Agricultural Water Management 48 (2001) 79±88

Buried clay pot irrigation: a little known but very

ef®cient traditional method of irrigation
David A. Bainbridge*
Environmental Studies Program, GLS Department, United States International University,
10455 Pomerado Road, San Diego, CA 92131, USA
Accepted 9 August 2000

Abstract

The buried clay pot or pitcher method is one of the most ef®cient traditional systems of irrigation
known and is well suited for small farmers in many areas of the world. Buried clay pot irrigation
uses buried, unglazed, porous clay pots ®lled with water to provide controlled irrigation to plants.
The water seeps out through the clay wall of the buried clay pot at a rate that is in¯uenced by the
plant's water use. This leads to very high ef®ciency, even better than drip irrigation, and as much as
10 times better than conventional surface irrigation. This method is also very effective in saline soil
or when saline irrigation water must be used. It has proved useful for land restoration in very arid
environments. # 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Buried clay pot; Pitcher; Ceramic; Porous capsule; Ef®cient irrigation

1. Introduction

Although the majority of the World's dry lands are still farmed by small scale,
subsistence farmers, low cost simple irrigation methods for dry land agriculture have
largely been ignored by international development programs. Efficient traditional
methods of irrigation that could be of great use on small and medium sized farms and
gardens have not been well studied or publicized.
The buried clay pot or pitcher method is one of the most efficient systems of irrigation
known and is ideal for many small farmers (Mondal, 1974; Reddy and Rao, 1980a,b;
Bainbridge, 1988; Bainbridge et al., 1998). Buried clay pot irrigation uses a buried,
unglazed, porous clay pot filled with water to provide controlled irrigation to plants
planted near it, Fig. 1. Buried clay pots can either be filled by hand if labor is inexpensive

*
Tel.: ‡1-619-635-4616; fax: ‡1-619-635-4730.
E-mail address: bainbrid@usiu.edu (D.A. Bainbridge).

0378-3774/01/$ ± see front matter # 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 3 7 8 - 3 7 7 4 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 1 1 9 - 0
80 D.A. Bainbridge / Agricultural Water Management 48 (2001) 79±88

Fig. 1. Buried clay pot irrigation. By A. Steen.

or connected to a pipe network or reservoir. Clay pots can be glued together to make
porous capsules, or porous capsules can be manufactured (da Silva et al., 1981).
The water seeps out through the clay wall of the buried clay pot at a rate that is
influenced by the plant's water use (Stein, 1997). This autoregulation leads to very high
efficiency, considerably better than most drip irrigation systems, and up to 10 times more
efficient than conventional surface irrigation. Buried clay pots are better than high
technology drip systems in several respects. First, they are not as sensitive to clogging as
drip emitters, although they may clog over time (three to four seasons) and require renewal
by reheating the pots. Second, buried clay pots can be used without pressurized or filtered
water systems. Third, buried clay pots can be made with locally available materials and
skills. Fourth, buried clay pots are less likely to be damaged by animals or clogged by
insects than drip systems. And finally, while even a brief interruption of water supply to a
drip irrigation system due to a pump or filter failure can lead to serious problems and
costly damage to crops, the buried clay pot systems may require water only once a week.
Buried clay pot irrigation should be considered wherever water conservation is
important. It will probably continue to prove most valuable for producing high value
crops in dry lands. Buried clay pot irrigation is also valuable for food production and
revegetation of areas affected by salinity or where only saline water is available for
irrigation.
Buried clay pot irrigation is valuable for gardening, landscaping, and growing plants in
containers. Research and field trials are needed to help farmers match buried clay pot
surface area and porosity to different crops, climates, and soils. It should be of
commercial value for many special situations encountered in landscaping, gardening, and
plant propagation.

