Natasha Shetty

Political Science Project

Operation Enduring Freedom

NATASHA SHETTY
ROLL NUMBER 19
11-E
Natasha Shetty

INDEX

Sr.no Particulars Page number

1 Introduction 1

2 purpose 1

3 Actual event 2,3,4

4 International support 5

5 OEF-P 6,7,8

6 OEF-HOA 9,10

7 timeline 11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,22

8 End of conflict 22,23,24,25

9 Us reaction and after math 26,27,28
Natasha Shetty

Operation Enduring Freedom

Operation Enduring Freedom
(OEF) was the official name used
by the U.S. government for the
Global War on Terrorism. On 7
October 2001, in response to the
September 11 attacks, President
George W. Bush announced that
airstrikes targeting Al-Qaeda and
the Taliban had begun in
Afghanistan.

Purpose
The operation was launched to stop the Taliban from
providing a safe haven to al Qaeda and to stop al Qaeda's
use of Afghanistan as a base of operations for terrorist
activities.
Start date- October 7, 2001
End date- April 14, 2021
Natasha Shetty

Actual event
On 20 September 2001, the U.S. stated that Osama bin
Laden was behind the 11 September attacks in 2001. The
US made a five-point ultimatum to the Taliban
Deliver to the U.S. all of
the leaders of al-Qaeda
Release all imprisoned
foreign nationals
Close immediately every
terrorist training camp
Hand over every terrorist
and their supporters to
appropriate authorities
Give the United States full access to terrorist training
camps for inspection
On 21 September 2001, the Taliban rejected this
ultimatum, stating there was no evidence in their
possession linking bin Laden to the 11 September attacks.
On 22 September 2001 the United Arab Emirates and
later Saudi Arabia withdrew their recognition of the
Taliban as the legal government of Afghanistan, leaving
Natasha Shetty

neighboring Pakistan as the only remaining country with

diplomatic ties.

On 4 October 2001, it was reported that the Taliban

covertly offered to turn bin Laden over to Pakistan for
trial in an
international tribunal
that operated
according to Islamic
shar'ia law. On 7
October 2001, the
Taliban proposed to
try bin Laden in
Afghanistan in an
Islamic court. This proposition was immediately rejected
by the US.
On 14 October 2001, the Taliban proposed to hand bin
Laden over to a third country for trial, but only if they
were given evidence of bin Laden's involvement in the
events of 11 September 2001.
Natasha Shetty

The UN Security Council, on 16 January 2002,

unanimously established an arms embargo and the
freezing of
identifiable
assets belonging
to bin Laden, al-
Qaeda, and the
remaining
Taliban.
Natasha Shetty

International support
The United States was supported by several nations
during Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) in
Afghanistan in
2001–2003 and in
subsequent coalition
operations directly
or indirectly in
support of OEF. See
the article
Afghanistan War
order of battle for
the current disposition of coalition forces in Afghanistan.
The U.S.-led coalition initially removed the Taliban from
power and seriously crippled al-Qaeda and associated
militants in Afghanistan. However, success in quelling the
Taliban insurgency since the 2001 invasion has been
mixed. Many believe the Taliban cannot be defeated as
long as it has sanctuary in neighboring Pakistan and that
Operation Enduring Freedom has transformed into a
continuing full-fledged war with no end in sight.
Natasha Shetty

Operation Enduring Freedom – Philippines

(OEF-P)
The Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) Al Harakat Al Islamiyya,
is deemed a "foreign terrorist organization" by the United
States government. Specifically, it is an Islamist separatist
group based in and around the southern islands of the
Republic of the
Philippines, primarily
Jolo, Basilan, and
Mindanao.Since inception
in the early 1990s, the
group has carried out
bombings, assassinations,
kidnappings, and extortion in their fight for an
independent Islamic state in western Mindanao and the
Sulu Archipelago.[58] Its claimed overarching goal is to
create a Pan-Islamic superstate across the Malay portions
of Southeast Asia, spanning, from east to west, the large
island of Mindanao, the Sulu Archipelago (Basilan and
Jolo islands), the large island of Borneo (Malaysia and
Indonesia), the South China Sea, and the Malay Peninsula
(Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand and Myanmar).
Natasha Shetty

