MODULE 1

MAGNETISM

CHAPTER OUTLINE
Lesson 1: Magnetic fields
1.2: Magnetic Force

Lesson 2: Lorentz Force

Lesson 3: Motion of charge particles in electric and magnetic fields
Lesson 4: Magnetic forces on current-carrying wires
4.2. Torque on a current-carrying loop
4.3. Magnetic dipole moment

4.4: Hall Effect

WHAT WE WILL LEARN:

 Describe the interaction between
poles of magnets
 Differentiate electric interactions from
magnetic interactions
 Evaluate the total magnetic flux
through an open surface
 Explain why the magnetic flux on a
closed surface is zero
 Draw the magnetic field pattern
around (1) a bar magnet, and (2)
between the poles of two bar magnets
 Describe the motion of a charged
particle in a magnetic field in terms of
its speed, acceleration, cyclotron
radius, cyclotron frequency, and
kinetic energy
 Evaluate the magnetic force on an
arbitrary wire segment placed in a
uniform magnetic field
 Express the equation for magnetic
force
 Determine how magnetic fields exerts
forces on moving charges
 Calculate magnetic force due to
Earth’s magnetic field
 Explain how a charged particle in an
external magnetic field undergoes
circular motion
 Describe how to determine the radius
of the circular motion of a charged
particle in a magnetic field
 Calculate the Curvature of the Path of
an Electron Moving in a Magnetic
Field. Derive an expression/formula/s
for the magnetic force on a current.

 Calculate Magnetic Force on
a Current-Carrying Wire
 Determine the Equation for Torque
 Describe how motors and meters
work in terms of torque on a current
loop.
 Calculate the torque on a current-
carrying loop in a magnetic field.
 Explain what is a magnetic dipole
 moment
 Derive the formula for magnetic
moment
 Solve for pole strength and the
magnetic moment
 Describe the Hall effect.
 Determine the uses of hall effect
 Calculate the Hall emf across a
current-carrying conductor.

INTRODUCTION
Magnetism has been known since the time of the ancient Greeks, but it has always
been a bit mysterious. You can see electricity in the flash of a lightning bolt, but when a
compass needle points to magnetic north, you can’t see any force causing it to rotate.
People learned about magnetic properties gradually, over many years, before several
physicists of the nineteenth century connected magnetism with electricity.

One aspect of the combined electromagnetic force is magnetism. Magnetism is created

by the motion of electrically charged particles. The size of the charge, the particle's
velocity, and the magnetic field's strength all affect the force exerted on an electrically
charged particle in a magnetic field. Magnetism exists in all materials, albeit some are
stronger than others.

Magnets are commonly found in everyday objects, such as toys, hangers, elevators,
doorbells, and computer devices. Experimentation on these magnets shows that all
magnets have two poles: One is labeled north (N) and the other is labeled south (S).
Magnetic poles repel if they are alike (both N or both S), they attract if they are opposite
(one N and the other S), and both poles of a magnet attract unmagnetized pieces of
iron. An important point to note here is that you cannot isolate an individual magnetic
pole. Every piece of a magnet, no matter how small, which contains a north pole must
also contain
a south pole.

A compass needle is an example of a magnet. It's just a thin bar magnet suspended at
its center, allowing it to rotate freely in a horizontal plane. The Earth itself acts like a
massive bar magnet, with its south-seeking pole close to the geographic North Pole.
(Figure 1)

Figure 1.
The north pole of a compass needle points toward the south pole of a magnet, which is how today’s
magnetic field is oriented from inside Earth. It also points toward Earth’s geographic North Pole because
the geographic North Pole is near the magnetic south pole.
Source:https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-2/pages/11-1-magnetism-and-its-
historical-discoveries
ACTIVITY1.1: Drawing Magnetic Fields

Introduction/Motivation
(Hold up a compass.) We know that this compass points to the magnetic north pole of
the earth—which also happens to be the geographic north, roughly. It does that
because it is also a magnet and opposite poles of magnets attract. That means this
compass will also point along the magnetic field that any nearby magnet creates, not
just the earth's. We are going to track a whole lot of points around your magnet to see
what its magnetic field looks like.

Tools and Materials:

 1 ceramagnet (a ceramic magnet made of iron, nicke, or beryllium oxides in clay;

 1 compass (small 16 mm compasses)

Procedure

Set-up

 Make copies of the Permanent Magnetic Field Worksheet, one per student.

 Have ready the required materials for each group.

With the Students

1. Divide the class into groups of two students each. Hand out the worksheets.
2. On the worksheet, have students mark 30 points uniformly around the magnet,
making sure the points are adequately spread out across the paper and are
about 1 in to 3 cm apart.
3. Students place the magnet on the paper so that the poles are facing left and right
on the paper. Note that ceramagnets have wide, flat poles so the magnets will be
balanced upright on their edges.
4. Students place the compass centered over one point and allow the needle to
settle.
5. Whichever way the north or red end of the needle points, they are to mark an
arrow on that point.
6. Students repeat 5 and 6 until all points have been marked with an arrow for the
magnetic field direction.
7. Have several representative examples drawn on the board by students of their
magnetic fields. Question the whole class as to their agreement or disagreement
 with the field lines. Identify any disagreements or problems. Make sure to drive
home to students that the field lines always loop away from north and back to
south.

What’s Going On?

The ceramagnets must be balanced upright and on their edges. If enough are
available, it is helpful to use two magnets together as they balance easier and should fit
into the rectangle drawn on the sheet. If the magnets are lying flat on the paper, the field
will be moving into and out of the paper, which the compass cannot track when laid flat
on the paper.
Because the ceramagnets are not marked with definite poles, students must leave the
magnet in place on the paper throughout the tracing. If the magnet's orientation is
flipped, the compass needle will point the opposite way, creating an incoherent overall
field drawing.
It is possible, especially through the multiple uses of the compasses, for their polarity to
be reversed. This should not present a problem provided the magnet is not moved and
students are consistent in which direction of the needle they used to mark the arrow.

