Forestry Commission

CHRISTMAS
TREE PESTS Field Book 17

Clive Carter
and
T im Winter

Forestry Commission

ARCHIVE
Christmas Tree Pests
by Clive C arte r
and T im W in te r

London : The Stationery Office

11

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
T h e au th o rs thank A lan Jo n e s an d C h risto p h e r H o o d o f Y atten d o n E states and
T o n y R ichardson o f th e B ritish C h ristm as T re e G ro w ers' A ssociation for th eir help
and in terest in th e dev elo p m en t o f this publication. C olin P alm er m ad e valuable
c o m m en ts on th e m a n u scrip t for us. O u r colleagues J o h n W illiam s an d G eo rg e
G a te co n trib u ted to th e high q u ality o f th e illu stratio n s an d p h o to g ra p h s th a t have
been used. In ad d itio n , we are also in d e b te d to O ystein A ustara, N o rw ay (P late 11);
A n d rea B inazzi and M arco Covassi, Italy (P late 56); G y o rg y C soka, H u n g a ry
(Plates 2 6 ,2 7 ); K e ith Day, N o rth e r n Irelan d (P late 37); S u sa n n e H a rd in g , D e n m a rk
(Plates 7, 8 ,1 2 ,2 1 ); J o n G u n n e r O tto sso n , Iceland (P late 17); and M ikael M iin ste r-
Sw ensen, D e n m a rk (P lates 28, 29) for th e use o f th e ir p h o to g rap h s. W e also thank
the typists, especially P am W rig h t, for th e ir h elp an d p atien ce in p re p a rin g th e
m a n u scrip t th ro u g h various stages o f its developm ent.

© C ro w n c o p y rig h t 1998. P u b lis h e d w ith th e p e r m is s io n o f th e

F o re s try C o m m issio n o n th e b e h a lf o f th e C o n tro lle r o f H e r M a je s ty ’s
S ta tio n e ry O ffice.

A p p lic a tio n s fo r r e p r o d u c ti o n s h o u ld b e m a d e in w ritin g to T h e

C o p y rig h t U n it, H e r M a je s ty ’s S ta tio n e ry O ffice, S t C le m e n ts, 2-1 6 C o leg a te ,
N o rw ic h N R 3 1BQ_

IS B N 0 11 710339 X

Front cover, m ain image: C o n ifer sp in n in g m ite d am ag e o n N o rw ay sp ru ce

(see P late 62 in m ain text).

Front cover, top left: F em ale g iant fir aphid

(see P late 10 in m ain text).

Front cover, second image on the left: C o n ifer sp in n in g m ite o n th e base o f a sp ru ce

needle
(see P late 65 in m ain text).

Front cover, third image on the left: S p ru c e sh o o t ap h id o n a new sp ru c e sh o o t

(see P late 37 in m ain text).

Front cover, bottom left: S ingle egg o f a fox-coloured sawfly laid w ith in a n eedle
(see P late 48 in m ain text).
 iii

CONTENTS
Page

In tro d u c tio n 1
D ir e c t o r y o f p e s t s y m p t o m s a f f e c ti n g C h r i s t m a s tr e e s 2

SECTION 1
P e s ts o f s ilv e r f i r s (A b ie s s p p .) 9
B alsam tw ig ap h id 10
B alsam woolly aph id 12
F ir ru s t m ite 14
G ia n t fir ap h id 16
S iberian fir woolly aphid 18
Silver fir needle m in e r or fir n eedle to rtrix 20
Silver fir woolly ap h id 21

SECTION 2
P e s ts o f s p r u c e s (P ic e a s p p .) 25
G re e n sp ru ce aphid 26
G reg ario u s sp ru ce sawfly 31
P in eap p le gall woolly ap h id 33
S p ru c e bark to rtrix m o th 36
S p ru c e bell m o th 37
S p ru c e ro o t ap h id s 40
S p ru c e ru s t m ite 41
S p ru c e sh o o t aphid 43
S p ru c e tw ig aphid 44

SECTION 3
P e s ts o f p in e s (P in u s s p p .) 47
E u ro p ean p ine woolly ap h id 48
G rey pin e-n eed le ap h id 50
P in e sawflies 52
P in e shoot beetle 56
P in e shoot m o th 58
S p o tte d p ine aphid 60
W oolly p in e-n eed le ap h id 61

SECTION 4
P e s ts o f o t h e r c o n if e r s 63
C ypress aphid 64
D ouglas fir woolly ap h id o r C ooley sp ru c e gall ap h id 66

SECTIONS
G e n e ra l p e s ts 69
C lay-coloured weevil 70
C o n ifer sp in n in g m ite 71
L arg e pine weevil 74
IV

SECTION 6
Control o f insects and m ites on C hristm as trees 78
Pesticides R egulations 85
Further reading 85
Glossary 87
Index o f insects and m ites 89
 V

LIST OF PLATES

PESTS OF SILVER FIRS

P l a t e 1. A N o rd m a n n fir p lan tatio n g ro w n for C h ristm as trees. S ilver firs
th a t are grow n w ith o u t som e overhead canopy cover are m o re likely
to suffer from ap h id problem s.

Plate 2. N eed le d isto rtio n caused by balsam tw ig aphid.

Plate 3. D isto rtio n o f needles o n new shoots o f silver fir caused by balsam
tw ig aph id in early Ju n e.
Plate 4. G o u ty g ro w th s o n silver fir shoots.
Plate 5. S pecks o f w hite w ax-w ool caused by balsam woolly ap h id o n the
stem o f silver fir.
Plate 6. Severe d am age to a silver fir {Abies amabilis) gro w in g in a p in etu m .
Plate 7. F ir ru s t m ites o n N o rd m a n n fir needle.
Plate 8. F ir ru s t m ite dam age gives a du ll app earan ce to th e o ld er needles o f
N o rd m a n n fir.
Plate 9. C olony o f g iant fir ap h id feeding th ro u g h th e th in bark o f N o rd m a n n
fir in January.
Plate 10. G ia n t fir ap h id fem ales are very large.
P l a t e 11. O v erw in terin g stage o f S iberian fir woolly aphid.
P l a t e 12. N eedles d am aged by silver fir n eedle m iner.
P l a t e 13. S h o o t attack and die-back caused by silver fir woolly aphid.
P l a t e 14. Severe n eedle d isto rtio n o n silver fir sh o o t caused by silver fir
woolly ap h id in early sum m er.

PESTS OF NORWAY SPRUCE

P l a t e 15. S heared N o rw ay sp ru ce b eing gro w n for th eir larger size as
C h ristm a s trees for civic use. S pecial c o n sid eratio n s n eed to be
m ad e to m in im ize p est dam age if a good re tu rn o n th is m ed iu m
te rm in v estm en t is to be realized.
P l a t e 16. G reen sp ru c e ap h id in its feeding p osition o n a sp ru ce needle.
P l a t e 17. G re e n sp ru ce ap h id an d needle discoloration.
P l a t e 18. B ro w n in g o f old needles o n N o rw ay sp ru ce in Ju n e caused by th e
feeding o f g reen sp ru ce aphid.
P l a t e 19. L o ss o f all old an d som e c u rre n t year needles caused by a heavy
sp rin g attack o f g reen sp ru ce aphid.
P l a t e 20. T ypical ap p earan ce in Ju ly o f a sh o o t in th e to p w horl follow ing
attack by th e greg ario u s sp ru ce sawfly.
P l a t e 21. D am ag e caused by g reg ario u s sp ru c e sawfly show ing dead and dying
needles severed by th e feeding larvae.
P l a t e 22. L a rv a o f greg ario u s sp ru ce sawfly.
P l a t e 23. P in eap p le gall woolly a p h id attack o n N o rw ay spruce.
VI