2. A short history of buried clay pot irrigation

The book Fan Sheng-chih Shu (one of the first agricultural texts) describes the use of
buried clay pot irrigation in China more than 2000 years ago (Sheng Han, 1974). It is
 D.A. Bainbridge / Agricultural Water Management 48 (2001) 79±88 81

likely that, buried clay pot irrigation had been used for many years before this description
was published, and current practices remain much the same.
``Make 530 pits per hectare, each pit 70 cm across and 12 cm deep. To each pit add
18 kg of manure. Mix the manure well with an equal amount of earth. Bury an earthen jar
of 6 l capacity in the center of the pit. Let its mouth be level with the ground. Fill the jar
with water. Plant four melon seeds around the jar. Cover the jar with a tile. Always fill the
jar to the brink if the water level falls.''
Buried clay pot irrigation is still used on a limited basis in the dry lands of India,
Pakistan, Iran, the MidEast, and Latin-America. It has been successfully used for a wide
range of annual and perennial plants including many vegetable and fruits and a wide
range of trees, including citrus, fruit and nut trees. This method would be used more
widely if farmers and gardeners knew about it.

3. The advantages of buried clay pot irrigation

The water use efficiency of irrigation systems depends on many factors including soil
type, crop type and management, weed competition, and microclimate. Few controlled
experiments have been conducted on buried clay pots, but the results from these tests
suggest buried clay pots may use as little as 10% of the water used in conventional
surface irrigation (Rai, 1982).
The yield of buried clay pot irrigated melon in India was 25 t/ha using only 2 cm water/
ha (Mondal, 1974), this compares with yields of 33 t/ha using 26 cm of water with flood
irrigation (Scheuring, 1983). A detailed study of cucumber production showed that
1.9 mm/ha with buried clay pots provided yields comparable to 7.3 mm/ha by hand
irrigation (Balakumaran et al., 1982). I grew Hopi corn (Zea mays) using buried clay pots
with a water use on a full field basis of only 7.5 cm/ha, one tenth the conventional water
use for corn in California. The above ground plant yield per cubic meter of water was
6.3 kg, total plant yield was 12.6 kg/m3. Additional studies are needed to refine the data
in Table 1.
The controlled water delivery from buried clay pot irrigation helps ensure seed
germination even in hot dry environments and provides young seedlings with a steady
water supply even during periods with very high temperatures, low humidity, and

Table 1
Estimated irrigation water use efficiencya

Method Water (kg/m3)

Closed furrow (basin) 0.7

Sprinkler 0.9
Drip 1±2.5
Porous capsule (pressure) 1.9‡
Porous capsule (no pressure) 2.5‡
Buried clay pot 2.5±7
a
From data in Sawaf, 1980, Hillel, 1994, Kurian et al., 1983, da Silva et al., 1981; and experimental results.
82 D.A. Bainbridge / Agricultural Water Management 48 (2001) 79±88

desiccating winds. This controlled water delivery is also of great value in coarse sand or
gravel soils that drain quickly.
The steady supply of water can increase crop growth and yield. This benefit enabled
small farmers to grow two crops of corn in an area where only one could be grown before,
and increased yields from the combined crop to 25 t/ha (Davalos, 1987 personal
communication). This could enable a family to grow all the corn needed for a year on
only 400 m2 of soil rather than relying on unreliable rainfall to produce an equal amount
on a hectare.
The very stable moisture regime is usually advantageous, but buried clay pots may
have to be allowed to dry out for a few days to encourage flowering or fruiting with some
crops. Research is also needed to evaluate the potential impact of this uniform soil
moisture on plant diseases and pests. The relatively limited rooting zone should make
treatment of potential disease problems easier.
The size of the buried clay pot, the porosity of the clay (a factor of clay and firing), pot
wall thickness, water quality and the water demand of the plants determine the refill
interval, but for larger buried clay pots this can extend to a week or more. This is
particularly helpful where water must be carried from a distant river, well, or reservoir,
and for remote fields. The interval between refilling makes buried clay pot irrigation a
time saver, and although small farmers are often thought to have free time, they are
usually time limited and any strategy that can save time is desirable. It is also helpful
when the gardener or farmer must be away for several days at another job or task. This
also makes it a good choice for the suburban or urban gardener who may be able to work
in the garden only on the weekend.
Although I was initially concerned about the effects of buried clay pots drying out, I
have seen no serious effects from repeated dry down of the buried clay pots in our desert
studies. In some cases the buried clay pot was dry in a week, but not refilled for a month
when growing trees. More water demanding crops are not be this tolerant as they near
maturity and water demand peaks.
Buried clay pot irrigation allows both water and soil amendments to be placed
where they will benefit crops rather than weeds. A study in India found that the dry
weight of weeds was only 62 kg/ha using buried clay pots compared to 465 kg/ha with
basin irrigation (Reddy and Rao, 1980a,b). The reduction in weeding is also invaluable
as studies of some traditional farming systems show that 30% of the labor is for
weeding.