Jemaah Islamiyah is a militant Islamic terrorist

organization dedicated to the establishment of a
fundamentalist Islamic theocracy in Southeast Asia, in
particular Indonesia, Singapore, Brunei, Malaysia, the
south of Thailand and the Philippines. Jemaah Islamiyah
originally used peaceful means to achieve its goals, but
later resorted to terrorism because of its connections with
al-Qaeda.
Financial links between Jemaah Islamiyah and other
terrorist groups, such as Abu Sayyaf and al-Qaeda, have
been found to exist. Jemaah Islamiyah means "Islamic
Group" or "Islamic Community" and is often abbreviated
JI.Jemaah Islamiyah is thought to have killed hundreds of
civilians. Also, it is suspected of carrying out the Bali car
bombing on 12 October 2002, in which suicide bombers
attacked a nightclub killing 202 people and wounding
many more. Most of the casualties were Australian
tourists. After this attack, the U.S. State Department
designated Jemaah Islamiyah as a Foreign Terrorist
Organization. Jemaah Islamiyah is also suspected of
carrying out the Zamboanga bombings, the Metro Manila
bombings, the 2004 Australian embassy bombing and the
2005 Bali terrorist bombing.
Natasha Shetty

Operation Enduring Freedom – Horn of

Africa (OEF-HOA)
Unlike other operations contained in Operation Enduring
Freedom, OEF-HOA does not have a specific terrorist
organization as a target. OEF-HOA instead focuses its
efforts to disrupt and detect terrorist activities in the
region and to work with host nations to deny the
reemergence of terrorist cells and activities. Operations
began in mid-2002 at Camp Lemonnier by a Combined
Joint Special Operations Task Force (CJSOTF)
augmented by support forces from Fort Stewart, Fort
Hood, and Fort Story. In October 2002, the Combined
Joint Task Force, Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) was
established at Djibouti at Camp Lemonnier, taking over
responsibilities from the CJSOTF. CJTF-HOA comprised
approximately 2,000 personnel including U.S. military
and Special Operations Forces (SOF), and coalition force
members, Combined Task Force 150 (CTF-150). The
coalition force consists of ships from Australia, Canada,
France, Germany, Netherlands, India, Italy, Pakistan,
New Zealand, Spain, Turkey and the United Kingdom.
The primary goal of the coalition forces is to monitor,
inspect, board and stop suspected shipments from entering
Natasha Shetty

the Horn of Africa region. Since 2003, the U.S. Military

also conducts operations targeting Al-Qaeda-linked
fighters in Somalia, these operations had reportedly killed
between 113 and 136 militants by early 2016. On 7 March
2016, a further 150 were killed in U.S. airstrikes on an al
Shabaab training camp north of Mogadishu.

CJTF-HOA has devoted the majority of its efforts to train

selected armed forces units of the countries of Djibouti,
Kenya and Ethiopia in counterterrorism and
counterinsurgency tactics. Humanitarian efforts
conducted by CJTF-HOA include the rebuilding of
schools and medical clinics, as well as providing medical
services to those countries whose forces are being trained.
The program expands as part of the Trans-Saharan
Counter Terrorism Initiative as CJTF personnel also assist
in training the forces of Chad, Niger, Mauritania and
Mali.
Natasha Shetty

Timeline
October 7, 2001 - Operation Enduring Freedom begins.
US President George W. Bush announces that US and
British forces have begun airstrikes on Taliban and al
Qaeda targets in Afghanistan. Airstrikes continue for five
days.
October 14, 2001 - The Taliban offers to discuss giving
Osama bin Laden to a third country for trial if the United
States provides evidence of bin Laden's involvement in
the September 11 attacks. The White House rejects the
offer.
October 19, 2001 - The Pentagon reports that US forces
have searched a compound used by Taliban leader Mullah
Mohammed Omar. This is the first acknowledged ground
action of OEF.
October 26, 2001 - British Armed Forces Minister Adam
Ingram tells the House of Commons that Britain is
deploying a force of 4,200 military personnel to
Afghanistan.
November 1, 2001 - Turkey announces it will deploy
troops to Afghanistan. Australia and Canada also agree to
send forces.
Natasha Shetty