P l a t e 24. D evelop in g p in eap p le gall caused by woolly aphid. T h e p osition o f

th e fu n d a trix d u rin g th e w in ter w ould be at th e base o f th e b u d ,
w here th e gall is fo rm ed , an d is now covered in w hite wax. A t this
stage the su b se q u e n t g en eratio n (th e gallicolae) are enclosed totally
w ith in th e gall.
P l a t e 25. Im m a tu re p in eap p le gall woolly ap h id s (th e fu n d a trix stage)
overw in terin g close to th e te rm in a l b u d o f N o rw ay spruce.
P l a t e 26. E n try p o in t o f sp ru ce bark to rtrix m o th at base o f side shoot.
P l a t e 27. B ore d u st (frass) and resin aro u n d sp ru c e b ark to rtrix m o th feeding
gallery o n N o rw ay spruce.
P l a t e 28. A d u lt o f sp ru ce bell m o th .
P l a t e 29. L arv ae o f sp ru ce bell m o th .
P l a t e 30. S p ru c e bell m o th d am age to N o rw ay sp ru c e in January.
P l a t e 31. F rass and m in ed needles caused by sp ru c e bell m o th .
P l a t e 32. W ax secreted by sp ru c e ro o t a p h id o n c o n tain er-g ro w n plants.
P l a t e 33. S p ru ce ro o t a p h id w ingless stage.
P l a t e 34. A d u lt sp ru c e ru s t m ite o n N o rw ay sp ru c e needle.
P l a t e 35. S p ru ce ru s t m ite dam age.
P l a t e 36. S p ru ce ru s t m ite eggs o n S itk a sp ru c e needle.
P l a t e 37. C olony o f sp ru c e sh o o t ap h id w ith h oneydew d ro p lets o n a new
sp ru ce sh o o t in Ju n e.
P l a t e 38. L o w er b ra n ch e s o f sp ru c e w ith sooty m o u ld fungi gro w in g o n
honeydew deposits from sp ru ce sh o o t ap h id colonies.
P l a t e 39. S p ru ce tw ig a p h id o n new sh o o t gro w th .

PESTS OF PINES
P l a t e 40. S h eared S cots p in e b eing grow n for C h ristm a s trees. T h e difficulty
in reachin g every p a rt o f th e foliage an d b ark w ith a co n tac t pesticide
at this stage can be ap p reciated .
P l a t e 41. W h ite w ax-wool o f th e E u ro p e a n pine woolly a p h id on Scots
pine stem .
P l a t e 42. E u ro p ean p in e woolly ap h id o n S cots pine.
P l a t e 43. C olonies o f grey p in e-n eed le aphid.
P l a t e 44. L arg e p in e sawfly larvae feed in a clu ster o n b o th new an d old er
needles.
P l a t e 45. L arv ae o f fox-coloured sawfly feeding o n o ld er needles o f S cots pine.
P l a t e 46. L arv a o f Diprion similis (the in tro d u c e d p in e sawfly [N. A m erica]).
P l a t e 47. E g g scars o f large p in e sawfly.
P l a t e 48. Single egg o f fox-coloured sawfly laid w ith in a needle.
P l a t e 49. S h o o t tip s d am ag ed by p in e sh o o t beetle.
P l a t e 50. P in e sh o o t beetle p o in t o f e n try into a C orsican p in e shoot.
P l a t e 51. A d u lt p in e sh o o t beetle b o rin g in a c u rre n t year's shoot.
P l a t e 52. P ine sh o o t beetle b reed in g gallery u n d e r bark.
 Vll

P l a t e 53. B en t shoot caused by p ine sh o o t m o th larva feeding at base.

P l a t e 54. P ine shoot m o th resin te n t in spring.
P l a t e 55. A d u lt pine sh o o t m o th .
P l a t e 56. N eed le discoloration caused by sp o tted p in e aphid.

PESTS OF OTHER CONIFERS

P l a t e 57. B ran ch die-back o n L ey lan d cypress caused by cypress aphid.
P l a t e 58. C olony o f cypress aphids.
P l a t e 59. Yellow n eedle flecking an d d isto rtio n caused by D o u g las fir woolly
aphid.
P l a t e 60. W h ite w ax-wool tu fts o f D ouglas fir woolly aphid.

GENERAL PESTS
P l a t e 61. C lay-coloured weevil dam age o n N orw ay spruce.
P l a t e 62. C o n ifer sp in n in g m ite d am age on N orw ay spruce.
P l a t e 63. N eed le discoloration caused by conifer sp in n in g m ite.
P l a t e 64. C o n ifer sp in n in g m ite w ebbing covering a sp ru ce shoot; m any m ites
can be seen o n th e web.
P l a t e 65. A d u lt conifer sp in n in g m ite.
P l a t e 66. O v erw in terin g conifer sp in n in g m ite eggs o n th e stem o f N o rw ay
spruce.
P l a t e 67. L arg e p in e weevil adults feeding o n bark o f a p in e tran sp lan t.
V lll

LIST OF LIFE CYCLE FIGURES

F i g u r e 1. B alsam tw ig aphid.
F i g u r e 2. B alsam woolly aphid.
F i g u r e 3. F ir ru s t m ite.
F ig u r e 4. G ia n t fir aphid.
F i g u r e 5. Silver fir needle m iner.
F ig u r e 6. Silver fir woolly ap h id and S ib erian fir woolly aphid.
F ig u r e 7. G re e n sp ru ce aphid.
F ig u r e 8. G reg ario u s sp ru ce sawfly.
F ig u r e 9. P in eap p le gall woolly aphid.
F ig u r e 10. S p ru c e b ark to rtrix m o th .
F ig u r e 11. S p ru c e bell m o th .
F ig u r e 12. S p ru c e ru s t m ite.
F i g u r e 13. S p ru c e sh o o t aphid.
F ig u r e 14. E u ro p e a n p in e woolly aphid.
F ig u r e 15. G rey p in e-n eed le aphid.
F ig u r e 16. L arg e p in e sawfly.
F ig u r e 17. In tro d u c e d p in e sawfly (N . A m erica).
F i g u r e 18. F ox -co lo u red sawfly.
F i g u r e 19. P in e sh o o t beetle.
F i g u r e 20. P in e sh o o t m o th .
F i g u r e 21. S p o tted p in e ap h id .
F i g u r e 22. C ypress aphid.
F ig u r e 23. D ou g las fir w oolly aphid.
F ig u r e 24. C lay-co lo u red weevil.
F ig u r e 25. C o n ifer sp in n in g m ite.
F ig u r e 26. L arg e p in e weevil.
F ig u r e 27. Silver firs: tim etable for p e st su rv ey s an d control.
F ig u r e 28. Spruces: tim etable for p est surveys an d control.
F ig u r e 29. Pines: tim etable for p e st surveys an d con tro l.
F ig u r e 30. D o u g las firs: tim etable for p est su rv ey s an d control.
 1

JL l

M an y species o f insects are know n to feed o n conifers in forest plantations. U n d e r

these sem i-n atu ral forest conditions, th e cost o f insecticidal co n tro l can seldom be
justified. W h e n conifers are grow n for C h ristm as trees in low land arable farm lan d
areas u n d e r an intensive sh o rt-ro ta tio n system , it has som etim es been found
difficult to p ro d u ce good q uality foliage w ith o u t em b ark in g o n som e kind o f insect
control. T h is is especially so in th e d rier or m ild -w in te r d istricts in B ritain. In su ch
places, sp ru c e , fo r ex am p le, is far rem o v ed fro m its n a tu ra l eco sy stem .
F u rth e rm o re , w hen th e use o f w id e-sp ectru m insecticides is accom panied by
alm ost total w eed contro l, th ere will be few o p p o rtu n itie s rem ain in g for any insect
p red ato rs to exist. So th ere is always th e possibility o f su ch an intensive system
ru n n in g into difficulties. A p art from cu ltu ral practices, th e species o f tree m ay n o t
be adaptable to th e new e n v iro n m en t and any insects or m ites associated w ith these
o u tp lan ted trees m ay be raised from th e insignificant category to th a t o f a pest.
W e have now recognized th a t at least 31 species o f aphids, m o th s, sawflies, beetles
and m ites are o f co n cern to grow ers o f C h ristm as trees in E u rop e. O f these, m any
are o f co m m o n occurrence, o th ers are presen tly o f lim ited d istrib u tio n , an d som e
are also troublesom e in N o rth A m erican C h ristm as tree p ro d u c tio n areas. I t is
alm ost im possible to p rev en t th e im m ig ratio n o f insects over a perio d o f tim e,
alth o u g h th e trad e m u st be alert to th e risks o f m o v em en t o f infested m aterial. N ew
infestations have arisen w here m ed iu m an d lo n g -ran g e (in terc o n tin en tal) spread
has taken place by th e m o v em en t o f p la n t m aterial. M an y insects take advantage o f
p lants u n d e r stressed conditions, su ch as w hen b eing p lan ted out. It is im p o rta n t
to m in im ize this risk by only using th e health iest in sect-free seedlings w hen
p lan tin g for C h ristm as tree p ro d u ctio n .
A p art from the p est problem s o n th e trad itio n al N o rw ay sp ru ce, we have included
h ere for th e first tim e illu strated accounts an d life cycles o f insects an d m ites th a t
are causing som e co n c e rn to th e grow ers o f various silver firs, D o u g las firs, pines
and cypresses since th ese trees m ay be b e tte r suited as C h ristm as trees in som e
districts d e p e n d in g on local soil type, clim ate o r m ark et d em an d .
2

