SF), which was established in an earlier study [73]: explanations for some of the findings. A more comprehensive study will
179). The findings indicated a strong presence of social media addiction further elucidate the risk factors associated with excessive social
among youth. The results provide evidence of tension and anxiety that networking, which will undoubtedly benefit all social media users.
users feel when their digital devices are out of reach. In line with the first
objective, it highlights that the compulsive use of instant messaging Author statement
applications and the need to stay connected in the digital realm has
stimulated the incidence of social media addiction. In congruence with The authors, Kirk de Doncker and Nyx McLean, confirms sole re­
the results, earlier studies, as indicated in the literature review, have sponsibility for the following: study conception and design, data
confirmed the prevalence of enhanced levels of social networking and collection, analysis and interpretation of results, and manuscript
should magnify the potential concerns that result from spending too preparation.
much time on social media applications.
Following the assessment of social media addiction, the study Appendix A. Supplementary data
examined the relationship between social media addiction and some of
the associated concerns. One concern, as previously highlighted in the Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
theoretical framework, involved sleep difficulties as overall health is org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2022.102038.
affected by the quality of sleep, especially among youth. Sleep diffi­
culties were assessed with the use of the Insomnia Severity Index and the

6
K. De Doncker and N. McLean Technology in Society 70 (2022) 102038

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