4. Drawbacks and common mistakes

The drawbacks of buried clay pots include the cost of the clay pots, the energy required
to fire them, the time to install them, and less flexibility once they are installed. However,
Mondal (1979) found that 800 buried clay pots costing US$ 280/ha (1978 dollars)
provided a potential profit of US$ 400 to 1030/ha, for a net profit of US$ 120 to 750/ha
after paying for the clay pots. Amortizing the clay pots over several year would make the
conversion even more profitable. Where water costs are high (due to labor or pumping
cost) or where supplies are limited the returns would be even better.
 D.A. Bainbridge / Agricultural Water Management 48 (2001) 79±88 83

Buried clay pots may have to be removed for tillage between crops. They may also
clog over time and require scrubbing and soaking or refiring to clean out the pores.
Although the clay is brittle, breakage has not been a problem.
The most common mistake is placing the plant too far from the clay pot, outside the
wetted soil. Problems can also be caused if the clay has been over-fired and is not porous
enough. If a pot with a bottom hole is not sealed well much of the benefit of the buried
clay pot will be lost.

5. Instructions for buried clay pot irrigation

Buried clay pot irrigation is simple and straightforward. The basic steps include

5.1. Finding or making clay pots or pitchers

The first step is obtaining or making suitable clay pots. The size of buried clay pot will
depend on the type of crop, the density of planting, and the time desired between refills.
Two to five liter sizes are convenient and generally available. Ten to twenty liter sizes
may be more suitable for larger perennial plants or for long refill intervals. Even quite
small pots can be used for flowers and smaller plants.
Pots can be tested by spraying them with water and making sure that the surface
becomes damp rapidly. If time and vendors allow, filling the pots with water and making
sure moisture reaches the outer surface is even better. Pots can also be tested by filling
them with water or placing them in a bucket of water and making sure the water moistens
the dry surface. Ollas and low fired clay water pots are easy to obtain in most areas of the
world. In the developed countries most standard red clay pots used by nurseries and
landscapers work well if the drain hole is plugged. However, some red clay pots are over-
fired and less porous than desired. If pots are made, the clay should not be fired much
above 10008C, or the porosity may be limited, Fig. 2. A copper bead, melting point
10838C might be used to manage kiln temperatures. Wall thickness, type of clay and
many other factors may affect porosity, to test fire some samples before starting major

Fig. 2. Clay porosity.

84 D.A. Bainbridge / Agricultural Water Management 48 (2001) 79±88

production runs (see Stein, 1996, 1997). A buried clay pot with a small top hole is easier
to cover and plant around, but a wider top pot is easier to fill.
Painting the rims of the buried clay pots or pots with non-toxic white paint makes
them easier to see and will reduce water evaporation. The body of the buried clay pot can
also be partially painted to reduce water use. A plastic paint or varnish may be most
suitable.
Lids that will fully cover the top should be purchased or made. Ceramic, plastic, or
metal dishes may be available or stone, tile, or wood tops can be made. Aluminum pie
tins are readily available to fit some sizes of clay pots in the United States, but a rock
should be glued on top to hold these lighter lids in place. Plastic or ceramic pot bases
often can be used. For narrow necked buried clay pots a clay tile or flat stone will work.
The cover should fit tightly, slope inward, and have a hole to let rainwater into the buried
clay pot. Animals may knock lightweight lids off to drink the water. Poorly fitted covers
may enable undesirable insects, including spiders, mosquitoes, animals and reptiles to use
the buried clay pot as a home.