November 5, 2001 - US Defense Secretary Donald

Rumsfeld announces that the United States has more than
doubled the number of its troops based in Afghanistan.
November 6, 2001 - German Chancellor Gerhard
Schroeder offers up to 3,900 troops for the effort.
November 7, 2001 - Italy says it will provide 2,700
troops.
November 9, 2001 - The Netherlands announces that they
are prepared to send up to 1,400 troops to Afghanistan.
November 13, 2001 - US airstrikes and ground attacks by
the anti-Taliban Afghan Northern Alliance lead to the fall
of Kabul.
November 16, 2001 - French troops deploy for
Afghanistan.
November 20, 2001 - The bodies of four journalists
missing in Afghanistan are recovered. The journalists
were on the road between Jalalabad and Kabul when their
convoy was attacked.
November 22, 2001 - Poland agrees to contribute up to
300 soldiers to OEF.
Natasha Shetty

December 2-5, 2001 - The United Nations hosts the Bonn

Conference in Germany. The resulting Bonn Agreement
creates an Afghan Interim Authority and outlines a
process for creating a new constitution and choosing a
new government.
December 7, 2001 - The Taliban loses its last major
stronghold as the city of Kandahar falls and opposition
forces enter.
December 20, 2001 - The United Nations authorizes the
International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) to provide
security support to the Afghans. The United Kingdom
agrees to lead the force initially.
December 22, 2001 - Hamid Karzai is sworn in as head of
an interim power-sharing government.
January 23, 2002 - Wall Street Journal reporter Daniel
Pearl is abducted in Karachi, Pakistan, by the National
Movement for the Restoration of Pakistani Sovereignty,
which claims the kidnapping is in retaliation for the
detention of Pakistanis at Guantanamo Bay.
January 27, 2002 - Media organizations receive the first
email from Pearl's captors, which includes photos of the
reporter handcuffed with a gun to his head.
Natasha Shetty

February 21, 2002 - FBI and Pakistani officials announce

they have received a videotape that confirms Pearl has
been killed.
March 25, 2002 - Rumsfeld announces that there are plans
under way for US and coalition forces to help train and
create an Afghan national army.
June 13, 2002 - Karzai is elected to a two-year
presidential term by the grand council, a gathering of
Afghanistan's tribal leaders.
August 9, 2003 - NATO assumes responsibility for the
ISAF mission.
January 2004 - Afghanistan passes a new constitution by
consensus.
October 9, 2004 - Afghanistan's first direct democratic
election is held.
December 7, 2004 - Karzai is sworn in as the first
democratically elected president of Afghanistan.
September 18, 2005 - The first parliamentary and
provincial elections are held in more than three decades.
March 1, 2006 - Bush makes his first visit to Afghanistan
and meets with Karzai.
Natasha Shetty

February 27, 2007 - A suicide bomber blows up a

checkpoint at Bagram Air Base, killing more than 20.
Taliban insurgents claim US Vice President Dick Cheney
was the target of the attack.
February 15, 2007 - Bush calls on NATO to increase
troops in Afghanistan. There are already about 50,000 US
and NATO troops there.
May 11, 2007 - The Taliban's top military commander,
Mullah Dadullah, is killed in a US-led coalition operation.
July 19, 2008 - Democratic US presidential nominee
Barack Obama makes his first visit to Afghanistan.
December 15, 2008 - Bush makes a surprise visit to
Afghanistan. It is his second and last visit as president.
February 17, 2009 - Obama approves a troop increase of
17,000 for Afghanistan. There are currently about 38,000
US troops serving in Afghanistan.
June 30, 2009 - US soldier Sgt. Bowe R. Bergdahl is
taken hostage by the Taliban. He is released five years
later in 2014.
Natasha Shetty

August 20, 2009 - Afghanistan holds its second election.

Voting fraud allegations lead to the scheduling of a
presidential runoff vote on November 7.
October 31, 2009 - A runoff election is canceled when
Foreign Minister Abdullah Abdullah drops out, leaving
Karzai as the only candidate and winner by default.
November 19, 2009 - Karzai is sworn in for a second term
as president.
December 1, 2009 - Obama announces the deployment in
2010 of 30,000 additional US troops. This new
deployment will bring the US total to almost 100,000
troops, in addition to 40,000 NATO troops.
January 2010 - Representatives from over 60 nations meet
in London for the International Conference on
Afghanistan, pledging to support the development of the
Afghan National Security Forces.
March 28, 2010 - US President Obama makes his first
visit to Afghanistan as president.
August 1, 2010 - The Netherlands becomes the first
NATO member to pull combat troops out of Afghanistan.
Natasha Shetty

