Group 17

Name : Aditya Priono 1611040343

Kartika Aprila Ulfa 1611040043

Class : PBI / 5 E

Subject : Research Methodology

1. Action Research

A. Definition :

Action research is a participatory, democratic process concerned

with developing practical knowing in the persuade of worthwhile human

purpose, grounded in a participatory worldview which we believe is

emerging at this historical moment. It seeks to bring together action and

reflection, theory and practice in participation with other, in the persuade

of practical solutions to issues of pressing concern to people and more

generally the flourishing of individual persons and their communicate.

(Peter Reason and Hilary Bradbury, 2001)

B. Purposes by Brown and Dowling (2001)

The purpose of action research is a term which is applied to

projects in which practitioners seek to effect transformations in their own

practice.

C. Main characteristics by Jhon W. Cresswell (2012)

 The research is situated in a local context and focused on a

local issue.

 The research is conducted by and for the practitioner.

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  The research result in an action or a change implemented by the

practitioner in the context.

D. Data analysis by Valsa Koshy (2005)

Readers should refer to our full report for a detailed description of

the methodology used in the analysis. Handwriting is notoriously variable

and difficult to assess objectively. The criteria chosen for this study were

therefore those that could be easily replicated and kept as simple objective

as possible. Note that in the table, no distinction is made between boys and

girls or SEN and non SEN students.

E. Kind of the design by L.R Gay and Geoffrey E. Mills (2010)

 Critical action research

The goal is liberating individuals through knowledge gathering for

this reason, it is also known as emancipator action research.
 Practical action research
As compared to critical action research, practical action research
emphasizes more of a how to approach to the processes of action
research and has a less philosophical bent.
F. Kinds of instrument for data Valsa Koshy (2005)
Observation plays an important part in any kind of data gathering and most
action research projects use this as an instrument.
 Structuring observations
The nature and purpose of the observation process will influence
the level of structuring we need to introduce. Through structured
observations, we can gather both qualitative and quantitative data.
 Context for observation
Let us now consider some contexts in which an action research
may make use of observation as a method of data gathering.

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2. Historical Research
A. Definition :
Define historical research in this way it is a process of critical

inquiry into past events, in order to produce an accurate description

and interpretation of those events. (Wiersma, 1986). Historical

methods of research are the process of systematically examining an

account of what has happened in the past. It is not facts and dates or

even a description of past events. The dynamic account of past events

that involves an interpretation attempt to recapture the nuances,

personalities, and idea that events. (Monaghan & Hartman, 2000)

B. Purposes By Jack R. Fraenkel and Norman E. Wellen ( 1990)

To make people aware of what has happened in the past in order to:

 Learn from past failures and sources

 Apply them to present day problem

 Make prediction

 Test hypotheses concerning relationship or trends

 Understand present educational practice and policies more fully.

C. Step of Historical Research by Lundi (2008)

There are five stages to undertake in historical researches:

a. The identification of a researchable phenomenon that involves reading

relevant literature, listening to current views about the phenomenon and

reflecting on the researcher’s interest before choosing a specific time

period, person, phenomena or era related to the focus of the study.

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b. The development of hypotheses or research questions and the

identification of a theoretical perspective that will guide the process of

data collection and results interpretation besides helping researcher focus

and interpret historical occurrences as recorded.

c. The data exploration and collection stage where it can be the most time-

consuming and labor-intensive part as the research process is dependent on

the subject of study and the accessibility of data sources.

d. The checking of facts, evaluation of the validity and reliability of data,

and the analysis of evidence gathered from each source where the

researcher evaluate the data and forms generalizations to accepts or rejects

hypotheses or to answer research questions and forms conclusions.

e. The writing of the report in which findings are the described along with

interpretations and provides detailed supportive evidence in defend of the

conclusions made.

D. Research plan of historical method by John Wiley and Sons Ltd

a. Choose the a subject

Chose the subject (usually it will be relevant to you class or limited

by your instructor). Probably, you will then need to narrow your

topic down, and often define your research paper by gaining a

working hypothesis and thesis.

b. Find sources

You should use both internet and libraries to find your sources. The

best sources to the web, even if it is easier. In library you can find

sources through:

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 Library Catalogue and library database and other links of database

on the you can find sources through:

 Subject directories, hierarchical indexes, etc, such as yahoo,

or even set library pages, or Prof. Pavilac’s Women’s

History site.