By positioning the compass in enough spots around the magnet, the overall magnet
field becomes evident from the collection of arrows representing the direction of the
compass needle.

Adapted from:
https://www.teachengineering.org/activities/view/van_cleanupmess_act2

LESSON 1. Magnetic Fields

Defining the Magnetic Field

A magnetic field is defined by the force that a charged particle experiences moving in
this field, after we account for the gravitational and any additional electric forces
possible on the charge. The magnitude of this force is proportional to the amount of
charge q, the speed of the charged particle v, and the magnitude of the applied
magnetic field. The direction of this force is perpendicular to both the direction of the
moving charged particle and the direction of the applied magnetic field. Based on these
observations, we define the magnetic field strength B based on the magnetic force (F)
on a charge q moving at velocity (v) as the cross product of the velocity and magnetic
field, that is, F = qv x B

In fact, this is how we define the magnetic field (B) —in terms of the force on a charged
particle moving in a magnetic field. The magnitude of the force is determined from the
definition of the cross product as it relates to the magnitudes of each of the vectors. In
other words, the magnitude of the force satisfies F = qvBsinθ
where θ is the angle between the velocity and the magnetic field.The SI unit for
magnetic field strength B is called the tesla (T) after the eccentric but brilliant inventor
Nikola Tesla (1856–1943), where 1T = 1N / A x m

A smaller unit, called the gauss (G), where 1G=10−4T,1G=10−4T, is sometimes used.

The strongest permanent magnets have fields near 2 T; superconducting
electromagnets may attain 10 T or more. Earth’s magnetic field on its surface is only
about 5×10−5T,5×10−5T, or 0.5 G.

Figure 1.2.
In analogy with the gravitational field and
electric field ,the concept of a magnetic
field is used to describe magnetic force.
The vector B(r) denotes the magnetic
Magnetic Field Lines field vector at any given point in space.
Like an electric field ,a magnetic field is
represented using field lines. The
magnetic field vector is always tangent to
the magnetic field lines.

Earth’s Magnetic Field

Earth itself is a magnet, with a magnetic

field similar to the magnetic field of a bar
magnet. This magnetic field is important
because it protects us from high-energy
radiation from space called cosmic
rays,that are mostly consist of charged
particles that are deflected away from
Earth’s magnetic field.

Figure 1.3.

Earth’s magnetic field is distorted by the solar wind,a flow of ionized particles,mainly
protons,emitted by the Sun and moving outward from the Sun at approximately 400
km/s. Two bands of charged particles captured from the solar wind circle the Earth.
These are called Van Allen radiation belts, named after James A. Van Allen (1914-
2006).

The Van Allen radiation belts come closest to the Earth near the north and south
magnetic poles,where the charged particles trapped within the belts often collide with
atoms with the atmosphere,exciting them. Excited atoms emit light of different colors as
they collide and lose energy;resulting to the famous aurora borealis (northern lights) in
the northern latitudes and aurora australis (southern lights) in the southern latitudes).

Superposition of Magnetic Fields

If several force of magnetic field,such as several permanent magnets are close
together, the magnetic field at any given point in space is given by the superposition of
the magnetic fields from all the sources. The superposition principle for the total
magnetic field
_ _
Btotal ( r ), due to n magnetic field sources can be stated as
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Btotal ( r ) = B1 ( r ) + B2 ( r )+ Bn ( r )

Magnetic flux is a measurement of the total magnetic field that flows through a given
area. It is a useful tool for describing the effects of magnetic force on objects in a
particular location. The magnetic flux measurement is limited to the specified area. We
can make the region any size we want and orient it in any direction relative to the
magnetic field. Magnetic flux is calculated by multiplying the average magnetic field by
the area it traverses perpendicularly. The magnetic interaction is defined by a vector
field, in which each point in space is connected with a vector defining the force
experienced by a moving charge at that location.

The symbol ØB represents magnetic flux, where B represents a magnetic field and the
unit is Weber (Wb). The magnetic flux rate is a vector quantity that is affected by the
magnetic field's direction. The magnetic flux formula is as follows:

ΦB=B.AΦB=B.A
ΦB=B.ACosθΦB=B.ACosθ

Where,
B stands for magnetic field.
A = area of the surface and
Θ= The angle formed by the magnetic field and the normal to the surface.

Magnetic Flux Density

 
Magnetic Flux Density is the amount of magnetic flux that passes through a unit area
perpendicular to the magnetic flux's direction. Flux Density (B) is linked to Magnetic
Field (H) by B=H. (H). It is measured in Webers per square metre, which is equivalent to
Tesla [T]. Magnetic flux density is a vector field with SI units of tesla, which we denote
with the sign B. (T). Examine the broader concept of the magnetic field while providing a
formal definition. The tesla is the International System (SI) unit of "magnetic flux
density" in the field (T). One tesla magnetism is quite powerful.

Example of Magnetic Flux

The magnetic flux input for a specific area equals the area multiplied by the magnetic
field component perpendicular to the region. (Gauss' law of magnetism) The total
magnetic flux on a closed surface is always equal to zero. Magnetic forces are always
dipole sources (similar to micro bar magnets), with as many magnetic field lines flowing
in (to the south pole) as out (from the north pole).

Measurement of Magnetic Flux

 
The Weber (named after the German physicist and telegraph inventor Wilhelm Weber)
is the Si-derived unit of magnetic flux, and its sign is Wb.Magnetic flux, which is simply
an expression of the magnetic field in a specific location, can be detected with a
magnetometer in the same way that the magnetic field can.Assume that a tiny
magnetometer probe is moved around (without spinning) within a 0.5m2 region near a
large sheet of magnetic material and consistently returns a reading of 5Mt.

 denotes the magnetic flux

through the location. In the event that the magnetic field reading varies with position, the
average reading must be determined.The magnetic flux density is a related word that
you may stumble across. This is expressed in Wb/m2. We could easily declare the units
of flux density in Tesla since we are dividing flux by area. In reality, the terms magnetic
flux density and magnetic field magnitude are frequently used interchangeably.