August 5, 2010 - Ten aid workers are killed by gunmen in

Badakhshan, Afghanistan. Among the dead are six
Americans, two Afghans, a Briton and a German.
September 18, 2010 - Parliamentary elections are held.
Results are delayed following allegations of fraud.
December 3, 2010 - Obama visits for the third time, the
second as president.
May 2, 2011 - In the early morning hours, a small group
of US Forces, including Navy Seals, raid a compound in
Abbottabad, Pakistan. In the ensuing firefight, bin Laden
is killed. DNA samples are taken to confirm his identity,
then his body is buried at sea.
June 22, 2011 - Obama announces that all 33,000
additional US forces deployed to Afghanistan in
December 2009 will return home within the next 15
months. He also announces that US combat operations in
Afghanistan will end by 2014.
July 13, 2011 - The first batch of departing US soldiers
leaves Afghanistan. About 650 US soldiers leave the
northeastern province of Parwan.
Natasha Shetty

August 6, 2011 - Insurgents shoot down a helicopter in

central Afghanistan, killing 30 US coalition members,
seven Afghan troops and a civilian interpreter.
August 10, 2011 - NATO announces that Coalition forces
in Afghanistan have killed Mullah Mohibullah, the
Taliban leader and insurgent responsible for the downing
of the helicopter that left 38 US and Afghan personnel
dead.
August 2011 - August becomes the deadliest month for
US forces in Afghanistan since the conflict began, with 71
US casualties.
September 10, 2011 - Two Afghan civilians are killed,
and 77 US troops and 25 Afghan workers are wounded
when a Taliban suicide bomber detonates a large vehicle-
borne improvised explosive device at the entrance of
Combat Outpost Sayed Abad, an ISAF base in
Afghanistan's Wardak province.
September 13, 2011 - Taliban militants open fire near the
US Embassy and NATO's ISAF headquarters after they
storm into a nearby abandoned building. Three police
officers and one civilian are killed, and security forces kill
six militants. Taliban spokesman Zabiullah Mujahid tells
Natasha Shetty

CNN their target is the US Embassy, governmental

organizations and other foreign organizations.
February 1, 2012 - Defense Secretary Leon Panetta
announces that the US hopes to end its combat mission in
Afghanistan in 2013, transitioning primarily to a training
role.
February 21, 2012 - Violent protests break out in
Afghanistan over reports that Qurans were burned at a US
military base. A military official says the Qurans were
removed from a detainee center library at Bagram Airfield
because they had "extremist inscriptions" on them. As of
March 2, the unrest has left at least 41 people dead,
including six US soldiers, and hundreds wounded.
March 11, 2012 - Staff Sgt. Robert Bales, an American
soldier based at Camp Belambay, Afghanistan, goes on a
house-to-house shooting spree in two villages in
Kandahar province, killing 16 Afghan civilians. In 2013,
he is sentenced to life in prison.
April 8, 2012 - The US and Afghanistan sign a landmark
deal that gives Afghan authorities an effective veto over
special operations night raids. The deal prevents NATO's
ISAF from conducting raids without the permission of
Afghan officials.
Natasha Shetty

April 18, 2012 - The Los Angeles Times releases pictures

believed to have been taken in 2010 of US 82nd Airborne
Division paratroopers posing with the body parts of dead
insurgents in Afghanistan.
May 2, 2012 - Obama marks the first anniversary of the
death of bin Laden with an unannounced trip to
Afghanistan. According to the White House, his speech is
the first TV address to the nation from a war zone on
foreign soil. Obama and Karzai also sign a strategic
partnership agreement for 10 years of US support of
Afghanistan after the 2014 troop withdrawal.
June 9, 2012 - French President Francois Hollande
announces his plan to withdraw combat forces by year's
end will start next month.
September 1, 2012 - Two suicide bombers strike a joint
US-Afghan military base, killing 13 people and injuring
78 others. One bomber attacks the base on foot and
another one detonates a truck. No international coalition
service members are killed in the attack, but two are
wounded. The Taliban claims responsibility for the attack.
September 2, 2012 - US Special Operations Forces
temporarily suspend training of some 1,000 Afghan local
police recruits while they double-check the background of
Natasha Shetty