DIRECTORY OF PEST SYMPTOMS AFFECTING

CHRISTMAS TREES
USING THE DIRECTORY
T h is d irecto ry is designed to h elp th e u ser d ecid e quickly w hich p est is causing th e
sy m p to m s observed affecting th e crop. E n trie s are a rra n g ed by tree genus, alpha­
betically, and th e n by th e p a rt o f th e p la n t in th e follow ing order: foliage, b u d s, c u r­
re n t shoots, w oody ste m s/b a rk , a n d roots.
T h e likelihood o f a p artic u la r p est causing th e d am ag e sy m p to m s observ ed is
show n by a '+ ' in th e first th ree left-h an d colum ns. T h e d am age ra tin g in th e fo u rth
co lu m n indicates th e severity o f th e p ro b lem as follows:
1 = slight dam age, usually n o co n tro l req u ired
2 = m o d erate dam age, som e econom ic loss m ay o ccu r in certain
circum stances, e.g. honeydew and sooty m o u ld s d u e to th e sp ru c e sh o o t
a p h id (C inara pilicornis) will devalue th e cro p if p re se n t o n th e foliage
in th e year o f harv estin g
3 = serious p ests th a t will cause severe d am age w ith a co n se q u en t
devaluation, o r even total loss, o f p a rt or all o f th e crop.
Page n u m b ers th e n refer th e u se r to a m o re d etailed d esc rip tio n w hich also includes
advice o n control. S om etim es a co m b in atio n o f sy m p to m s can affect th e sam e p a rt
o f th e p la n t b u t are caused by m o re th an o n e pest, e.g. o n Abies foliage th e presence
o f honeydew o r sooty m o u ld s an d d isto rted needles indicates e ith e r Adelges nord-
mamrianae or M indarus abietmus as th e cause. C o n sid e ra tio n o f sy m p to m s affecting
o th e r parts o f th e p lan t, in this case w h e th e r o r n o t th e re is any wool o n th e stem ,
can th e n help to m ake a co rre c t diagnosis.

KEY
* P e s ts n o t y e t k n o w n to b e e s ta b lis h e d in th e U n ite d K in g d o m .

*-* Y e ry r a r e in t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m .

t I t is s o m e t i m e s d i f f i c u l t t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e t w e e n H y / o b i n s ( c e d i n g d a m a g e a n d t h a t c a u s e d b y v o le s .

C lo s e e x a m in a tio n w ith a le n s m a y re v e a l in c is o r m a rk s le ft b y th e la tte r o n fre s h ly d a m a g e d s te m s .

| | U n lik e ly , u n le s s c r o p g r o w n in , o r c lo s e to , c o n if e r p la n ta tio n .
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 SECTION 1
PESTS OF SILVER FIRS

P l a t e 1. A N o r d m a n n fir p la n ta tio n g ro w n fo r C h ris tm a s tre e s. S ilv e r firs

t h a t a re g ro w n w ith o u t so m e o v e rh e a d c a n o p y c o v e r a re m o re lik ely to
su ffe r fro m a p h id p ro b le m s.
10 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS
BALSAM TWIG APHID (Mindarus abietinus)
T r e e s p e c ie s k n o w n to b e a f f e c te d
T h is a p h id has been reco rd ed from
m an y species o f A bies (tru e firs);
p articu larly A . alba, A . ainabi/is, A .
bakam ea, A . cilicica, A . fin n a , A . fraseri,
A . grandis, A . lasiocarpa an d A .
nordmanniana. In stan ces o f Picea b eing
attack ed are prob ably a ttrib u tab le to
a n o th e r sp ecies o f M in d a ru s; see
M indarus obliquus p. 44.
S y m p to m s a n d co nsequences o f
a tta c k
T h e feeding o f this a p h id o n th e new
shoots o f tru e firs (Abies species) causes
th e needles to curl. T w ig d isto rtio n ,
n eedle fall an d stu n te d g ro w th can also
occur; in severe cases th e sh o o t tips can
be killed. A lth o u g h th ere is som e p artial
s tra ig h te n in g of sp rin g -d a m a g e d
needles later in th e grow 'ing season, the
am o u n t o f dam age p ersistin g can be
sufficient to spoil th e ap p earan ce and
sy m m etry o f a young tree. A n a tte n d a n t
problem is th e p rofusio n o f honeydew'
th a t is excreted by th e ap h id s an d falls
P l a t e 2. N eed le d isto rtio n caused by balsam
tw ig ap h id .
o n th e low er foliage. T h is sticky d ep o sit
becom es covered by black sap ro p h y tic
sooty m o u ld fungi. All o f these factors
c o n trib u te to w a rd s d e g ra d in g th e
q u a lity o f A bies sp ecies g ro w n as
C h ristm as trees or for d ecorative foliage
p ro d u c tio n .
R e c o g n itio n in t h e fie ld
Sm all pale g reen a p h id s s u rro u n d e d by
an a b u n d an ce o f fluffy wax filam ents
a n d h o n e y d e w d ro p le ts in th e so ft
n e w d y -ex p an d in g sh o o ts in early
sum m er. T h e attacked needles o n th e
n ew sh o o ts b e c o m e b e n t o r c u rle d
up w ard s from th e tim e th e b u d scales
are shed.
A n n u a l life c y c le
T h e ap h id s first b ecom e noticeable as
th e b u d scales are falling from th e new
shoots in sp rin g , w hen sm all ap h id s will
already be p re se n t a m o n g st th e needles.
T h is g en eratio n o f ap h id s has resulted
fro m fem ales th a t h a tc h e d fro m
o v erw in te rin g eggs ju s t b efo re b u d -
b u rst. A lm o st sim u ltan eo u sly a d u lt
w inged an d w ingless ap h id s a p p ear on
th e a ttach ed sh o o ts in early sum m er.
T h e w inged ap h id s are able to fly o ff
an d settle o n o th e r Abies, to give b irth to
y o u n g th a t develop into m ales and eg g -
laying fem ales. T h e fem ales lay eggs at
th e bases o f th e needles an d cover th e m
w ith w h ite w'axy th re a d s th a t m ake
th e m ra th e r d ifficu lt to detect. T h e
eggs do n o t h a tc h u n til th e follow ing
sp rin g , so th e in sect exists in this stage
for eig h t m o n th s.
R e c o rd e d d is trib u tio n and
c irc u m s ta n c e s w h e re dam age
o c c u rs
T h is a p h id species has a c ircu m p o lar
d is trib u tio n o c c u rrin g th r o u g h o u t
N o rth e r n E u ro p e (B ritain, Scandinavia)
to Asia. Its original d istrib u tio n was
P alaearctic b u t, since its in tro d u c tio n to