 Search engines (for a list of the better ones, with

descriptions, click here).

c. Learn from your sources

Historian usually distinguish between three kinds of sources,

tertiary sources like encyclopedias, dictionaries, and handbook can

give you the general outline of subject and their problem. They

often have useful bibliographies (list of books used), that are

sources you can use. Secondary sources (professional historical

books, scholarly articles) also have bibliographies that should lead

you to more information. Primary sources, the immediate records

of the past, should be used whenever possible.

d. Evaluate your sources

While you are researching, you should be carefully judging each

source. Take careful notes from your sources, always recording

carefully from where you got what information.

e. Start writing, while you research

You can, and should, begin writing as soon as possible. Do not

until you have collected all your information. Prewriting can be

based on good notes. You should be shape your thesis in writing.

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 To get there, if you started with a broad subject, along the way you

should have been refining your subject into a narrow topic or a

hypothesis. Writing as you go helps you to clarify your ideas,

measure the length of parts of your argument, and finish the paper

sooner.

f. Write a rough draft

Write your rough draft as if were your finished paper. Put it aside,

and go over it again carefully. You might use the checklist

provided by the instructor.

g. Have other people critique your draft

It is best to talk to the person, but written comments, perhaps

according to a checklist, are also good. Rewrite until you have a

polished draft. The more you rewrite, the better it will be.

h. Submit your final draft

Notice that the end product is called a draft. Do the best you can,

but every piece of writing has room for improvement. Try to get it

done well in advance of the deadline, in case you have problems

with printing out the paper.

E. There are generally four approaches to historical research by

Monaghan & Hartman (2000)

a. Qualitative approach (also known as history by quotation) where

the search for a story construed from a range of printed or written

evidence and the resultant history is arranged chronologically and

presented as a factual tale and the sources range from manuscripts

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 (such as account books, school records, marginalia, letters, diaries

and memoirs) to imprints (such as textbooks, journals, children’s

books and other books of the period under consideration)

b. Quantitative approach where researchers intentionally look for

evidence that lends itself to be quantifiable and is thus presumed to

have superior validity and generalization with the assumption that

broader question can then be addressed more authoritatively.

c. Content analysis where the text itself is the object of scrutiny that

uses published works as its data and subjects them to careful

analyses that ordinarily include both the qualitative and

quantitative aspects.

d. Oral history which focuses on living memory where researchers

gather personal recollections of events from living individuals via

audio and video recording that gives respondents a natural and

effective environment to provide a reciprocal interchange between

them and the researchers.

F. Instruments

 Interview

 Documentation

 Observation

G. Kinds of the design :

 Social issues

 Study of specific individuals, education institution and social

movements

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  Explorer of relationship between events

 Synthesis of data

 Reinterpretation of past events

H. Kinds of data: Qualitative data

I. Characteristics of Historical Research

 It is not a mere accumulation of facts and data

 It is flowing, vibrant report of past events

 Collecting and reading the research material

 It deals with discovery of data

 It is analytical in that it uses logical induction

 It has a variety of foci such as issues, events, movement and

concept.

J. Data analysis in historical research

 Historical research used the following methods to make sense.

out of large amount of data.

 Theoretical model leading to a content analysis.

 Use of patterns of theme.

 Coding system.

 Qualitative data to validate interpretation

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3. Grounded Theory

A. Definition:

Grounded theory is simply the discovery of emerging patterns in data.

A research too I which enables you to seek out and conceptualize the

latent social patterns and structures of your area of interest through the

process of constant comparison (Glaser in Walsh, 2015). The original

purpose of grounded theory was to allow new theories to emerge data,

works with the induction, whereby observations give rise to new ideas.

(As Dey, 1999)

B. Purpose of grounded theory

Research in education and management is to develop new concepts

and theories of education-related phenomena, where these concepts

and theories are firmly grounded in qualitative data. It allows for the

emergence of original and rich findings that are closely tied to the data.

C. Kinds of instrument

 Structured interviews on a specific issue or set of issues, and

the questions guided the course of the data interview. Play an

important part in the data collection process at the case study

school.

 Unstructured interviews

In these interviews the interviewer explored many facets of the

interviewee’s concerns, treating subjects as they came up in

conversation, interesting leads and allowing imagination

(Tierney, 1991).