the current police force, following a rise in insider attacks

against NATO troops by Afghan forces.
September 14, 2012 - Fifteen insurgents wearing US
Army uniforms attack Camp Bastion, a US and British
military complex. Fourteen insurgents and two US
Marines are killed, nine others are wounded.
September 20, 2012 - US military officials report that the
surge of US forces in Afghanistan has ended and the last
several hundred surge troops have left the country.
December 2012 - France pulls its last troops engaged
directly in combat out of Afghanistan. The remaining
French troops, about 1,500, will remain in Afghanistan
for approximately six months to remove equipment and to
help train Afghan forces.
June 18, 2013 - Afghan National Security Forces formally
take over combat operations.
March 12, 2014 - A flag-lowering ceremony is held in
Kabul to mark the end of Canada's military mission in
Afghanistan.
May 27, 2014 - President Obama announces that the
United States combat mission in Afghanistan will end in
December 2014.
Natasha Shetty

September 30, 2014 - The United States and Afghanistan

sign a joint security agreement that will allow US troops
to stay in Afghanistan beyond the previous December
deadline to withdraw.
October 26, 2014 - The United Kingdom formally ends its
combat mission in Afghanistan with a flag-lowering
ceremony in Helmand province.
December 28, 2014 - The United States and NATO end
their combat mission with Afghanistan. In an official
ceremony, the commander of the ISAF officially marks
the end of coalition combat in Afghanistan by rolling up
the ISAF flag.
January 1, 2015 - After more than 13 years of combat
operations in Afghanistan, the US begins Operation
Freedom's Sentinel (OFS). The new mission conducts
counterterrorism operations targeting terrorist groups like
al Qaeda and the local ISIS affiliate and also focuses on
building up local Afghan security forces to help fight the
Taliban. The new US mission will also assist and
coordinate with the new NATO-led mission, Resolute
Support.
December 9, 2019 - Confidential documents obtained by
The Washington Post reveal that top US officials misled
Natasha Shetty

the American public about the war in Afghanistan in

order to conceal doubts about the likelihood that the
United States could be successful in the nearly 20-year
effort since its earliest days, the paper reports. The paper
states the interviews "bring into sharp relief the core
failings of the war that persist to this day" as "US officials
acknowledged that their warfighting strategies were
fatally flawed, and that Washington wasted enormous
sums of money trying to remake Afghanistan into a
modern nation."
April 14, 2021 - US President Joe Biden formally
announces his decision to withdraw US troops from
Afghanistan before September 11, 2021, deeming the
prolonged and intractable conflict in Afghanistan no
longer aligns with American priorities. "It's time to end
America's longest war," he says.
Natasha Shetty

End of conflict
WASHINGTON (Dec. 28, 2014) -- President Barack
Obama and Defense Secretary Chuck Hagel each issued
statements today marking the end of the combat mission
in Afghanistan.
After 13 years of combat operations, Operation Enduring
Freedom drew to a close today in a ceremony at the
International Security and Assistance Force headquarters
in Kabul, Afghanistan."Today's ceremony in Kabul marks
a milestone for our country," Obama said. "For more than
13 years, ever since nearly 3,000 innocent lives were
taken from us on 9/11, our nation has been at war in
Afghanistan. Now, thanks to the extraordinary sacrifices
of our men and women in uniform, our combat mission in
Afghanistan is ending, and the longest war in American
history is coming to a responsible conclusion."
"At the end of this year," Hagel said, "as our Afghan
partners assume responsibility for the security of their
country, the United States officially concludes Operation
Enduring Freedom. … In 2015, we begin our follow-on
mission -- Operation Freedom's Sentinel -- to help secure
and build upon the hard-fought gains of the last 13 years."
Natasha Shetty

Today, though, "we give thanks to our troops and

intelligence personnel who have been relentless against
the terrorists responsible for 9/11 -- devastating the core
al-Qaida leadership, delivering justice to Osama bin
Laden, disrupting terrorist plots and saving countless
American lives," the president said.
"We are safer, and our nation is more secure, because of
their service," he said. "At the same time, our courageous
military and diplomatic personnel in Afghanistan -- along
with our NATO allies and coalition partners--have helped
the Afghan people reclaim their communities, take the
lead for their own security, hold historic elections and
complete the first democratic transfer of power in their
country's history."
"I want to express my deep gratitude to all U.S. personnel,
both military and civilian, who have served in
Afghanistan since 2001, many on multiple deployments,"
Hagel said. "I also thank the thousands more who were a
part of the mission at home and around the world. In
fighting America's longest war, our people and their
families have borne a heavy burden, and some paid the
ultimate price."
Natasha Shetty