SAMPLE PROBLEM:

1. A circular antenna with a surface size of 3 m2 has been built in Madurai. The plane of
the antenna's region is slanted at 47o with respect to the direction of the Geomagnetic
field. Calculate the magnetic flux associated with the antenna if the strength of the
Earth's field at that location is 40773.9 nT.

Given: B = 40773.9 nT; θ = 90º – 47º = 43°;

A = 3m2
Equation: ΦB=B.AΦB=B.A

Solution:

LESSON 1.2. MAGNETIC FORCE

A magnetic field is defined in terms of the force exerted by the field on a moving
charged particle.

A charge distribution builds an electric field E, and the field exerted a force on every
charge present. Figure 1 shows a moving charge which creates a magnetic field around
the charge and exerts a force on any moving charge.

Figure 1.2.1 The magnetic force F action on the charge q moving with velocity v. The vectors are
perpendicular to each other.
Image source: http://www.actucation.com/college-physics-2/presence-of-only-magnetic-field

The magnetic force can then be expressed as:

where F is the magnetic force in terms of Newtons (N), v is the velocity in terms of m/s, |
q| is the absolute value of the charge; v is the velocity of the
charge perpendicular to the quantities, B is the magnetic field in terms of Tesla (T) and
is the angle measured from the direction of velocity towards the magnetic field. The SI
unit for magnetic field strength B is called the tesla (T) after the eccentric but
brilliant inventor Nikola Tesla(1856–1943)

The ampere (A) is defined as 1 C/s,(N s) / (C m) = N/(A m). note that C/s = A

1T = 1 Ns/Cm = 1 N/Am

A Tesla is rather large amount of magnetic field strength. Sometimes magnetic field
strength is given in gauss (G), which is not an SI unit, where G is equals to, 1G = 10‾⁴ T

For example, the strength of Earth’s magnetic field at Earth’s surface is on the order of
0.5G( 5x10 ‾ ⁵ T ). It varies with location from 0.2 G to 0.6 G. The strongest permanent
magnets have fields near 2 T; superconducting electromagnets may attain 10 T or
more.

The direction of the magnetic force F is perpendicular to the plane formed by v and B,

as determined by the right hand rule 1 (RHR-1) .RHR-1 states that: to determine the
direction of the magnetic force on a positive moving charge, you point the thumb of the
right hand in the direction of v (velocity), the fingers in the direction of B(magnetic field) ,
and a perpendicular to the palm points in the direction of F. One way to remember this
is that there is one velocity, and so the thumb represents it. There are many field lines,
and so the fingers represent them. The force is in the direction you would push with
your palm. The force on a negative charge is in exactly the opposite direction to that on
a positive charge.

Figure 1.2.2 : Magnetic fields exert forces on moving charges.

Source:https://pressbooks.online.ucf.edu/phy2054lt/chapter/magnetic-field-strength-force-on-a-
moving-charge-in-a-magnetic-field/

This force is one of the most basic known. The direction of the magnetic forceon a
moving charge is perpendicular to the plane formed by v and B and follows right hand
rule–1 (RHR-1) as shown. The magnitude of the Force is proportional to q, v, B, and the
sine of the angle between v and B.

SAMPLE PROBLEM:

Suppose that in a physics lab you rub a glass rod with silk, placing a 20-nC positive
charge on it. Calculate the force on the rod due to the Earth’s magnetic field, if you
throw it with a horizontal velocity of 10 m/s due west in a place where the Earth’s field is
due north parallel to the ground.

Figure 1.2.3.A positively charged object moving due west in a region where the Earth’s magnetic field is
due north experiences a force that is straight down as shown. A negative charge moving in the same
direction would feel a force straight up.
Source:https://pressbooks.online.ucf.edu/phy2054lt/chapter/magnetic-field-strength-force-on-a-
moving-charge-in-a-magnetic-field/

Given:
q = 20- nC = 20 x 10ˉ⁹C
V = 10 m/s
B = 5x10 ‾ ⁵ T ( Earth’s magnetic field at Earth’s surface)

Equation:

F=qvBsinθ

sinθ=1,since the angle between the velocity and the direction of the field is 90°

Solution:

F = (20 x 10ˉ⁹C) (10 m/s) (5x10 ‾ ⁵ T)

= 1 x10‾¹¹ (c·m/s) ( N/ c·m/s)

=1 x10‾¹¹ N Answer
ACTIVITY1.2: Magnetic Lines of Force

Iron filings trace out the lines of a magnetic field in three dimensions.

Iron filings will line up parallel to a magnetic field, making the pattern of the field visible.
This is a simple Snack to build—and because the filings are trapped in a bottle, they
don’t make a mess.

Tools and Materials

 A 16-ounce (0.5-liter) plastic water bottle or soda bottle

 Iron filings (available at science museums or from scientific suppliers, or you can
use magnetic sand—black sand—collected by dragging a magnet through iron-rich
beach sand)
 A plastic test tube that fits into the mouth of the bottle and is about 75% as long as
the bottle is tall
 Funnel
 Masking tape
 A cow magnet or other cylindrical magnet that fits into the plastic tube (a stack of
button magnets will also work)

Assembly

1. Remove any labels from the plastic bottle.

2. Use the funnel to fill the bottle about one-fifth full of iron filings.
3. Wrap the top of the test tube with masking tape so the test tube will fit snugly into
the mouth of the bottle, plugging the opening completely
4. Jam the tube into the mouth of the bottle.
5. Slide the cylindrical magnet into the test tube and put the bottle cap back on.