5.2. Prepare the planting hole

Dig a planting hole about three times as wide and two times as deep as the buried clay
pot. Use a fork to break up soil at the bottom of the hole. Break up clods in the soil that
has been removed and mix in 1/3 compost or aged manure and fertilizers as needed. In
very heavy soil mix in some sand, in saline/alkaline soil add gypsum.

5.3. Place the buried clay pot

Place and firm sufficient soil mix in the hole so that the top of the buried clay pot will
be 2 cm above the surface of the surrounding soil. Then set the buried clay pot in place
with the lid on and fill the space around it with the soil mix and firm it. Fill the buried
clay pot with water and put on the cover.

5.4. Planting the seeds or plants

The seeds or plants can then be planted. A small amount of water should be added to
the seed spot or transplant to help wet the soil and establish capillary action from the
buried clay pot. In most soils the seeds or plants should be placed within 1±3 cm of the
edge of the buried clay pot. Leave a space between plants on one side of the buried clay
pot to make refilling easier when the plants are fully grown.

5.5. Watering

Fill the buried clay pot regularly and try to keep it from becoming completely dry. This
may require refilling every 2±3 days for small pots, but only once every 2±3 weeks for
larger ones. This will vary over the growing season.
 D.A. Bainbridge / Agricultural Water Management 48 (2001) 79±88 85

6. Special applications

6.1. Salinity

Clay pot irrigation will prove most useful in helping farmers grow crops successfully in
areas with salinity problems (about 50% of the World's irrigated land). The stable soil
moisture maintained by buried clay pot irrigation enables crops to be grown in very basic
or saline soil or with saline water under conditions in which conventional irrigation would
fail (Alemi, 1980; Mondal, 1974, 1983, 1984; Mondal et al., 1992; Rai, 1982). High
tomato yields, 27 t/ha, were obtained in India using saline irrigation water, EC
10.2 mmhos/cm, while typical yields in this area with fresh water, EC 0.4, ranged from
15±25 t (Mondal, 1983). In Kenya 61% of normal crop yield was achieved with irrigation
water of EC 8, when typical irrigation fails at EC 4 (Okalebo et al., 1995). Buried clay pot
irrigation moved salt out of the plant root zone better than drip irrigation (Alemi, 1980).
Very low-fired pots may break up in very saline soil as a result of chemical reactions with
the salts.

6.2. Tree establishment and environmental restoration

Buried clay pot irrigation is recommended for dry orchards in India (Mari Gowda,
1974). Buried clay pot irrigation has also proved useful in tree establishment and
revegetation (Shiek'h and Shah, 1983; Douglas and de J. Hart, 1984; Bainbridge and
Virginia, 1989; Bainbridge et al., 1995). In Pakistan the survival of tree seedlings
irrigated with buried clay pots was 96.5% compared to 62% for hand watering and the
buried clay pot irrigated seedlings were 20% taller (Shiek'h and Shah, 1983). Buried clay
pots have proved well suited for container plantings in this harsh environment
(Bainbridge, 1998). They have also been effective in low desert of California for direct
seeding, which may be less costly than container planting (Bainbridge et al., 1989).
(Bainbridge and Virginia, 1989). After 8 months all trees on buried clay pots were alive
and growing well in a buried clay pot irrigation trial in the Colorado desert near the
Salton sea (precipitation <7.5 cm per year), while all of the trees receiving with the same
amount of water with conventional basin irrigation had died.