P la te 3. D isto rtio n o f needles on new shoots
o f silver fir caused by balsam twig aphid in
early June.
N o rth A m erica, it is now w idespread in
the U S A and C anada w here freq u en t
dam age is caused o n native Abies species
grow n as C h ristm as trees. In som e
districts it only appears sporadically, b u t
in o th ers repeated attacks have o ccu rred
over m any years on th e sam e trees.
T rees o f 1 m high or m o re have been
noticeably attacked m o re heavily than
sm a lle r trees; o p e n sta n d s and
p lan tatio n s on slopes w ith su nny aspects
a p p ear to be m o re susceptible to heavy
attacks.
M in im iz in g d am age and in sect
control
T h e choice o f a fertile site w ith shelter
fro m s tro n g early su m m e r su n lig h t
w ould favour vigorous tree gro w th and
B alsam tw ig aphid
Mindarus abietinus
J F M A M J
0 0 0 0 0 0 DOOOOOC 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 DOOO
f w in g le s s fe m a le s
insecticide treatment t
xxxx x x x x (XXXXXXX)
Fig. 1. Balsam twig aphid.
PESTS OF SILVER FIRS 1 1
m inim ize th e dam age caused by this
aphid. T h e re are good ind icatio n s th a t
earlier flushing trees are m o re su scep ti­
ble to attack and so th e use o f seed ori­
SECTION
gins or species th a t are know n to have
later b u d -b u rst m ay h elp to alleviate th e
inten sity o f attack by this aphid. U n d e r
n o rm al circum stances annual p ro p h y ­
lactic insecticidal trea tm e n ts are n o t re­
co m m en d ed as th e d efo rm ed needles
will straig h ten a little an d be h id d en by
su b seq u en t shoot g ro w th o r rem oved by
shearing; in ad d itio n , n atu ra l enem ies
will give som e control. I f y o u n g Abies
grow n for C h ristm as trees develop reg­
u lar an n u al attacks by M . abietinus,
som e chem ical co n tro l o f th e insect m ay
be co n sid ered n ecessary an d sh o u ld
only be used to p ro te ct th e trees over the
last tw o grow ing seasons before th ey are
sold. C arefully tim ed spray applications
are essential to p rev en t ap h id d am age in
th e c u rre n t year. S p ray in g sh o u ld be
carried o u t tw o weeks before b u d -b u rst,
o therw ise th e ap h id s will craw l u n d e r
th e b u d scales an d get in b etw een th e
ten d e r new needles. H ig h volum e spray
applications to ru n -o ff, and th o ro u g h
p e n e tra tio n o f th e foliage, are need ed to
b rin g a b o u t effective control: [T ake note
o f c u rr e n t P e stic id e R e g u la tio n s -
see p. 85.]
J A s 0 N D
eggs
d am ag e ! p e r io d |
H I e g g la y in g fe m a le s
■■HH HUHm a le s
r-1
o o o o o o | o o o o o o JOOOOOC 000000
o
o
o
o
o
12 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS

BALSAM WOOLLY APHID (Adelges piceae)

Tree species known to be affected g e n e ra tio n (th e siste n s) a re o n ly
Abies alba, A . amabilis, A . balsamea, A . co n sp icu o u s w hen th ey b ecom e ad u lt
cephalomca, A . delavayi var. fa x o n ta n a , and secrete a covering o f w h ite w ax-
A . delavayi var. forrestii, A . fraseri, yf. wool; sim ilar g en eratio n s follow' w hich
grandis, A . lasiocarpa, A . nordm anm ana, also o c cu r o n th e tw igs an d stem s u n til
y4. pindrow, A . procera an d A . veitchii. th e a u tu m n . T h e ra re r sp rin g form s
(p ro g re d ie n s ) are essen tially n e e d le -
S y m p to m s and con seq uences o f
feeders an d develop rap id ly o n th e soft
attack
new grow th.
O n young trees, foliage becom es d isto rt­
Annual life cycle
ed, b u d s fail to o pen an d tw igs becom e
g rossly e n larg ed , p a rtic u la rly a t th e T h e insect o v erw in ters as an im m atu re
no d es an d a ro u n d th e b u d s; th is is fem ale sistens fo rm an d its g ro w th and
re fe rre d to as 'g o u t disease'. T h e shoot d ev elo p m en t co m m en ces d u rin g spring.
g ro w th is d is to rte d , o fte n tu r n in g T h e s e sistens b ecom e a d u lt by th e end
dow nw ards at the ends. S o m etim es th e o f A pril an d th e ir eggs are laid in a
b u d s are partially enclosed in a k n ob o f clu ste r (average 150 p e r fem ale) over
sw ollen tissue. T h e stem s develop a several w eeks n ex t to w'here they are
m ark ed ta p e r after a few seasons o f feeding. T h e new ly h a tc h e d crawders
attack. D ie-b ack o f affected shoots fol­ from these eggs are usually first seen
lows and the sy m m etry o f th e tree is w hen th e b u d s are b reak in g an d are very
lost. T h e N o rth A m erican species o f fir active for a few days only as th ey seek
a p p e a r to su ffe r m o re th a n th e new feeding sites. T h e y usually settle
E u ro p e a n species. o n irregu larities in th e b ark w'here th ey
in se rt th e ir stylets. T h e craw lers from
R ecognition in the field
th e first eggs th a t h a tc h are o f th e
T h e severe sy m p to m s d escribed above
p ro g re d ie n s stage th a t feeds o n th e very
can resu lt from ju st a few insects feeding
y o u n g needles. T h is is usually a m in o r
on th e twigs. T h e insects are p artially
event in th e life cycle o f th is adelgid in
concealed u n d e r b u d scales, in crevices,
B ritain , th e reason b ein g th a t eggs h atc h
scars or lenticels in th e ep id erm is. T h is
before th e b u d s have b ro k en so m o st o f

B a ls a m w o o lly a p h id

A d elge s p iceae

w in g le s s fe m a le s ta g e s p ro te cte d b y se c re te d w o ol co ve rin g
I I I
OOOdiOOQi le g g s p ro te cte d b y w o o l co ve rin g
d■ w in g le s s fe
1 m a le sta1g e s 1
u n p ro te cte d
■ sistens on shoots
insecticide treatment

d a m a g e d p eriod xxxxxx x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

Fig. 2. Balsam woolly aphid.