Procedure (To Do and Notice)

 Rotate the bottle by turning it on its side. Keep an eye on what happens to the iron
filings. They will form a three-dimensional pattern that traces the magnet's magnetic
field.
 Pay close attention to what happens at the magnet's end. The iron filings stand out
like a spiky punk haircut here.
 Shake the magnet out of the tube and watch the filings fall to the ground.

Observation: What's Going On?

Thus every atom in an iron piece is a magnet with a north pole and a south pole.
Because the atomic magnets all point in different directions, most pieces of iron are not
magnetic.

When a magnet is brought close to a piece of iron, the iron-atom magnets align with the
applied magnetic field: the north poles of the iron atoms all point in the same direction.
Because the iron atoms align, the piece of iron transforms into a magnet and is drawn to
the original magnet.

The atoms in a rod-shaped piece of iron tend to line up so that all of the north poles face
one end of the rod and all of the south poles face the other. Given that the iron filings
are rod-shaped, the atoms align along the length of the rod and parallel to the direction
of the applied magnetic field. A cylindrical magnet's field emerges from the magnet's
end and loops around next to the side. The iron filings protrude like a crew cut on the
magnet's ends but lie flat on the sides.

Since the iron filings become magnets, their presence alters the shape of the magnetic
field slightly. Nonetheless, this Snack provides a three-dimensional representation of
the magnetic field's shape.

It's worth noting that if you've successfully sealed the plastic bottle by jamming the test
tube into its mouth, the sides of the bottle will begin to collapse inward after a few hours,
especially if the inside of the bottle is damp. This occurs as a result of the iron filings
rusting. As the iron rusts, it combines with and consumes the oxygen in the trapped air
in the bottle. Simply poke a small hole in the plastic with a pushpin to keep the bottle
from collapsing.
LESSON 2. LORENTZ FORCE

What is Lorentz Force?

Lorentz force is defined as the combination of the magnetic and electric force
on a point charge due to electromagnetic fields. It is used in
electromagnetism and is also known as the electromagnetic force. In the year
1895, Hendrik Lorentz derived the modern formula of Lorentz force.

Lorentz force formula for the charged particle is as follows:

Where,
 F is the force acting on the particle
 q is the electric charge of the particle
F=q(E+v∗B)  v is the velocity
 E is the external electric field
 B is the magnetic field

Lorentz force formula for continuous charge distribution is as follows:

dF=dq(E+v∗B)dF=dq(E+v∗B)

Where,

 dF is a force on a small piece of the charge

 dq is the charge of a small piece
When a small piece of charge distribution is divided by the volume dV, the
following is the formula:

f = ρρ (E+v*B)

Where,

 f is the force per unit volume

 ⍴ is the charge density

With the help of the right-hand rule, it becomes easy to find the direction of the
magnetic part of the force.

What is the importance of Lorentz force?

Lorentz force explains the mathematical equations along with the physical
importance of forces acting on the charged particles that are traveling through
the space containing electric as well as the magnetic field. This is the
importance of the Lorentz force.
Activity 2. Electromagnetic Antigravity

Change the measured weight of an object without touching it.

A current-carrying wire changes the weight of mounted magnets resting on an

electronic scale simple but dramatic proof of the Lorentz force, the
phenomenon at work in most electric motors.

Tools and Materials

 Two sturdy pieces of plastic, each approximately 1 1/4 x 3 x 1/4 inches

(Delrin or a similar material)

 Masking tape

 Pencil or marker (to mark holes)

 Two rare-earth magnets, each 1 x 1 x 3/16 inches (2.5 x 2.5 x 0.5 cm),
with dual countersunk holes (other sizes will work)
 Four flat-head machine screws and nuts to match the countersunk holes
 Two #1/4-20 nylon thumb screws, 1 3/4 inches (1.5 cm) long
 Six #1/4-20 nylon nuts
 Electric drill and drill bits: 1/4-inch (6.35 mm) bit for the nylon thumb
screws, and appropriate bit for the countersink
 Safety glasses
 Three feet (1 yard) of 1/8-inch (3-mm) 10-gauge aluminum armature wire
 Wire cutters
 Electrical tape or heat-shrink tubing and heat source
 Battery holder (either commercial or homemade is fine: we used nails
pounded into wood)
 Two alkaline D-cell batteries (do NOT use rechargeable batteries)
 Two test leads with alligator clips
 Electronic scale
 Optional: 10-amp multimeter and an additional alligator clip lead

Assembly

1. Place the two pieces of plastic one on top of the other and tape firmly
together, as shown in the photo below. (This will allow you to drill both pieces
at once, so the holes will line up later.)

2. Center one of the magnets on top of the taped plastic pieces, as shown in
the photo below, and use a pencil or marker to note the position of the holes
on the tape. Set the magnet aside and go on to Step 3.

3. Approximately one-quarter of the way from each end of the plastic, mark
holes for the nylon screws on the plastic pieces. Put on safety glasses, and
drill all the holes with appropriate bits (see photo below), and then pull off the
tape.
4. Using flat-head machine screws and nuts, attach each magnet to a piece of
plastic. Be sure the exposed faces of the magnets will attract one another
(see photos below).

5. Push the nylon screws all the way through the open holes on one piece of
plastic. The heads of the screws should be on the opposite side of the plastic
from the magnet The threads should extend outward on the magnet side.
Tighten the nuts to secure the screws.

6. Twist a nut down onto one of the screws so it’s approximately 1/2 inch
(1.25 cm) from the nut at the base. Repeat on the second screw (see photo
below).

7. Set the second piece of plastic onto the assembly so the magnets face one
another (see photo below). Add the remaining nuts to hold everything in
place. When you’re done, set this assembly aside.

8. With wire cutters, cut the armature wire into three pieces, each about 1 foot
(30 cm) long. Cover all but the ends of each wire with either shrink wrap or
electrical tape (see photos below).