6.3. Direct seeding

Trials of germination with various irrigation systems in the Colorado desert showed
that buried clay pot irrigation is excellent for direct seeding in arid zones (Bainbridge
et al., 1995). Establishment with buried clay pots ranged from 78±100% while
germination with other systems failed completely or was very poor. Buried clay pots can
be used to establish plants on steep slopes and fast draining areas where conventional
irrigation is impractical or impossible.
Buried clay pot irrigation is very effective for establishing live cuttings in the field
(Bainbridge, 1987). The stable soil moisture provides excellent conditions for rooting
plants that establish readily from cuttings. Buried clay pot irrigation may also make it
possible to establish plants that do not root readily. Angling the shoot can increase the
86 D.A. Bainbridge / Agricultural Water Management 48 (2001) 79±88

range of soil moisture conditions, making it more likely to meet plant demands for good
rooting. Angling the cuttings can also concentrate the growth hormones that stimulate
rooting (Duguma, 1988). The stable moisture and air should also be favorable for root
cuttings. Air layered Prosopis juliflora was planted out with 100% survival using buried
clay pot irrigation in India (Kurian et al., 1983). Buried clay pot irrigation facilitated
rapid establishment and faster growth of the plants.

6.4. Plant propagation

Buried clay pot irrigation is excellent for propagating cuttings in the nursery or in the
field (Bainbridge, 1988; Bainbridge et al., 1998). A buried clay pot with the hole sealed is
placed inside a larger clay pot with the drainage hole left open, Fig. 3 (Bailey, 1920). The
bottom of the outside pot is filled with gravel and the area between the two pots is filled
with the mix best suited for the cuttings involved, typically three parts sand, two parts leaf
mold (or granulated peat), and one part medium loam. The root or stem cuttings are then
placed in the moist soil. The inside buried clay pot is then kept filled with water just as it
is in the field. I have also used buried clay pot irrigation to start plants in the nursery from
seeds.

6.5. Intercropping

The Fan Sheng-chih Shu describes intercropping with buried clay pots. This ancient
text recommends planting 10 scallions around the buried clay pot with four melon seeds.
The scallions should be harvested at the fifth month as the melons begin to ripen. Lesser
beans can also be planted in with the melons and scallions with bean leaves sold as
greens. Many other intercrops, including the traditional corn, bean, squash intercrop
should work well with buried clay pots. Buried clay pots should make it easier to grow
vegetables under trees with active root systems near the soil surface like Eucalyptus.

6.6. Landscaping

Buried clay pots are well suited for many landscaping projects, particularly where
water is scarce or expensive. Buried clay pots work well for plants that demand
considerable moisture but are sensitive to mold and fungus if the leaves are wetted, e.g.

Fig. 3. The double pot propagation method.

 D.A. Bainbridge / Agricultural Water Management 48 (2001) 79±88 87

roses and sugar-snap peas. Buried clay pots may also be used to water plants in
containers. The controlled water delivery may reduce problems of water-logging and
rapid drying.

7. Conclusion

Buried clay pot irrigation is one of many very efficient traditional methods of
irrigation. It has been used successfully for more than 2000 years and would be much
more widely used if farmers and advisors were familiar with its many favorable attributes
(Anon, 1974, 1976, 1979; Gischler and Fernandez-Jauregui, 1984; Bainbridge, 1986,
1988; Bainbridge et al., 1998). It is especially useful in difficult conditions of high
salinity, extreme aridity, limited water supply, and limited resources. It should be the
focus of a major international effort to develop appropriate training materials in a number
of languages and for people who are not literate.

Acknowledgements

With special thanks to Steve Mitchell, Gene Anderson, Luiz Ferreira, Mo

Lahsaiezadeh, Jose Trueba Davalos, Ross Virginia, Mike Allen, John Rieger, Bill and
Athena Steen, John Freeman, Fred Edwards, Tom Zink and Sicco Rood. Students from
William Carey International University, San Diego State University and United States
International University have helped with field trials. A special debt of gratitude is
acknowledged to the Indian and Pakistani scientists who have contributed so much to our
understanding of buried clay pot irrigation. Dr. R.C. Mondal deserves special credit for
his pioneering work in studying and publicizing this excellent traditional method of
irrigation.

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