this p ro g red ien s stage perish. I f they do
m anage to find an available n eedle o f th e
rig h t co n d itio n they settle o n th e u n d e r­
side o f th e needle and lay a sm all clu tch
o f eggs. T h e craw lers from th ese eggs
settle on stem s and tw igs to becom e the
n ex t gen eratio n o f adults. T h e m ore
usual cou rse o f events for th e bulk o f
the craw lers h a tch in g from th e first sis­
tens gen eratio n th a t had overw intered is
to settle on stem s and tw igs w here they
u n d erg o a sh o rt period o f aestivation
(about o ne m o n th ). B y Ju ly eggs are
p re se n t again (2 0 -4 0 ), an d are laid in a
clu ster b e h in d th e ad u lt sistens. U sually
o ne fu rth e r sistens g eneratio n occurs,
reaching m a tu rity by S ep tem b er, and
th e craw lers h a tch in g from th eir eggs
can o ccu r u p to O ctober. T h e se settle as
before on th e bark o f tw igs and stem s
w here they overw inter. In w a rm e r and
m o re favourable sites th e ra te o f grow th,
rate o f oviposition, and d u ra tio n o f
diapause m ay b e significantly altered so
th a t additional su m m e r generations can
occur.
P la te 4. G o u ty grow ths on silver fir shoots.
P la te S. S pecks o f w hite wax-wool caused by
balsam woolly aphid on the stem o f silver fir.
PESTS OF SILVER FIRS 13
Recorded distribution and circum ­
stances where dam age occurs
Adelges piceae is a native species in
E u ro p e , w here it is th o u g h t to have
S E C T IO N
originated in th e so u th-east, alth o u g h its
precise origins are unclear, b u t now
ex ten d s from th e A lps to N o rw ay and
S w ed en . In N o r th A m e ric a it has
caused severe d am age to th e native firs
in th e m aritim e provinces o f C anada
a n d N e w H a m p s h ire follo w in g an
estab lish m en t early w ith in th is century.
I t has since spread th ro u g h o u t th e Abies
forests o f N o rth A m erica to th e W est
C o ast. M o re re c e n tly it has b e en
id entified from m aterial o n in tro d u ced
A . nordmanniana grow ing in C hile.
P la te 6. Severe dam age to a silver fir (Abies
amabilis) grow ing in a pinetum .
M in im izin g dam age and insect
control
T h e balsam woolly ap h id appears to
th riv e o n ex p o sed sites w h e re soil
m o istu re deficits are excessive. A ttacks
o n o ld er trees are o f m o re freq u en t
o ccu rren ce in eastern p arts o f B ritain
th a n in th e w est; th e re are several
records o f attacks n ear th e sea coasts.
 1 4 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS
G ro w in g A bies fo r C h ris tm a s tre e
p ro d u ctio n near to old A . grandis o r A .
procera is n o t advisable, especially u n d e r
th e clim a tic c o n d itio n s m e n tio n e d
above. A . piceae spread s by dispersal o f
th e new ly -h atch ed craw ler stage after
they clim b to th e o u te rm o st p a rts o f the
crow n o f th e trees and are th e n blow n
away by air cu rren ts. T h e felling o f
heavily infested trees is best d o n e in the
w in te r m o n th s b eca u se d u rin g th e
grow ing season th ere m ay be craw ler
stages p re se n t at any tim e th a t could be
shaken from the trees as th ey fall.
In s e c tic id a l tr e a tm e n ts a g a in s t th is
in se c t, even o n sm all trees, c a n n o t
g u arantee eradication, n o r p re v e n t any
insect dam age. T h e re are m an y n atu ra l
FIR RUST MITE (Nalepella
T r e e s p e c ie s k n o w n to b e a f f e c te d
E rio p h y id m ites o f an u n k n o w n species
w ere found in 1994 on Abies nordm anni-
ana in S cotland. D am ag e to Abies d u e to
eriophyid m ites has also been re p o rte d
from D e n m a rk in recen t years.
S y m p to m s and co nseq u en ce of
a tta c k
In D e n m a rk dam age to A . nordm anni-
ana is re p o rte d to cause a dark g reen to
b ro n z e d is c o lo ra tio n o f th e o ld e r
n eed le s, w h ich c o n tra s ts w ith th e
c u rre n t year's foliage th a t is n o t affected.
S everely dam aged needles will drop,
alth o u g h this m ay be delayed u n til th e
au tu m n .
R e c o g n itio n in t h e fie ld
D am ag e by th is m ite causes a ch ara c te r­
istic sp o ttin g o f th e needles only visible
u n d er high m agnification. T h e sp in d le-
shaped m ites (0 .1 -0 .2 m m ) are slightly
tra n sp a re n t, yellow ish an d difficu lt to
see. T h e spherical eggs are sim ilar in
colour, 0 .0 6 -0 .0 7 m m in diam eter, and
also found on the needles.
enem ies o f th e balsam woolly ap h id in
E u ro p e an d several have been in tro ­
d u ce d into N o rth A m erica to b rin g
a b o u t co n tro l in th e forest situation.
A lth o u g h th is m ay re g u la te an d
m in im ize insect attack it w ould ap p ear
to be d ifficult to plan an d m an ag e on
m o st o f th e sm all isolated p lan tatio n s o f
fir th a t prevail. I t w ould seem to be an
easier o p tio n to grow those species o f fir
th a t d o n o t react so obviously to this
in sect for C h ristm a s trees an d g reen ery
p ro d u c tio n , p o ssib ly a v o id in g th e
p lan tin g o f N o rth A m erican tru e firs for
this p u rp o se , w ith th e excep tio n o f A .
procera, especially in th e risk areas.
sp.)
A n n u a l life c y c le
Very inco m p letely know n. In D en m a rk
seven to eigh t g en eratio n s p e r year are
reco rd ed w ith a d u lt m ites active from
a b o u t m id -M a y u n til S e p te m b e r o r
O ctober.
R e c o rd e d d is trib u tio n a n d c ir c u m ­
s ta n c e s w h e re d a m a g e o c c u rs
In B ritain erio p h y id m ite d am age o n
Abies has been su sp ected several tim es
b u t m ites th a t m ay have caused the
pro b lem have been fo u n d only once. I t is
possible th a t th is re c e n t discovery in
S co tlan d is co n n ected to plants th a t
o rig in ated from D en m ark .
M i n i m i z i n g d a m a g e a n d c o n tr o l
T h is e rio p h y id m ite can cause serious
n eed le d am age w h ich m ay be related to
d ry an d w a rm conditio n s. S uccessful
c o n tro l can be achieved by u sin g an aca-
ric id e su c h as dicofol + te tra d ifo n ,
w hich is effective ag ain st b o th eggs and
a d u lt m ites, ap p lied as a h ig h volum e
spray. In D e n m a rk a m itraz (M ita c 20)
applied at 3 litres o f p r o d u c t/h a in
 PESTS OF SILVER FIRS 15

6 0 0 -1 0 0 0 litre s o f w a te r /h a has
c o n tro lle d th e a d u lts o f th is m ite.
C lofentezine (A pollo 50 S C ) has been
used ag ain st th e eggs o n Abies, b u t the

SECTION
D an ish experience show ed little extra
b en efit from applying this to g eth er w ith
am itraz. [T ake n ote o f c u rre n t Pesticide
R egulations - see p. 85.]

P la te 7. F ir ru st m ites on N ordm ann fir needle.

P la te 8. F ir ru st m ite dam age gives a dull

appearance to the older needles o f N ordm ann fir.

F ir ru s t m ile

N alepe lla sp

J F M A M J J A S 0 N D

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larvae ?

damage xxxxxx xxxxxxxXX) x xxxxxxx (XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX) xxxxxxxx: :xxxxxxxx

f 1 t t
control (as soon ? s damage s seen)
f f

F ig . 3. F ir ru st mite.
1 6 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS

GIANT FIR APHID (Cinara confinis)

T r e e s p e c ie s k n o w n to b e a f f e c te d M a rc h , su g g estin g th a t, if co n d itio n s
M o s tly re c o rd e d fro m tr u e firs are favourable, colonies m ay p ersist over
in clu d in g Abies alba, A . baham ea, A . w inter. N o rm a lly o v erw in terin g is in th e
bornm uellerana, A . cephulonica, A . egg stage; these are laid o n th e needles
cilicica, A . grandi:o, A . hisiocarpa, /I. d u rin g th e a u tu m n . O ccasionally this
mariesii, A . nordm anmana, A . pindrow , species has been fo u n d feeding o n roots
M. procea, A . sachalinensis an d A . sibirica, in th e uplan d s, also o n roots d u rin g h o t
b u t also o n Cedrits deodara an d C. libani. su m m e r w eather, o r enclosed in special
earth e n ch a m b e rs c o n stru c te d by ants.
S y m p to m s a n d co nsequences o f
W in g ed fem ales have been reco rd ed
a tta c k
m o stly d u rin g J u n e a n d July, w hen
D e n se colonies o f the ap h id o n trees o f
d isp e rsa l a n d co lo n y co llap se takes
all ages, p ro d u cin g m u c h h oneydew and
place, b u t th ey can also o ccu r in w in ter
giving rise to sooty m o u ld d ep o sits th a t
o r early spring, arising from th e large
blacken stem s and foliage. T h e s e black
d e n se c o lo n ies th a t so m e tim e s
deposits on th e o ld er foliage and stem s
overw inter. T h e egg-laying fem ales th a t
persist for som e m o n th s, low ering th e
o c c u r in th e a u tu m n are w ingless
quality o f C h ristm as trees an d m aking
w hereas th e m ales are w inged.
c u t foliage for florists o r C h ristm a s
g re e n e ry unsaleable. I t h as b een
suggested th a t very heavy attacks o n th e
stem m ay be associated w ith leader
dam age and a fungal path o g en .
R e c o g n itio n in t h e fie ld
T h e s e ap h id s are very large, 4—8 m m
long an d have lo n g d ark legs. T h e
w ingless fem ales are p ear-sh ap ed an d o f
a dark b ro w n or green ish black colour
w ith a double row o f blackish, slightly
sh in in g speckles an d sm all flecks o f wax
pow der in tran sv erse row s o n th e u p p e r
surface.
C olonies o ccur on stem s, usually on
seco n d year o r o ld e r b ark , an d are
freq u en tly clu stered aro u n d w h orls an d
o n th e u n d e rs id e o f b ran ch es. T h e
species has som etim es been fo u n d on
th e larger roots o f sm all trees.
A n n u a l life c y c le
Cinara confinis has been reco rd ed in
P l a te 9. Colony o f giant fir aphid feeding
m o st m o n th s o f th e year b u t som etim es
through the thin bark o f N ord m an n fir in
very large n u m b ers bu ild u p an d are
January.
especially noticeable in Ju n e an d July.
M o re recently, colonies o n C h ristm as
tre e p la n ta tio n s have b e en re p o rte d
d u rin g th e w in ter m o n th s th ro u g h to