9. Leave one wire straight, bend another wire into a tight U-shape, and bend
the third wire into a zigzag, as shown in the photo below. When you’re done,
set the wires aside.

10. Insert the batteries into the battery holder.

To Do and Notice

Place the magnet assembly's short end on the scale so that it stands
vertically. The scale should then be tared by setting it to zero.

Begin by connecting the two batteries in series. Hold the straight wire
between the magnet faces, but not in contact with the magnets or the scale.
Connect one end of an alligator clip lead to one side of the straight wire and
the other end to the batteries' positive side. Connect the free end of the
straight wire to the negative side of the batteries using the other alligator clip
lead. Does the scale's reading deviate from zero?. (Don’t keep the wire
connected for longer than necessary to get the reading, as the connection is
rapidly discharging the batteries in this and all the rest of the investigations.)

Now, swap the ends of the alligator clip leads that touch the positive and
negative sides of the battery to reverse the current direction in the straight
wire. What effect do you think this will have on the scale's reading?

Connect the alligator clips so that they only require one battery. What do you
think will happen to the scale reading? When the batteries are connected in
series, the voltage rises and the current in the wire rises..
Take the alligator clips off the straight wire. Place the U-shaped wire
between the magnet's faces in the same manner as you did the straight
wire. Make sure that the bend extends beyond the magnets.
What do you think the scale will read when the alligator clips are
reconnected to the U-shaped wire? Will the current direction matter?
What is the difference between one and two batteries?
Finally, remove the alligator clips and insert the zigzag wire between the
magnet faces. When you reconnect the alligator clips, will this wire be
more like a straight wire or a U-shaped wire?

What's Going On?

When an electric charge (such as the current in a wire) moves in the presence
of a magnetic field, it encounters a sideways force known as the Lorentz
force.

The Lorentz force tends to push the wire up or down in this case, depending
on how the magnets are oriented and which direction the current is flowing.
The force created by the current in this experiment is too small for you to
notice with your hand. If it were larger, you would see and feel the wire pop up
or down the moment you connected the batteries.

Newton's Third Law states that all forces come in pairs: if there is an upward
force on the wire, there must be an equal and opposite downward force
somewhere else. This downward force acts on the assembly's magnets,
causing the scale reading to rise. If the force on the wire is downward, the
force on the magnets is upward, causing them to "lose weight," as indicated
by the scale.

As the current increases, so does the strength of the deflecting Lorentz force,
resulting in a larger change in the scale reading. Two wires carrying the same
current in opposite directions, on the other hand, will experience opposing
forces that cancel each other out, resulting in the minimal weight change
measured in the U-shaped wire. Two of the segments in the zigzag wire
cancel each other out, leaving one uncancelled, resulting in a net force similar
to that of a single wire.
LESSON 3. MOTION OF CHARGE PARTICLES IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

Magnetic force - can cause a charged particle to move in a circular or spiral

path. Cosmic rays are energetic charged particles in outer space, some of
which approach the Earth. They can be forced into spiral paths by the
Earth’s magnetic field. Protons in giant accelerators are kept in a circular path
by magnetic force. The bubble chamber photograph in below shows charged
particles moving in such curved paths. The curved paths of charged particles
in magnetic fields are the basis of a number of phenomena and can even be
used analytically, such as in a mass spectrometer.

Figure 2.Trails of bubbles are produced by high-energy charged particles moving through the
superheated liquid hydrogen in this artist’s rendition of a bubble chamber. There is a strong
magnetic field perpendicular to the page that causes the curved paths of the particles. The
radius of the path can be used to find the mass, charge, and energy of the particle.

Source:https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/Book
%3A_Physics_(Boundless)/21%3A_Magnetism/
21.4%3A_Motion_of_a_Charged_Particle_in_a_Magnetic_Field
So does the magnetic force cause circular motion? 
Magnetic force is always perpendicular to velocity, so that it does no work on
the charged particle. The particle’s kinetic energy and speed thus remain
constant. The direction of motion is affected, but not the speed. This is typical
of uniform circular motion. The simplest case occurs when a charged particle
moves perpendicular to a uniform B-field, such as shown in Figure 4. (If this
takes place in a vacuum, the magnetic field is the dominant factor determining
the motion.) Here, the magnetic force supplies the centripetal force Fc=mv2/r.
Noting that sinθ=1, we see that F=qvB.

Figure 2.2. A negatively charged particle moves in the plane of the page in a region where
the magnetic field is perpendicular into the page (r-presented by the small circles with x’s—
like the tails of arrows). The magnetic force is perpendicular to the velocity, and so velocity
changes in direction but not magnitude. Results into uniform circular motion.

Source:https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/Book
%3A_Physics_(Boundless)/21%3A_Magnetism/
21.4%3A_Motion_of_a_Charged_Particle_in_a_Magnetic_Field

Because the magnetic force F supplies the centripetal force Fc, we have

qvB=mv2/r

Solving for r 
r=mv/qB

In here,r is the radius of curvature of the path of a charged particle with 

mass m and charge q, moving at speed v perpendicular to a magnetic field of
strength B. If the velocity is not perpendicular to the magnetic field, then v is
the component of the velocity perpendicular to the field. The component of
the velocity parallel to the field is unaffected, since the magnetic force is zero
for motion parallel to the field.This produces a spiral motion rather than a
circular one.

SAMPLE PROBLEM :

Calculating the Curvature of the Path of an Electron Moving in

a Magnetic Field: A magnet on a TV Screen
A magnet brought near an old-fashioned TV screen, severely distorts its
picture by altering the path of the electrons that make its phosphors
glow. Calculate the radius of curvature of the path of an electron having
a velocity of 6.00x10⁷m/s (corresponding to the accelerating voltage of about
10.0 kV used in some TVs)perpendicular to a magnetic field of
strength B=0.500T (obtainable with permanent magnets)having the charge of
1.60 x 10 ‾¹⁹ C

We can find the radius of curvature(r) directly from the equation r=mv/qB,

since all other quantities in it are given or known.

