OTL To verity that the relation A in the set of lines in a plane, defined by R= (i, m) : (IL m} is ‘symmetric but neither reflexive nor transitive. © Concept of parallel lines, perpendicular lines and inclined lines in a plane. . Concept of relations i.e., a relation R from A — B is a sub set of A x B, we write it as R = ((a,5):a © A, b« Banda 6). Concept of reflexive relation: A relation R in non-empty set A is said to be reflexive if a R a for every ae A, ie, (a, a)¢ R for allac A. Concept of symmetric relation: A relation in a non-empty set A is symmetric if a Rb > b Ra ie, (a, b)e R> OG, aeR Vabed. Concept of transitive relation: A relation in a set A is said to be transitive ifa Rb,bRe>aRe ie, (a, 6) € R; b,c) ¢ R= (a, 0) € R for every a, bc < A. . . Card board White sheet of paper Geometry box Board pins Coloured pineils or pens Eraser Cutter ‘a white sheet on it with the help of board pins. ‘Take a card board and fixines on white sheet in ‘ing dit wnt coloured pineils, draw lines : Using i erpendicoar ‘to each other and some are inclined ee peel = Load ome Pie Inclined tine [vemonstraTion + [, and /, are parallel lines. + 1; is perpendicular to /, and /, also is perpendicular to J, Ug is inclined line (which is neither parallel nor perpendicular to any line). Jy is parallel to lyy Lyy Ly amd Uy i.e, Ly | Ugy &y {l Lay Ly Usp Us Il Ley by Il 24 etc. ‘Ths Cy fy), Cy lads Cp Uys yy bs yy by (ry Ugly gy Ug) are perpendienlar lines. J opservations For Reflexive In Fig. 1.1, we observe that no line is perpendicular to itself. So the relation R = {(I, m) : 1 1 m} is not reflexive. For Symmetric Now, /, is perpendicular to 1, (yes) @ Hence /, is perpendicular to 1, (yes) Laboratory Manual in Mathematics XII such a way that some of them are paral + In Fig. 1.1, 1, is perpendicular to ly, ly Ly tyy ty: Where lay lay yy Und 1, are parallel Lines. 50, Uys Ls Cy fads Cys tas Cay Ueds Uy beds ly by) Uy bp) = R. CLines are perpendicular to each other).= hitewhil, Uy Le Roly er Simin, 4, is perpendicular to f, hence 1, is perpendicular tof, Uy le Royle R Aan. tae hence 1, is perpendicular to I, dy, Ie Rady le R Rem er, Uy by), Uys bgh Ory ly Uy. ty) that are perpendicular to each other. ‘Thus, using the concept of symmetry, we have R = (1, m): 14 m) is symmetric. For Transitivity ‘We know, relation R is said to be transitive if (a, by « R; (b, ©) € Roe (a, 0) ¢ R for alla, b,c A ‘but here from Fig. 1.1, we observe that 4, L yt 4 L, but L, is not perpendicular to 1, ie., ly, fy) € Ry (yi ly) © R but (ly ly) @ Re So, the relation R = ((l, m) : 1 4 m) is mot transitive. R= (, m): 14 m} is neither reflexive, nor transitive but it is symmetric. This activity can be used to check, whether the give relation is reflexive, symmetric, transitive then equivelance relation or not. <= i 1. When does a relation R in set A is called Ans. If (a, b) < R, (b, c) < R= (a, 0) < R for every reflexive? a,b, € A, then relation is called transitive. ‘Ans. If (a, a) € R, for every @ ¢ A is called reflexive 4. If R = (Ty T)) + T, and T, are congruent triangles}, does R is reflexive? relation. 2 When does a relation R in set A is called Ams. Yes, R is reflexive because each triangles is symmetric? congurent to itself. ‘Ans. f(a, 8)¢ R20, a) Rforeverya,beA,then 5. Let R = ((a, b) : a, b © A) where A = relation is called symmetric. {1, 2, 3, 4) if R is reflexive, write R in tabula: 3 When does a relation R in set A is called — transitive relation? Ans. R= ((1, 1), 2, 2), (8, 9), 4, 4),Tae To verify the types of functions () One-One function (Injection) (i) Many one function (iil) Onto tunetion (Surjection) (iv) Into function (¥) Bijection (one-one, onto-function) te * Function: Let X and ¥ be two non-empty sets, Then a rule which associates to each element x © X, unique element denoted by f(x) of Y is called a function and written asf: X — ¥. One-one function (Injective function): A function /: X + Y is defined as one-one if the image of distinet element of X under rule f are distinct. ke, Let x, ty € X, such that f (x,) = f (xy) =9 x, = ay. ‘Many one function: A function f : X > ¥ is said to be many one function if two or more elements of X My € X such that x, # x, but f Gy) = f (xy). are associated with the same element of Y i Onto function (Surjective function): A function /': X > Y is said to be onto function, if each element of ¥ is the image of some element of X i.e., for every y « Y there exists some x « X, Into function: If f: X > Y is not on to function then f is called an into function, + One-one and onto function (Bijective function): A function f: X + Y is said to be one-one onto, if the function is both one-one and onto, It is also known as bijective function. .© Card board '* White sheet of paper © Pencil box © Strips of papers of different colour © Adhesive * Board pins [J procepure ¢ Take a card board and fix a white sheet of paper with the help of board pins on card board. © Paste five pair of paper strips on the left side of card board. * On first pair, write 1, 2, 3 on left side strip and a, b, c, d on right side strip as shown in Fig. 3.1. * On second pair, write 1, 2, 3 on left side ‘strip and a, b, c, d on right side strip (Fig. 3.2). On third pair write 1, 2, 3 on left side strip and a, 6, ¢ on right side strip (Fig. 3.3). On fourth pair write 1, 2, 3 on left side strip and a, 6 on right side strip (Fig. 3.4). © On fifth pair write 1, 2, 3 on left side strip and a, 6, c, d on right side strip (Fig. 8.5). Now join them by arrow as shown in figures 3.1 to 3.5. owe [ pemonstraTion© f,:A > B; it is one-one function because image of distinet elements of A under f, are distinct. . j,:A-— Bis many one into function because 1, 2 ofA are associated with « of Band b, d « B, but hore ig no element of A whose image under /, are b and d (Fig. 3.2). ° 1 AB is one-one and onto function because each element of is the mage of rome clement of (Fig. 3.8). . {,: A B ix many-one onto function because all the elements of are the image of some elements of under f, (Fig. 3.4). . {,: A» Bis one-one into funeton because the element de B and there is no element ofA, whee Sage under f, is d (Fig. 9.5). From above observations, we find that f,:A -»B is one-one and onto funetion. Sot ix iective function,( Iff:A — B is one-one then it is injective, (i If f:A > B is on-to then it is surjective. Gay 17; A > B io auch that it i one-ome end onto than it fs ealled bileotive: ‘To understand the concepts of one-one, many one, onto, into, injective, surjective and bijective functions, ————— Fane 1. What is one-one function? 4. Is the function f: N > N, defined by f «, ‘Ans. A function fi X > Y is said to be one-one if =4- Ss one-one? different elements of Xvhave different images in Ans. Yes, it is one-one. Y. 5. Is (CL, 3); (2, 6); B, 9); (4, 12)) a function? 2. Is ((2, 8), (2, 4), (8, 5)} a function? ‘Ans. Yes, it is one-one funetion. ‘Ans. No, it is not a function since 2 has two images $ 6, What do you mean by many one functios! and ; ‘Ans. When two or more elements of first setae > 3. What is bijective function? related to one element of second set then the ‘Ans. A function is said to be bijective if it is one-one function is called many one function. and on to. oogaDecrives To aac ma tieky ri ect FHL of a function at a given point and to check whether the ‘+ Concept of LHL (Left hand limit) of « given function at the given point. » Concept of RHL (Right hand limit) of a given function at the given point «Concept of continuity of a function at a point. lim fx) = lim, fix) = fC) me se Brrr eer eS ie © Card board © White sheet of paper © Calculator ‘+ Coloured pen or pencils P25 * Let the given function be f@) = yx W 2=5 * Here we have to check the continuity of the given above function at x = 5. «Put some values of x, in the function which are very-very close to x = 5 and they are in the left of 5. (Use calculator to find these values). 