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D. Data Analysis

a. Open Coding

The grounded theorist forms initial categories of information about

the phenomenon being studied by segmenting information. The

researcher bases categories on all data collected, such as

interviews, observations, and researcher’s memos or notes.

Typically, researchers identify categories and subcategories, as is

seen in the grounded theory study by Knapp (1995). several

categories that Knapp identify and from her data, such as

specialization, transferable skills, finding a focus, and on-the-job

learning. In this coding presentation, we find that Knapp also

indicates the sources of information that support the categories,

such as interviews, focus groups, journals, memos, and

observations.

b. Axial Coding

The grounded theorist selects one open coding category, positions

it at the center of the process being explored (as the core

phenomenon), and then relates other categories to it. These other

categories are the causal conditions (factors that influence the core

phenomenon), strategies (actions taken in response to the core

phenomenon), contextual and intervening conditions (specific and

general situational factors that influence the strategies), and

consequences (outcomes from using the strategies). This phase

involves drawing a diagram, called a coding paradigm, which

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 portrays the interrelationship of causal conditions, strategies,

contextual and intervening conditions, and consequences. A

grounded theory researcher identifies one of the open coding

categories as the core category that is central to a theory (we

review the criteria for selecting this core category later). Then, this

core category becomes the center point of the axial coding

paradigm. Examining this paradigm, you can see that there are six

boxes (or categories) of information:

 Causal conditions : categories of conditions that influence

the core category

 Context : the specific conditions that influence the

strategies

 Core category : the idea of phenomenon central to the

process

 Intervening conditions : the general contextual conditions

that influence strategies

 Strategies : the specific actions or interactions that result

from the core phenomenon

 Consequences : the outcomes of employing the strategies

c. Selective Coding

Strauss and Corbin (1998) refer to the third analytic level as

"selective coding," meaning that at this point the researcher treats

the various code clusters in a selective fashion, deciding how they

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 relate to each other and what stories they tell. Thus the analyst"

constructs... a set of relational statements that can be used to

explain in a general sense, what is going on".

The grounded theorist writes a theory from the interrelationship of

the categories in the axial coding model. At a basic level, this

theory provides an abstract explanation for the process being

studied in the research. It is the process of integrating and refining

the theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) through such techniques as

writing out the story line that interconnects the categories and

sorting through personal memos about theoretical ideas.

4. Experimental Research

A. Definition:

Experimental research is a research which has the purpose to find the

cause effect relationship among variable in a controlled condition.

(Sugiono, 2002)

B. Types of experimental research

 Pre experimental design, they are least effective and provide

little or no control of extraneous variable.

 True experiment, employ randomization to control the effects

of variable such as history, maturation, testing, statistical

regression and mortality.

 Quasi experimental, provide less satisfactory degree of control

and are used only when randomization is not feasible.

C. Characteristic of experimental research:

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  Control, variable that are not of direct interest to the researcher,

called extraneous variable, need to be controlled.

 Manipulations, refers to a deliberate operation of the conditions

by the researcher.

 Observation, the experimenter observe the effect of the

manipulation of the independent variable on dependent

variable.

D. Data analysis

 T-Test: This is most basic form of group comparison and is

used to compare to independent groups of participants and the

data collected from those groups. A t-test compares the means

of the data sets to determine if there is a statistically significant

difference. The data sets are independent of one another and

not related, therefore, this is sometimes referred to as the

independent-sample t-test. An example would be to compare

the test scores of students who took advantage of tutoring

services with the test scores of student that do not use tutoring

services.

 Paired-Sample T-Test: This test is used when the data sets are

related in some way. This type of statistical test may be applied

to look at the pre-test and post-test scores for a group of

students taking a physics course. The pre-test and post-test

scores are related in that they belong to the same person.

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 Single-Sample T-Test: If the comparison needed is between a

data set and fixed value, this test may be used. For example,

final test scores in a chemistry course may be compared to a

national average.

 ANOVA (Analysis of Variance): This is basic test that is used

when comparing three or more sets of data in a way that

requires several pair comparisons to be made. A researcher

may need to compare the students test scores from 4 different

elementary schools. Scores from each school will need to be

compared with the scores from every other school. The

ANOVA will tell you if the difference is significant, but it does

not speculate regarding “why”.