Recorded distribution and circum ­
stances where dam age occurs
T h e species is w idely d istrib u ted over
m u ch o f E u ro p e and so uth -eastw ard s to
Pakistan an d In d ia, b u t is also recorded
from C alifornia and eastern C anada. It
occu rs from th e m o u n tain tree line
dow n to th e low lands. E xceptionally
large colonies have been recorded from
cedar trees in u rb an situations.
M in im izin g dam age and in sect
control
In cid en ts o f C. confmis attacks have
becom e m o re freq u en t since th e recen t
increases in th e p lan tin g o f tru e firs for
C h ristm as trees. It is q u ite possible th a t
P la te 10. G ian t fir aphid females are very large.
G ia n l (ir a p h id
Cinara confinis
J F M A
m any w in g le s s fe m a le s
XX)(XXXXXXXX <xxx
F ig. 4. G ian t fir aphid.
PESTS OF SILVER FIRS 17
it could be in tro d u ced into C h ristm as
tree p lan tatio n s w hile in th e egg stage
o n d o rm a n t p lan tin g stock. F em ale
ap h id s arising from su ch eggs could be
S E C T IO N
th e sta rt o f colonies th a t w ould peak in
n u m b ers som e m o n th s later. Sim ilarly a
single w inged female, after a suitable
period o f flight, could also arrive in new
areas from a considerable distance and
initiate a colony in th e sam e way. It m ay
be necessary to co n tro l th is ap h id a t any
tim e to p rev en t sooty m o u ld d e g ra d a­
tion o f th e trees. I f large n u m b e rs are
fo u n d infesting trees, p articu larly in th e
year o f sale, th ey can be co n tro lled w ith
a co n tac t o r fu m ig an t insecticide a p p ro ­
p riate for aphids.
M J J A S 0 N D
po s sible
9 9 9 9
m any
i
1 w in g ed fe m a le s
xxx> xxxxxxxx xx d a m age p e rio d
1 8 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS
SIBERIAN FIR WOOLLY APHID
(Aphr astasia pectinatae)
Tree species known to be affected
Abies alba, A . amabilis, A . balsamea, A .
concolor, A . fraseri, A . grandis, A .
koreana, A . lasiocarpa, A . lasiocarpa var.
arizonica, A. nephrolepis, A.
nordm anniana, /I . procera, A.
sachalinemis, A . sibirica an d A . veitchii.
O f all th e tru e firs, A . lasiocarpa seem s
to be th e m o st susceptible. In th e
eastern p a rt o f its rang e this adelgid also
m akes sm all com pact cone-like galls,
p rincipally on Picea obovata an d also P.
allies', these galls have n o t, how ever, been
fo u n d on Picea in N o rw ay a lth o u g h this
insect is now well established there.
A lth o u g h n o t yet reco rd ed in B ritain,
the d escrip tio n h ere is p ro v id ed to alert
C h ristm as tree grow ers to th e very real
p o ssib ility th a t th is a p h id c o u ld
establish here.
S y m p to m s and conseq u ences o f
attack
A heavy in fe sta tio n o f th is n e e d le -
feeding adelgid causes th e foliage to
b ecom e badly discolou red , tu r n bro w n ,
an d fall off, leading to sh o o t die-back.
P ro lo n g ed attacks over several years
have killed trees and also sm all stan d s o f
fir.
R ecognition in the field
Y ellow sp o ts d evelop o n th e u p p e r
n e e d le su rfa c e a t th e sites w h ere
adelgids have been feeding. O n tu rn in g
th e foliage over to see th e u n d ersid e ,
so m e d is c re te w 'hite w'oolly tu fts
c o rre sp o n d w'ith th ese yellow spots.
T h e w hite tu fts ap p e ar as curly, wavy
th read s an d are secreted by th e w ingless
adelgid u n d e rn e a th them .
Annual life cycle
In N orw ay, w here th e life cycle has
recently been investigated, it ap p ears
th a t th ere is no involvem ent o f a Picea
sp. in th e life cycle. A . p ectinatae
overw in ters as im m a tu re fem ales o n the
needles o f Abies. B y late sp rin g they
have b ecom e m a tu re a d u lts an d d ep o sit
eggs w'ithin th e woolly tufts. A s th e new'
shoots s ta rt to a p p ear at b u d -b u rst, the
craw lers fro m th e h a tc h in g eggs m ove
im m ed iately o n to th e soft new' needles
w here they settle and feed. S o m e o f
th e se craw le rs d e v elo p in to w in g ed
fem ales w'hich d isperse; o th ers m a tu re
as w 'ingless fem ales, lay eg g s an d
co n tin u e th e w'ingless g en eratio n s until
late su m m er. T h e craw lers o f th e last
g en eratio n h atc h in g from eggs at this
tim e settle and b ecom e fixed o n th e
needles, b u t do n o t m a tu re o r acq u ire a
co m p lete w ax-w ool covering u n til th e
n e x t spring. It is n o t know n for certain
w h eth e r th e w'inged fem ales are capable
o f re p ro d u c in g viable o ffsp rin g th a t will
feed o n Abies, since it is this specialized
g en eratio n th a t initiates gall fo rm atio n
o n Picea. T h e new ly h atch e d active
c raw le rs a re m o re likely to b e th e
p rin cip al stage th a t effects dispersal o f
th is species. [Fig. 6 —see p. 23]
R ecorded d istrib u tion and
circu m sta n ces where dam age
occurs
A p h ra sta sia p ectinatae is a S ib e ria n
sp ecies w h ic h has re c e n tly sp re a d
w estw ards to E a ste rn E u ro p e (Poland,
L a tv ia ) a n d S c a n d in a v ia (N orw ay,
Sw ed en , an d F in la n d ). I t has n o t yet
b e e n fo u n d in D e n m a rk o r G re a t
B ritain.
A ttacks have b een p articularly heavy o n
o p e n -g ro w n g a rd e n a n d a m en ity
sp ecim en trees in N o rw a y an d also o n
forest edges and p lan tatio n s g ro w n for
decorative greenery.
 PESTS OF SILVER FIRS 19

M in im izin g dam age and in sect

control
It appears probable th a t this adelgid
could be very easily in tro d u c e d w ith