Given:
melectrons = 9.11 x 10 ˉ³¹ kg
v = 6.00x10⁷m/s
q = 1.60 x 10 ‾¹⁹ C
B = 0.500T
r =?

Equation: r=mv/qB

Solution:
r=mv/qB
=(9.11 x 10 ˉ³¹ kg)(6.00x10⁷m/s) / (1.60 x 10 ‾¹⁹ C) (0.500T)
= 6.83 x 10 ˉ⁴m

Answer:
r = 0.683 mm

The small radius indicates a large effect. The electrons in the TV picture tube
are made to move in very tight circles, greatly altering their paths and
distorting the image.

Activity 3:Magnetic Shielding

Magnetic-field lines can pass through cardboard, air, and other materials
depending on whether they are permeable or impermeable. Different
materials should be tested to see which ones gather magnetic lines of force
and act as magnetic shields, and which ones allow magnetic lines of force to
pass through them.

Tools and Materials

 Three ceramic donut magnets (rectangular magnets will also work)

 Two pieces of cardboard of equal size, about 2 x 2 3/4 inches (5 x 7
centimeters)
 Two pencils, 2 3/4 in (7 cm) or longer
 Five or six paper clips
 Wood craft stick, plastic straw, or any other nonmetallic material
 Steel butter knife
 Hot-glue gun and glue (alternatively, you can use rubber bands)
Assembly
1. First, make a cardboard-pencil sandwich by affixing the pencils to one
piece of cardboard, parallel to each other and close to the opposite edges of
the cardboard. Glue the second piece of cardboard to the pencils to form a
sandwich of cardboard-pencil-cardboard.

2. Hot glue one of the magnets to the top piece of cardboard. Place the
magnet close to one of the edges.

3.Place two more magnets on top of the first to hold them in place by
magnetic attraction. Don't affix them!

To Do and Notice

 Place the magnets on top of your shielding sandwich. Raise the paper
clips to the bottom side one at a time and observe what happens. The
paper clips should be drawn to the magnet and thus dangle from the
bottom of the cardboard sandwich.

 Take note of what happens as you add more paper clips. They will
arrange themselves so that they are evenly spaced if you add them
carefully.

 Insert the craft stick or plastic straw into the shielding sandwich and shake
it around to see what happens. The paper clips should not be harmed.

 Insert the flat blade of a steel butter knife into the shielding sandwich and
move it side to side to see what happens.

Do the paper clips come undone? Experiment with different materials, such as
different metallic coins. Make a list of the materials you try and keep track of
what happens.

What's Going On?

The magnet's magnetic-field lines pass through the cardboard, the air, and
other materials such as the craft stick and straw. Nonpermeable materials
allow magnetic lines of force to pass through them but do not form magnetic
fields within them.The metal knife, on the other hand, acts as a magnetic
shield, preventing force lines from passing through it from the magnet's pole.
Instead, they congregate, travel down the metal strap, and re-enter the
magnet at the opposite pole. Materials that gather magnetic lines of force are
said to be permeable because they allow magnetic fields to form within them.
Magnetic materials are the only ones that are permeable.

Adapted from: https://www.exploratorium.edu/snacks/magnetic-shielding

LESSON 4. MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING WIRES

Because charges ordinarily cannot escape a conductor,the magnetic force on

charges moving in a conductor is transmitted to the conductor
itself.

Figure 3.The magnetic field exerts a force on a current-carrying wire in a direction given by
the right hand rule 1
Source:https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/College_Physics/Book
%3A_College_Physics_(OpenStax)/22%3A_Magnetism/
22.07%3A_Magnetic_Force_on_a_Current-Carrying_Conductor

We can derive an expression for the magnetic force on a current by taking a

sum of the magnetic forces on individual charges. (The forces add because
they are in the same direction.)

The force on an individual charge moving at the drift velocity vd is given

by F=qvdBsinθ. Taking B to be uniform over a length of wire ll and zero
elsewhere, the total magnetic force on the wire is then F=(qvdBsinθ)(N),
where N is the number of charge carriers in the section of wire of length ll.
Now, N=nV, where n is the number of charge carriers per unit volume
and V is the volume of wire in the field. Noting that V=Al, where A is the cross-
sectional area of the wire, then the force on the wire is F=(qvdBsinθ))(nAl).
Gathering terms,Gathering terms,

F=(nqAvd)lBsinθ.

nqAvd = I (Current)

F = πBsinθ is the equation for magnetic force on a length ll of wire carrying a 

Current I in a uniform magnetic field B. If we divide both sides of this
expression by l, we find that the magnetic force per unit length of wire in a
uniform field is =IBsinθ. The direction of this force is given by RHR-1, with the
thumb in the direction of the 
Current I. 
SAMPLE PROBLEM :

Calculating Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Wire: A

Strong Magnetic Field

Calculate the force on the wire given B=1.50T, l=5.00cm, and I=20.0A.

Given: B=1.50T, l=5.00cm = 0.0500m, and I=20.0A

angle θ between I and BB is 90, so that sinθ=1

Equation: F=πBsinθ
Solution: F=πBsinθ=(20.0A)(0.0500m)(1.50T)(1)

= (20.0A)(0.0500m)(1.50T = 1.50 N/Am)(1)

= F=1.50N

This large magnetic field creates a significant force on a small length of wire.

LESSON 4.2. TORQUE ON A CURRENT- CARRYING LOOP

Motors are the most common application of magnetic force on current-

carrying wires. Motors have loops of wire in a magnetic field. When current is
passed through the loops, the magnetic field exerts torque on the loops, which
rotates a shaft. Electrical energy is converted to mechanical work in the
process. 