9 eaB ‘some values of x in the function which are vory-vory clove tox = 6 + INF Ue calculator to find these vals), tr A 4 + The values of x and f(x) when + is very-very clone to x = 6 in right side of x = 5, (Table ty 2 1 Tho value of f) = ==% F SPProaches to 10 as the value of x approaches to 5 from the le, 25 spproaches to 10 as the value of x approaches to 6 from the right 3. Therefore, lim fle) = 10 and Tim f(x) = 10 =e “ ie, LHL at x = 5 of the function is 10. and RHL at x = 5 of the function is 10, 4. Thus, lim f(2) = lim f(x) = 10 ae =P But it is given that f(x) at x = 6 is 12, So, Jim fia) = Jim f(x) * £06) ie, 10 = 10 #12 ‘Thus Left hand limit of f (x) = Right hand limit of f (x) = as the value of f (x) at x = 5 is 12 (given) hence f (x) is not continuous at x = 5. ie., f @) is discontinuous at x = 6, TE Tim fls) = tim fla) = 10 10 #10), then: #(2) ia anid tobe continous’ at = ¢ otherwioe ie ta dlecotinnoat1, What are the conditions for a function to be continuous at a point of its domain? ‘Ans. Funetion f is said to be continuous at a 4. Is logarithmic function continuous everywhere? point of Ans. No, logarithmic function is continuous only in its domain if aoe lim f(z) = tim, fx) = fla) 5. If f and g are two continuous functions at x = a, then what is algebra of continuous funetion? ‘Ans. Yes, sine and cosine functions are continuous 8% %) f+ is continuous at x = a. everywhere, 8. Is the function defined by fix) = |x|, a continuous function? Ans. Yes, the modulus functions fix) = |x| is at all points, (ii) f ~g is continuous at x = a. (iii) f-g is continuous at x = a. tiv) © is continuous at x = aCireyare To verify Rolle’s theorem, Le., if a function fis Oo i, Continuous on [4, 5] (i) Differentiable on (a, 6) f(a) = f(b) then there exists at least one point ¢ € (a, b) such that f"(c) = 0. @ Continuity of f on [a, 6] mean graph of f is continuous curve without any break between the puini x=aandx=b. (i) Derivable on (a, 6) mean graph of f has unique tangent at each point in open interval (a, b). ( (iii) Value of f at x = a and x = 6 are equal ic., ordinates are of equal lengths. . ° . Card board White sheets of papers Coloured pencils or pens ‘Sketch, pen Wire of different lengths Eraser Cutter Board pinsCase Ls When f (x) is constant. + Take a card board of any convient size and fix white sheet of the paper on it with help of board pins. + In the middle of paper draw two perpendicular lines i.e., XOX and Y'OY as axes as shown in Fig. 10.1. ‘+ Take a straight piece of wire of suitable length and put it on the paper in such a way that any two points A and B be parallel to x-axis as shown in Fig. 10.1. Since / (2) is a constant function, so f (x) will have the same valve throughout fa, 6). + Draw line segment AB with pencil or pen of a particular colour. * £() is constant, so f’(x) = 0 if we draw tangents to each point on (a, b), they will be parallel to x-axis, Henee /“(c) = 0 for ¢ © (a, b). Case I: When f (x) is not constant. « Take a card board of convenient size and fix a white sheet of paper on it with the help of board pins. « Draw two lines with coloured pencil as XOX and YOY in the middle of paper (as shown in Fig. 10.2). + Take @ piece of wire of suitable length and bend it in the shape of a curve. Put it on the sheet of white paper, then draw curve along the wire with the help of pencil or sketch pen as shown in Fig. 10.2, ‘+ Take two pieces of straight wire of the same length and fix them in such a way that they are perpendicular to x-axis at points A and B meeting the curve at the points C and D respectively. Draw line segments along AC and BD with pencil.‘* In above Fig. 10.1 and 10.2, curve represent the function y = f (x). © The co-ordinate of the point A and B are (a, 0) and (, 0) respectively. © In the interval (a, 6], there is no break as shown in the figures 10.1 and 10.2. So f is continuous on (a * The curve is smooth between x =a and x = 6, it means the tangents can be drawn at each and every prin, between a and b. So f is derivable on (a, 5). © ‘The value of f(a) = f(6) i.e., the lengths of ordinate (y-coordinate) are equal at points A and B respectively © From above, we observe that all three conditions of Rolle’s Theorem are satisfied. © Thus from