S E C T IO N
d o rm a n t p lan tin g stock into new areas.
L ow d ensity po p u latio n s are n o t easy to
detect an d could increase rap id ly and
cause dam age.
L ocal spread from infested tall old trees
in th e n eig h b o u rh o o d , or betw een trees
w ith in a p la n ta tio n , can very easily
o ccu r w ith th e highly active, new ly
hatched craw lers. T h e se craw ler stages,
like those o f o th e r adelgids, are readily-
blow n betw een trees on air cu rren ts.
In o rd er to retain good q uality Abies
foliage it is essential to b rin g this pest
species u n d e r co n tro l as soon as an
attack is identified, otherw ise needles
w ill b e c o m e d e fo rm e d a n d h e n c e
devalued. T h e m o st effective tim e to
a p p ly an in se c tic id e is in th e late
a u tu m n w hen all th e eggs have hatch ed
and th e only living stage is th e newly
settled craw ler on th e needle. A t this
tim e o f year it is n o t enclosed by w ax-
wool.
In s e c tic id e ap p lic a tio n s, w h ere
necessary, sh o u ld be a h ig h -v o lu m e
spray applied to ru n -o ff; b earin g in
m in d th a t use o f a con tact insecticide is P la te 11. O verw intering stage o f Siberian fir
necessary and th e targ et is m ostly o n th e woolly aphid,
u n d ersid e o f th e needles. G am m a H C H
a n d p y re th ro id s (c y p e rm e th rin an d
fen v alerate) have b een fo u n d to be
effective in p rev en tin g fu rth e r insect
dam age to needles. S p ray scorch from
som e insecticides can o ccu r o n very
young needles especially d u rin g early
sp rin g w hen shoots are extending. A n
annual in sp ectio n in late sum m er, in
case a c o n tro l o p e ra tio n has to be
arran g ed in th e au tu m n , is th erefo re
preferable to sp rin g co n tro l w hich has
the additional pro b lem o f th e w ax-wool
covering over th e a d u lt fem ale and h er
eggs. [T ake n o te o f c u rre n t Pesticide
R egulations - see p. 85.]
 20 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS
SILVER FIR NEEDLE MINER or FIR NEEDLE TORTRIX
(Epinotia subsequana)
T r e e s p e c ie s k n o w n to b e a f f e c te d
In co n tin en tal E u ro p e th e h o st tree is
Abies alba, b u t o th e r exotic species o f fir
in clu d in g A . procera an d A . grandis are
also affected. In B ritain d am age is m o st
often re p o rte d on th e la tte r species.
S y m p to m s and co n seq u en ce
a tta c k
N e e d le s m in e d by larv ae o c c u r in
g ro u p s and disfigure th e foliage, often
being located q u ite hig h in th e crow n on
larger trees. E v en low levels o f dam age
w ill m ak e b ra n c h e s u n sa lea b le for
decorative foliage. E. subsequana is n o t
k n o w n , how ever, to c au se sim ilar
econo m ic d am age to sm aller trees in
C h ristm as tree plantations.
R e c o g n itio n i n t h e fie ld
M in e d needles rem ain o n th e tree an d
ap p ear bro w n ish w hite o r creamy. T h e
larvae, w hich are foun d in th e needles
d u rin g Ju n e , are light g re y -g re e n to a
yellow ish g reen in colour w ith a dark
head. F u lly grow n larvae are 6 -7 m m
long. L ik e all to rtricid larvae th ey are
very active an d will w riggle backw ards
rap id ly i f th e head is to u ch ed .
S i l v e r f i r n e e d le m in e r
E p inotia subse quana
J F M A
a d u l l fii
F ig . 5. Silver fir needle m iner.
A n n u a l life c y c le
A d u lt m o th s fly in A p ril an d M ay w hen
th e fem ales lay eggs in sm all g ro u p s on
th e u p p e rsid e s o f th e basal halves o f th e
needles. O n h a tc h in g in Ju n e , th e larvae
m in e th e yo u n g needles w hich they
of p e n e tra te via an oval hole in th e basal
h a lf o r tow ards th e m iddle. A t first they
m in e to w ards th e n eed le tip, th e n to th e
base. E a c h larv a w ill m in e several
needles before m o v in g to th e sh o o t tip
w h ere it feeds externally, b u t w ith in the
p ro te c tio n o f a g ro u p o f needles sp u n
to g eth er w ith silk. W h e n fully fed in
Ju ly or early A u g u st th e larvae d ro p to
th e g ro u n d an d p u p a te in a cocoon sp u n
a m o n g s t th e le a f litter, w h ere th e y
rem ain u n til th e follow ing sp rin g before
em erg in g as adults.
R e c o rd e d d is trib u tio n and
c irc u m s ta n c e s w h e re dam age
o c c u rs
T h is in sect is fo u n d in th e so u th e rn h a lf
o f E n g lan d n o rth to H e re fo rd sh ire and
N o rfo lk a n d is also re c o rd e d fro m
M o n m o u th sh ire an d in S o u th W ales
(D yfed). I t is also fo u n d in n o rth e rn and
M J J A S 0 N D
pupae
l i t p e r io d
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 )o o e g g s
1 la rv a e
x xxxxx x x x x x x x x x x x xx d a m a g e p e rio d

c e n tra l E u ro p e in c lu d in g G erm an y ,
Italy, th e Balkan countries an d in Russia.
M in im iz in g dam age and in s e c t
c o n tr o l
N o co n tro l m easures are reco m m en d ed .
C areful inspections o f Abies foliage in
late su m m e r are necessary before any
contracts can be arran g ed for sales o f
decorative foliage.
SILVER FIR WOOLLY APHID
(Adelges nordmannianae)
T r e e s p e c ie s k n o w n to b e a f f e c te d
Abies alba, A . cilicica and A . nordmanni-
ana.
S y m p to m s a n d c o n se q u e n c e s o f
a tt a c k
N eedles o f firs becom e d isto rted in
early sp rin g fo rm in g c h a ra c te ristic
b o ttle -b ru s h shoots. T h e new sh o o t
extension is stu n te d an d term in al b u d s
fail to form . W ith e rin g an d die-back o f
infested shoots follows.
R e c o g n itio n i n t h e fie ld
T h e greyish black ap h id s can be found
for m ost o f th e year on th e stem s and
u n d ersid es o f shoots. In d iv id u al insects
have only a p e rip h eral fringe o f w ax-
wool aro u n d th eir bodies. W h e n new
shoots are ex tending, the new needles
becom e infested w ith m in u te greyish
green craw ler stages. G alls are p ro d u ced
by a se p a ra te g e n e ra tio n o n Picea
orientalis. T h e insects usually tra n sfo rm
all th e new g ro w th from a single b u d on
a lateral sh o o t in to a gall, each o f w hich
is spherical, 10-15 m m long, w ith m u ch
red u ced needles, an d are p in k o r red in
co lo u r b u t la te r d ark en to p u rp lish
brow n.
PESTS OF SILVER FIRS 21
SECTION
P la te 12. N eedles dam aged by silver fir needle
miner.
A n n u a l life c y c le
T h e o v e rw in te rin g stag e (sisten s)
h ib ern a te at th e n eedle bases an d on
adjoining sm all d iam eter shoots. T h e y
b egin to develop again in th e m id d le o f
M a rc h and, by th e en d o f th e m o n th ,
becom e m a tu re fem ales th a t soon lay
clusters o f o ra n g e -b ro w n eggs. E gg-
h a tc h coincides w ith b u d -b u rs t and th e
e m e rg in g craw lers m ove o n to th is
te n d e r g ro w th w here th ey feed and
rap id ly develop into w inged or w ingless
a d u lt fem ales. T h e w in g ed fem ales
(sexuparae) fly away b u t are only able to
accept P. orientalis as a h o st p lan t, w here
th e y give rise to m ic ro sco p ic
m ale and fem ale form s. T h e se p air and
lay eggs fro m w h ic h em erg e th e
o v e rw in te rin g fu n d a trix g e n e ra tio n ,
th a t can p ro d u ce galls th e n e x t spring,
alth o u g h this is a relatively rare event.
T h e w ingless fem ales (p ro g red ien s) th a t
rem a in o n th e A bies foliage in th e
su m m e r p ro d u ce eggs th a t h a tc h into
th e sisten s-g en eratio n craw lers th a t find
re stin g sites o n th e need le bases to
overw inter. T h e colonies can p ersist for
m any years o n trees in this way, w ith o u t
th e need to p ro d u c e galls o n P. orientalis.
T h e y o u n g sistens craw lers are also
22 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS
capable o f being w in d -d isp ersed o n to
nearby trees. T h e period o f g reatest
gro w th an d rep ro d u ctiv e activity in this
species is w hile th e new needles are still
so ft, p ale g re e n an d also th e m o st
vulnerable. T h e galls fo rm ed by th e
fu n d atrix on P. orientalis m ostly o p en in
Ju n e to release th e su b -a d u lt gallicolae.
T h e se m a tu re to th e ad u lt stage w hich is
capable o f startin g up new colonies on
Abies.
Recorded d istrib u tion and
circu m sta n ces where dam age
occurs
Adelges nordmamiianae is en d em ic in
so u th -east E u ro p e an d is now w ide­
spread in E u ro p e, N o rth A m erica and
N ew Z ealand. I t ap p ears to cause m o re
d am age to firs w here it is n o n -en d em ic.
P l a t e 13. S hoot attack and die-back caused by
silver fir woolly aphid.
M in im izin g dam age and in sect
control
T h is species, as is also th e case w ith
Adelges piceae, has been seen to be m o re
troublesom e w hen Abies is gro w n in
o pen, very su n n y situ atio n s w h ere the
trees are likely to be u n d e r m o re stress.
T rees grow n in d ap p led sh ad e u n d e r the
lig h t cover o f a d ecid u o u s overstorey
a p p e a r to be less often attack ed by this
adelgid. M a k in g new C h ristm as tree
p lan tatio n s in th e vicinity o f large old
Abies species m ay re su lt in m any o f th e
C h ristm as trees b eco m in g infested. O ld
trees are seld o m free o f th is insect and
th e craw lers can be easily d istrib u ted
th ro u g h o u t th e C h ristm a s tree crop.
F o r th e sam e reaso n it w ould be unw ise
to raise Abies for C h ristm as trees in a
n u rs e ry th a t has o ld A bies g ro w in g
nearby.
A s w ith o th e r adelgids, any insecticidal
co n tro l m u st b e carefully tim ed an d th e
applicatio n m e th o d m u s t be extrem ely
th o ro u g h (see u n d e r Adelges abietis, p.
33). E v en so, co n tro l o f heavily infested
trees by h ig h -v o lu m e a p p li-catio n can
b e e x p en siv e a n d is u n lik e ly to be
c o m p le te ly satisfacto ry . B y ra isin g
p lan tin g stock in n u rseries well away
fro m an in festatio n so u rce and by b eing
P la te 14. Severe needle distortion on silver fir
shoot caused by silver fir woolly aphid in early
sum m er.
 PESTS OF SILVER FIRS 23