 Regression: This test is used to determine whether one variable

is a predictor of another variable. For example, a regression

analysis may indicate to you whether or not participating in a

test preparation program results in higher ACT scores for high

school students. It is important to note that regression analyses

are like correlations in that causation cannot be inferred from

the analyses.

 Multiple Regression Analysis: This test is utilized if several

variables are being tested in relation to an outcome. It is

commonly used when the impact of multiple variables is being

examined.

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  Factor Analysis: This method is commonly used when data is

collected through a survey and contains a large number of

items. Factor analysis allows for a reduction in the number of

variables, while at the same time looking detecting possible

relationships between those variables.

 ANCOVA (Analysis of Covariance): This method increases the

strength of a quasi-experimental design. The ANCOVA

reduces the initial differences between groups, which is

important due to the lack of randomization, by making

compensating adjustments to the data.

5. Descriptive research

A. Definition:

Can be explained as a statement of affairs as they are at present with

the researcher having no control over variable, moreover, descriptive

studies may be characterized as simply the attempt to determine,

describe or identify what is, why analytical research attempt to

establish why it is that way or how it come to be. (Ethridge D.E,

2004)

B. Data analysis

Descriptive analysis of data limits generalized on to a particular group

of individual observed. On conclusion extend beyond this group and

similarity to those outside the group can’t be assumed. The data

describe one group and that group only much simple action research

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 descriptive analysis and provides valuable information about the nature

of the particular group of individuals. (Best and Lehan, 2003)

C. Purposes of descriptive research

Classify the outcomes of educational research into the four categories

of description, prediction, improvement, and explanation. They say

that descriptive research describes natural or man-made educational

phenomena that is of interest to policy makers and educators.

Predictions of educational phenomenon seek to determine whether

certain students are at risk and if teachers should use different

techniques to instruct them. Research about improvement asks whether

a certain technique does something to help students learn better and

whether certain interventions can improve student learning by applying

causal-comparative, correlation, and experimental methods. The final

category of explanation posits that research is able to explain a set of

phenomena that leads to our ability to describe, predict, and control the

phenomena with a high level of certainty and accuracy. This usually

takes the form of theories. (Borg and Gall, 1989)

The methods of collecting data for descriptive research can be

employed singly or in various combinations, depending on the research

questions at hand. Descriptive research often calls upon quasi-

experimental research design (Campbell and Stanley, 1963). Some of

the common data collection methods applied to questions within the

realm of descriptive research include surveys, interviews, observations,

and portfolios.

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 D. Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages of descriptive research:

 Effective to analysis non quantified topics and issues

 The possibility to observe the phenomenon in a completely

natural and unchanged natural environment

 The opportunity to integrate the qualitative and quantitative

methods of data collection

 Less time consuming than quantitative experiment

Disadvantages of descriptive research:

 Descriptive studies can’t test or verify research problem

statistically

 Research result may reflect certain level of bias due to the

absence of statistical test

 The majority of descriptive studies are not repeatable due to

their observational nature

 Descriptive studies are not helpful in identify cause behind

described phenomenon

6. Survey research

A. Definition:

Survey research as social scientific research and focuses on people the

viral facts of people and their beliefs, opinion, attitudes, motivation

and behavior. (Karlinger, 1973)

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B. The purposes by Isaac and Michael

 To answer questions that have been raved

 To solve problems that have been passed or observed

 To assess needs and set goals

 To determine whether or not specific objectives have been met

 To establish baselines against which future comparisons can be

made

 To analyze trends across time and generally

 To describe what exists in what amount and in what.

C. Kind of survey research

a. Longitudinal survey

Involve conducting survey research over a continuum of time

which may be spread across years and decades. The data collected

using this survey research method from one time period to another.

It is qualitative or quantitative in nature.

b. cross sectional survey research

It is conducted to collect insights from a target audience at a

particular time interval. This survey research method is

implemented in various sectors such as retail, education, health

care, etc. Cross sectional survey research can either be descriptive

or analytical in nature. This survey research method is quick and

helps researchers collected information in brief time span.

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D. Advantages and disadvantages survey research

Advantages of survey research:

a. The research produces data based on real-world observations

(empirical data).

b. The breadth of coverage of many people or events means that it is

more likely than some other approaches to obtain data based on a

representative sample, and can therefore be generalization to a

population.

c. Surveys can produce a large amount of data in a short time for a

fairly low cost. Researchers can therefore set a finite time-span for

a project, which can assist in planning and delivering end results.