Figure 3.2.Torque on a current loop. A current-carrying loop of wire attached to a vertically

rotating shaft feels magnetic forces that produce a clockwise torque as viewed from above.
Source:https://pressbooks.uiowa.edu/clonedbook/chapter/torque-on-a-current-loop-
motors-and-meters/

Let us examine the force on each segment of the loop in Figure 3.2 to find the
torques produced about the axis of the vertical shaft. (This will lead to a useful
equation for the torque on the loop.) We take the magnetic field to be uniform
over the rectangular loop, which has width w and height l. First, we note that
the forces on the top and bottom segments are vertical and, therefore, parallel
to the shaft, producing no torque. Those vertical forces are equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction, so that they also produce no net force on
the loop. Figure 2 shows views of the loop from above.

Torque is defined as τ=rFsinθ, where F is the force, r is the 

distance from the pivot that the force is applied, and θθ is the angle
between r and F. However, each force produces a clockwise torque.
Since r=w/2, the torque on each vertical segment is (w/2)Fsinθ, and the two
add to give a total torque.

Figure 3.3: Top views of a current-carrying loop in a magnetic field.

Source:https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-physics/chapter/22-8-torque-on-a-
current-loop-motors-and-meters/

The equation for torque is derived using this view. Note that the perpendicular
to the loop makes an angle θ with the field that is the same as the angle
between w/2 and F. The maximum torque occurs when θ is a right angle
and sinθ=1.Zero (minimum) torque occurs when θ is zero and sinθ=0. The
torque reverses once the loop rotates past θ=0

Now, each vertical segment has a length ll that is perpendicular to BB, so that

the force on each is F=πB. Entering F into the expression for Torque
τ=wπBsinθ.

If we have a multiple loop of N turns, we get N times the torque of one loop.

Finally, note that the area of the loop is A=wl; the expression for the Torque
becomes τ=NIABsinθ.This is the torque on a current-carrying loop in a
uniform magnetic field. This equation can be shown to be valid for a loop of
any shape. The loop carries a current I, has N turns, each of area A, and the
perpendicular to the loop makes an angle θ with the field B. The net force on
the loop is zero.
SAMPLE PROBLEM :

Calculating Torque on a Current-Carrying Loop in a Strong Magnetic

Field:

Find the maximum torque on a 100-turn square loop of a wire of 10.0 cm on a

side that carries 15.0 A of current in a 2.00-T field.

Given: N = 100
I = 15.0
A = 10.0cm = 0.100m2
B =2.00-T

Equation: τmax=NIAB
Solution:
τmax=NIAB

τmax=(100N)(15.0A)(0.100m2)(2.00T= 2.00 N/Am)

τmax=30.0N·m

As the coil rotates, the torque decreases to zero at θ=0θ=0. The torque then

reverses its direction once the coil rotatespast θ=0 . This means that, unless
we do something, the coil will oscillate back and forth about equilibrium
at θ=0. with automatic switches called brushes. 

LESSON 4.3. MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT

A magnetic moment is a quantity that represents the magnetic strength and

orientation of a magnet or any other object that produces a magnetic field.
More precisely, a magnetic moment refers to a magnetic dipole moment, the
component of the magnetic moment that can be represented by a magnetic
dipole. A magnetic dipole is a magnetic north pole and a magnetic south pole
separated by a small distance.
 Magnetic dipole moments have
dimensions of current times area or
energy divided by magnetic flux
density. The unit for dipole
moment in meter–kilogram–
second–ampere is ampere-square
meter. The unit in centimeter–gram–
second electromagnetic system, is
the erg (unit of energy) per gauss
(unit of magnetic flux density). One
thousand ergs per gauss equal to
one ampere-square meter.

Derivation of Magnetic Dipole Moment Formula

Magnetic Dipole moment- The magnetic field, B due to a current loop

carrying a current i of radius, R at a distance l along its axis is given by:
B = μ0iR2 / 2(R2 + l2)³/2

Now if we consider a point very far from the current loop such that l>R,
then we can approximate the field as:

Now, the area of the loop, A is

A = πR2

Thus, the magnetic field can be written as

We can write this new quantity μ as a vector that points along the
magnetic field, so that

Notice the astounding similarity to the  electric dipole field:

Thus, we call this quantity μ  the magnetic dipole moment. Unlike electric
fields, magnetic fields do not have ‘charge ‘counterparts. In other words there
are no sources or sinks of magnetic fields, there can only be a dipole.
Anything that can produce a magnetic field comes with both a source and a
sink i.e. there is both a north pole and South Pole. In many ways, the
magnetic dipole is the fundamental unit that can produce a magnetic
field.Most elementary particles behave intrinsically as magnetic dipoles. For
example, the electron itself behaves as a magnetic dipole and has a Spin
Magnetic Dipole moment. This magnetic moment is intrinsic as the electron
has neither an area A (it is a point object) nor does it spin around itself, but is
fundamental to the nature of the electron’s existence.We can generalize the
magnetic moment for ‘N’ turns of the wire loop as μ = NiA

The current of an electron revolving around a heavy nucleus is given as:

The magnetic moment associated to the current of an electron revolving is

given as:

Substituting the angular momentum of the revolving electron we get,

l = mVR
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
Activity 4: Motor Effect

A magnet exerts a force on current-carrying wire.

This simple device shows that when an electrical current flows through a
magnetic field, a force is exerted on the current. This force can be used to
make an electric motor.

Tools and Materials

 Two to four small disk magnets 

 One or two 1.5-volt flashlight batteries
 Two to three feet (60 cm to 1 meter) of flexible wire, such as solid or
multistranded hookup wire or magnet wire
 Masking tape
 Sandpaper
 A table
 A partner

Assembly

1. Remove the insulation from the ends of the wire. (Use a knife for stranded
wire, or use sandpaper to remove the nearly invisible insulating enamel
from magnet wire.)
2. Tape a battery (or two) near the edge of the table. If you are using two
batteries, tape them so that they are in a series, with the positive terminal
of one battery touching the negative terminal of the other battery.
3. Near each battery’s terminal, tape the ends of the wire to the table. Allow
the remainder of the wire to dangle over the table edge in a loop.
4. Group the disk magnets into a single cylindrical pile.
To Do and Notice

 Over the side of the table, have one person hold the grouped magnets
next to the bottom of the loop of wire.