"We honor the profound sacrifices that have made this

progress possible," the president said. "We salute every
American -- military and civilian, including our dedicated
diplomats and development workers -- who have served
in Afghanistan, many on multiple tours, just as their
families have
sacrificed at home.
"We pledge to give
our many wounded
warriors, with
wounds seen and
unseen, the world-
class care and
treatment they have
earned. Most of all, we remember the more than 2,200
American patriots who made the ultimate sacrifice in
Afghanistan, and we pledge to stand with their Gold Star
families who need the everlasting love and support of a
grateful nation."
"Afghanistan remains a dangerous place, and the Afghan
people and their security forces continue to make
tremendous sacrifices in defense of their country," Obama
said. "At the invitation of the Afghan government, and to
Natasha Shetty

preserve the gains we have made together, the United

States -- along with our allies and partners -- will maintain
a limited military presence in Afghanistan."
The United States will pursue two missions in Operation
Freedom's Sentinel, Hagel said. "We will work with our
allies and partners as part of NATO's Resolute Support
mission to continue training, advising and assisting
Afghan security forces. And we will continue our
counterterrorism mission against the remnants of Al-
Qaeda to ensure that Afghanistan is never again used to
stage attacks against our homeland."
"Our personnel will continue to face risks, but this reflects
the enduring commitment of the United States to the
Afghan people and to a united, secure and sovereign
Afghanistan that is never again used as a source of attacks
against our nation," Obama said.
"These past 13 years have tested our nation and our
military," the president said. "But compared to the nearly
180,000 American troops in Iraq and Afghanistan when I
took office, we now have fewer than 15,000 in those
countries. Some 90 percent of our troops are home.
"Our military remains the finest in the world, and we will
remain vigilant against terrorist attacks and in defense of
Natasha Shetty

the freedoms and values we hold dear. And with growing

prosperity here at home, we enter a new year with new
confidence, indebted to our fellow Americans in uniform
who keep us safe and free."
Natasha Shetty

Us action
7 October 2001 – 28 December 2014
Casualties U.S. Coalition: 3,486 Dead
Taliban/Al-Qaeda:25,500–40,500 Dead
Anti-piracy operations were undertaken by the coalition
throughout 2006 with a battle fought in March when US
vessels were attacked by pirates. In January 2007, during
the war in Somalia, an AC-130 airstrike was conducted
against al-Qaeda members embedded with forces of the
Islamic Courts Union (ICU) operating in southern
Somalia near Ras Kamboni. US naval forces, including
the aircraft carrier USS Dwight D. Eisenhower, were
positioned off the coast of Somalia to provide support and
to prevent any al-Qaeda forces escaping by sea. Actions
against pirates also occurred in June and October 2007
with varying amounts of success.

"Operation Resolute Support/Freedom's Sentinel"

1 January 2015 – Present

Natasha Shetty

Casualties U.S. Coalition: 1 January 2015 – Present | 70

Dead* – Subject to change[65]
Taliban/Al-Qaeda:
Effective 1 January 2015, Secretary of Defense Hagel
announced that the new U.S. mission in Afghanistan will
focus on training, advising, and assisting Afghan security
forces and designated as Operation Freedom's Sentinel. 19
About 13,500 U.S. troops are expected in Afghanistan
through 2015 and will be assisted by troops from NATO
allies.
Natasha Shetty

Aftermath
After 13 years, on 28 December 2014, President Barack
Obama announced the end of Operation Enduring
Freedom in Afghanistan. Continued operations in
Afghanistan by the United States' military forces, both
non-combat and combat, now occur under the name
Operation Freedom's Sentinel. The result was the
execution of at least 3,000 captured Taliban soldiers by
Malik and the Hazaris. In August, 1998, the Taliban
retook Mazar-i Sharif and summarily massacred at least
2,000 Hazaris. Also, several Iranian citizens, including
diplomats, were killed, nearly touching off an Iran-
Taliban war.
Natasha Shetty