Disadvantages of survey research:

a. The significance of the data can become neglected if the researcher

focuses too much on the range of coverage to the exclusion of an

adequate account of the implications of those data for relevant

issues, problems, or theories.

b. The data that are produced are likely to lack details or depth on the

topic being investigated.

c. Securing a high response rate to a survey can be hard to control,

particularly when it is carried out by post, but is also difficult when

the survey is carried out face-to-face or over the telephone

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 ANALYSIS JOURNAL

1. Title

Teaching Social Studies in Historic Places and Museums:

an Activity Base on Action Research

2. Author
Servet Uztemur, Erkan Dinc, Ismail Acun
3. Webpage
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1197992.pdf
4. Purpose of research
The aim of this research is to assess the usability
and effectiveness of social studies teaching activities
carried out before, in and after museum and historical place
visits. In order to materialize the above aim, it was
proposed to prepare a museum education module and to
practice its content, including pre-visit, in museum or
historic site and post visit dimensions in the context of
social studies education. The other goals are to solve the
problems that have occurred in the implementation
processes, to improve those activities, and to strengthen
museum-school relations. To materialize the above aims,
the current study proposes to answer the following research
question: "What are the experiences, viewpoints and
suggestions of grade seven middle school students on the
educational activities carried out in museums and historical
places?”
5. Grand theory
a. Definition of museum and historical
b. Problem of museum and historical
c. Contemporary museum education
6. Research design

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 Action Research Design
7. Population and sample
A class, comprising of 36 students (20 female, 16
male) in a secondary school in Manisa (located in the west
of Turkey), where the first author worked as a social studies
teacher, formed the study group. The socio-economic levels
of students were not deliberately taken into account when
the study group was identified. The basic logic of the
research is to prepare usable and effective activities for
school that cannot regularly organize visits to museums and
historical places either located in distant places or in the
nearby areas, because of their financial shortcomings.
During the course of the study, attention has been paid to
prevent the students in the study group experience any
financial difficulties.
8. Instrument & Data Collection
Since the learning process in the museums and
historical places are experience based and targeting the
learners’ emotional development, qualitative data collection
tools were used, because they have been seen to be
compatible for the holistic structure of the research.
Qualitative data collection process has been applied
through; observations (researcher field notes, research
journal, video recordings), interviews (focus group
interviews, individual interviews) and written records
(student diaries, student portfolios, applied activities). After
the processes of implementation, focus group interviews
were conducted with the students.
Through semi structured interview forms, the views,
perceptions and awareness of the students at the end of the
process were investigated. While semi-structured interview
forms were being prepared, three field experts were

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 consulted. During the research processes, the first author
observed the students and took notes. Some parts of the
processes were also video recorded. In addition, after each
activity, students kept a diary, recording what they have
learned, their emotions and thoughts and what they felt in
that day. Students were guided and instructed on the topics
they should mention in their diaries.

9. Data analysis
Content analysis was applied to the data obtained
from observations, interviews and written records. Content
analysis is a qualitative data analysis method involving
stages of retrieving, classifying and comparing findings to
arrive at theoretical results (Cohen, Manion and Morrison,
2007). While content analysis is being done, constant
comparative analysis techniques are utilized. The stages of
the constant comparative analysis procedures followed in
this study are shown in Figure 1.
The qualitative data is divided into meaningful
fractions in the word processor and made it ready for the
analysis. The data was read and compared several times and
coded. Then, the codes were compared and contrasted with
the data obtained from all three data sets (observations,
interviews and written sources) to provide that they would
best represent the relevant phenomenon as advised by
Punch (2005). This comparative coding procedure led the
researchers to arrive at some categories. While individual
codes provide conceptualization for each dataset, categories
represent the common aspects of each dataset and that form
a meaningful whole in the same group. The first step of the
abstraction process is accomplished by combining the
similar and meaningful aspects of the various expressions,

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 which seem to be different from each other but which are
actually mirror images of the same process by means of
categories in a single framework.
10. Result
In order to show how and in what ways their
participation in the educational activities contributed to the
students in terms of affective and cognitive aspects, in the
focus group interviews the students were invited to talk
about their feelings and thoughts related to studying in
museums and historical places. In Figure 2, the perceptions
of the learners in terms of their affective satisfaction are
displayed, while Figure 3 presents the cognitive aspects of
students’ academic developments.

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