Fig. 10.1 and Fig. 10.2, we find that tangents at points C, D and P, Q are parallel to taxis * Since tangents are parallel to x-axis it means /“(c) = 0, where ¢ € (a, 6), J ossenvations From Fig. 10.1 (Students may write as per their observations| £0) = [We have already drawn f(a) = f(b) Curve of function f(x) is constant, so it is a straight line. + Tangents at each point on (a, 6) are parallel to x-axis, From Fig. 10.2 [Students may write as per their observations‘Since /(@) = 7(6) are already drawn equal curves of f(x) in amooth and continuous an fa, 6] hence it ie derivabie at each point on (a, ), from Figs. 10.1 and 10.2, we observe that f(e) = 0, Le., tangent in parallel to x-nxis, where ce @ b). ‘This theorem may be used to find the roots of simple equations. then their existe at least a point ¢ « (a, 6) such 1. What is Rolle’s Theorem? ‘Ans. Let f be a real valued function defined on a, 5] gs such that (ere @ fis continuous on [a, 6} = 0 for a function, what is its Gi) f is differentiable on (a, b) Gti) f (@) = f) ‘Ans. Tangent to the curve at point x = a is parallel to the x-axis.- (i) decreasing | (ill neither increasing nor decreasing function. eects ‘Slope of tangent to the curve at the given point is equal to the first order derivative (if exists) of the curve at that point. * Ify =f (is strictly increasing at any point P, then the angle a which the tangent at point P makes with Positive direction of x-axis is acute, therefore tan «is positive, then f"(x) > 0, V x in D, ‘+ Ify =f 2) is strictly decreasing at any point Q; then the angle f which the tangent at point Q on the curve makes with positive direction of x-axis is obtuse therefore tan f is negative, then f"(x) < 0, ¥ x in D, ‘* If the curve represented by y = f (x) is increasing in one interval and decreasing in other interval then as a whole it is neither increasing nor decreasing. * Card board « Pieces of wire of different lengths © White sheets of paper * Coloured pencils ¢ Cutter » EraserJproceoure ee a «s Take three card boards and fia white papers on thewe card boards wang boned pins, a Draw perpendicular Vines in the saiddte of paper to represent axis 08 yours. © | Take at Teant three place of wire of suitable tengthe and bend them in the shape of curve, the fanctions a8 shown in figures 12.1, 122 and 12.5,Figure 12.1 * Take a picco of wire. Let L, Ly bent it in the shape of curve as shown in Fig. 12.1. Along the wire draw curve with coloured pencil and remove the wire. and place them on the curve. Such that: they are the 7 Now take three straight wires ie, LA, MB and NC ‘angents to the curve at the points L, M and N respectively, then remove the wires and draw straight lines with pencil. * Measure the angles let ZLAX = a,; MBX = a, and ZNCX = a,. + In the figure these angles are obtuse angles when measured with positive direction of x-axis in anticlockwise direction. Hence tan a, - tan a, and tan a, have negative value (since in II quadrant tangent of an angle is negative) ie, the slope of the tangents at all three points are negative. Hence the function given by the curve is a decreasing function, "igure 12.2 * Take a piece of wire let L, L, and bent it in the shape of curve as shown in Fig. 12.2. Along the wire draw curves with coloured pencil and remove the wire. * Take three pieces of straight wires and put them in such a way that they are tangent to the curve at points P, Q and R as shown in Fig. 12.2. Thus PD, QE and RF are tangents to the curve at points P, Q and R respectively. Draw the lines with pencil and remove the wires. * Let measure the angles ZPDX, 0 for each xe (a,b). 9, What is the condition for strictly decre: ft ictly | asing Ans, f is strictly decreasing in (a, b) if fe) < 0 for each x € (a, 8). 4 What do you mean by critical point of a funetion? “Ans. A point ¢ ia the domain of a function 7 is called critical point at which either 7c) = 0 or f is not differentiable. 4, If the curve has upward trend as shown in Fig. 12.4. Se Is it increasing or decreasing? ‘Ans. It is an increasing function.