 On top of the table, have the other person touch one end of the wire to the
positive side of the battery (or batteries) and simultaneously touch the
other end of the wire to the negative side. The wire loop will jump one
direction or another. 

 If you reverse the direction of the current's flow, the wire will jump in the
opposite direction. To reverse the current, attach the lead that was
connected to the positive end of the battery to the negative end and vice
versa.

See what else happens if you flip the orientation of the magnets or hold them
somewhere else near the wire.

What’s Going On?

The magnetic field created by the disk magnets acts as a force on the electric
current flowing through the wire. The wire will move up or down, forward or
backward, depending on the direction of the current and the magnetic field of
the disks.

The right-hand rule is a mathematical tool that can be used to predict

movement direction. Place your right hand near the wire section that connects
the disk magnets. Make a flat hand with your thumb sticking out to the side—it
should be at a right angle to your fingers. Place your hand so that your thumb
points along the wire in the direction that the electric current is flowing (current
flows from the positive terminal of the battery to the negative terminal) and
your fingers point from the north pole to the south pole of the disk magnets.

The deflecting force exerted by a magnet on a current-carrying wire is the

mechanism that drives most electric motors. Surprisingly (and thankfully for
our sense of symmetry! ), the opposite effect is also true: move a loop of wire
across the pole of a magnet, and a current will begin to flow in the wire. This,
of course, is the fundamental principle of an electric generator. The electric
current generated by moving this single loop of wire through the disk magnets'
weak magnetic field is too weak to be detected by all but the most sensitive
microammeters.

LESSON 4.4. HALL EFFECT

We have seen effects of a magnetic field on free-moving charges.
The magnetic field also affects charges moving in a conductor. One result is
the Hall effect, which has important implications and applications.The figure
below shows what happens to charges moving through a conductor in
a magnetic field. The field is perpendicular to the electron drift velocity and to
the width of the conductor.Note that conventional current is to the right in both
parts of the figure. In part (a), electrons carry the current and move to the left.
In part (b), positive charges carry the current and move to the right. Moving
electrons feel a magnetic force toward one side of the conductor, leaving a
net positive charge on the other side. This separation of charge creates
a voltage, known as the Hall emf, across the conductor. the creation of
a voltage across a current-carrying conductor by a magnetic field is known as
the Hall effect, after Edwin Hall, the American physicist who discovered it in
1879.

Figure 3.4
The Hall effect. (a) Electrons move to the left in this flat conductor (conventional current to the
right). The magnetic field is directly out of the page, represented by circled dots; it exerts a
force on the moving charges, causing a voltage εε, the Hall emf, across the conductor. (b)
Positive charges moving to the right (conventional current also to the right) are moved to the
side, producing a Hall emf of the opposite sign, –ε. Thus, if the direction of the field and
current are known, the sign of the charge carriers can be determined from the Hall effect.
Source: https://pressbooks.uiowa.edu/clonedbook/chapter/the-hall-effect/

One very important use of the Hall effect is to determine whether positive or

negative charges carries the current. Note that in Figure b, where positive
charges carry the current, the Hall emf has the sign opposite to when negative
charges carry the current. Historically, the Hall effect was used to show that
electrons carry current in metals and it also shows that positive charges
carry current in some semiconductors. The Hall effect is used today as a
research tool to probe the movement of charges, their drift velocities and
densities, and so on, in materials. In 1980, it was discovered that the Hall
effect is quantized, an example of quantum behavior in a macroscopic object.

The Hall effect has other uses that range from the determination of blood flow

rate to precision measurement of magnetic field strength. To examine these
quantitatively, we need an expression for the Hall emf, ε, across a conductor.
Consider the balance of forces on a moving charge in a situation where  B, v,
and l are mutually perpendicular. Although the magnetic force moves
negative charges to one side, they cannot build up without limit. The electric
field caused by their separation opposes the 
magnetic force, F=qvB, and the electric force, Fe=qE, eventually grows to
equal it. That is,qE=qvB or E=vB.

the electric field E is uniform across the conductor because the magnetic

field B is uniform, as is the conductor. For a uniform electric field, the
relationship between electric field and voltage is E=ε/l, where l is the width of
the conductor and ε is the Hall emf. Entering this into the last expression gives
εl=vB.

Solving this for the Hall emf,

ε=lvB.

One of the most common uses of the Hall effect is in the measurement of 
magnetic field strength B. Such devices, called Hall probes, can be made very
small, allowing fine position mapping. Hall probes can also be made very
accurate, usually accomplished by careful calibration. Another application
of the Hall effect is to measure fluid flow in any fluid that has free charges.
A magnetic field applied perpendicular to the flow direction produces a Hall
emf ε. Note that the sign of ε depends not on the sign of the charges, but only
on the directions of B and v. The magnitude of the 
Hall emf is ε=Blv, where l is the pipe diameter, so that the 
average velocity v can be determined from ε providing the other factors are
known.

SAMPLE PROBLEM:

Calculating the Hall emf - Hall Effect for Blood Flow:

A Hall effect flow probe is placed on an artery, applying a 0.100-T 

magnetic field across it. What is the Hall emf, given the vessel’s inside
diameter is 4.00 mm and the average blood velocity is 20.0 cm/s?

Equation :
ε= Blv

Solution
ε= Blv

=(0.100T)(4.00×10ˉ³m)(0.200m/s)
ε=80.0μV

REFERENCES:
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(n.d.).RetrievedFebruary17,2022,fromhttps://www.mriquestions.com/magnetic
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