selective a b o u t a p la n tin g site th a t insect. A n u m b e r o f insects do p rey

is w ith o u t any stre ss fa cto rs, th e u p o n this adelgid, p erh ap s th e m ost T— H

C h ristm as tree grow er can avoid or n o ta b le b e in g v ario u s sp ecies o f

reduce th e risk o f losses caused by this p red ato ry beetles.

SECTION
S ilv e r fir w o o lly a p h id

A d elge s nordm annianae

a n d S ib e ria n fir w o o lly a p h id
A p hra stasia pectin a ta e

J F M A M J j A s | 0 N D

x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x XXXXXXXX) x x x x x x x x d a m a g e p e r io d
H I w in q le s s f e m a le s ta g e s p r o t e c te d b y s e c r e t e d w o o l c o v e r n g

0 D o o o o o d o o o o o o t JOOO

w in e e d f e m a l - 1 * " d is ) e r s e b u t o n o t re - in e s t fir s

w in g le s s te m a le s ta g e s u n p r o te c t H H in s e c tic id e tr e a tm e n t

eggs p r o te c te d by w ool c o v e r in g o o o o o c 0 0 0 0 0 0 D 00
1

■ H i H H H m r a

F ig. 6. Silver fir woolly aphid and Siberian fir woolly aphid.
in g g r o w n fo r th e i r la r g e r siz e as C h r is tm a s
a tio n s n e e d to b e m a d e to m in im iz e p e s t
im t e r m in v e s tm e n t is to b e re a liz e d .
26 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS
GREEN SPRUCE APHID (Elatobium abietinum)
Tree species known to be affected
M o s t sp ecies in th e g en u s Picea
(spruces), see T ab le 1.
S y m p to m s and consequ en ces o f
attack
O f all the insects th a t feed o n sp ru ce, it
is th e g reen sp ru ce a p h id (Elatobium
abietinum ) th a t can b e th e m o s t
devastating, especially w hen sp ru c e is
g row n as C h ristm as trees. T h is in sect is
capable o f causing total loss o f m a tu re
n eed le s a t any tim e fro m a u tu m n
th ro u g h to th e n e x t sp rin g ; serio u s
dam age is m o st often seen in late spring.
A fter a severe attack, o n ly foliage o f th e
c u rre n t year m ay be rem ain in g by th e
en d o f the sum m er. T h is gives th e
appearan ce o f a very gappy tree w hich is
obviously inferior to an u n attack ed tree
w hich can retain its dark g reen foliage
for six or m o re years. In th e year
follow ing a severe attack th e new' shoots
often have m u ch s h o rte r needles, and
th e overall ex ten sio n g ro w th o f th e
shoots is red u ced . W ith sm all trees u p to
th re e years fro m p la n tin g it is n o t
u n u su al for som e o f th e te rm in al b u d s
to fail to o pen follow ing a co m p lete
defoliation. O th e r d o rm a n t b u d s at th e
nodes m ay th en grow o u t as a resu lt,
causing th e tree to have a p o o r shape.
R ecovery from a severe defoliation by
Elatobium is slow since it d e p e n d s on
new shoots m asking th e b are shoots
resu ltin g from th e attack; a m in im u m o f
th ree years good sh o o t g ro w th w ould be
n eed ed to enable su ch a tre e to be
reclassified as o f good quality. T h e
co n seq u en ce o f an attack o n e o r tw o
years before h arv estin g is very serious,
as th e recovery perio d o f affected trees
w ill m ean additional years before th ey
are saleable.
R ecognition in the field
T h e first signs th a t ap h id s are p resen t
are m o st freq u en tly seen in early spring,
a lth o u g h th ey m ay also be seen as early
as S e p te m b e r w h e n th e tre e s are
d o rm a n t. In d iv id u al needles h ere and
th ere will be yellow or show a yellow1
b an d across th e m w here th e ap h id has
been feeding. T h e b est way to see th e
ap h id is to tu r n th e sh o o t over an d look
at th e u n d e rs id e o f th e y ello w in g
needles o r o th e r n eedles nearby. F in d in g
th e ap h id s o n N o rw ay sp ru ce an d o th e r
sp ru c e species w ith d ark g reen needle
u n d ersid e s is d ifficu lt because th e aphid
is o f a sim ilar colour; o n th e blue sp ru ce
a n d th o s e w ith silv ery u n d e rs id e s
reco g n itio n is sim pler. P lacing a sh eet o f
p lain w'hite p a p e r u n d e r th e foliage and
giving th e su sp ect b ra n c h tw o sh arp
rap s w ith a stick will usually dislodge
som e ap h id s if they are presen t.
D u rin g m id to late sp rin g th e sy m p to m s
o f y ello w in g n ee d le s m ay b e m o re
a b u n d a n t; m a n y o f th o se a tta c k e d
earlier will have tu rn e d b ro w n an d be
co m pletely dead. T h e ra te a t w hich
th ese needles fall away varies so m ew h at
a ccording to tre e species an d th e season.
I f th e lo w er foliage is seen to be
g listening in b rig h t su n sh in e d u rin g d ry
sp rin g w eath er it su g g ests th a t a large
n u m b e r o f ap h id s are p re se n t and som e
loss o f needles will be inevitable.
T h e a d u lt ap h id s are g reen , a b o u t 2 m m
long, relatively sh o rt-le g g e d an d (by
u sin g a x lO h an d lens) can be seen to
have d ark red eyes. D u rin g M a y and
J u n e som e o f th e ap h id s will b e w inged,
b u t are n e v e r seen in any q u a n tity
because, w h en th ey have m o u lte d to
p ro d u c e w ings, th ey will tak e -o ff o n a
d isp ersal flight in w arm b rig h t w eather.
T h e re is n o h o st p la n t o th e r th a n sp ru ce
in th e life cycle o f this aphid.
 PESTS OF SPRUCES 27

TABLE 1. GROUPING OF PICEA SPECIES ACCORDING TO THEIR

SUSCEPTIBILITY TO THE GREEN SPRUCE APHID ELATOBIUM ABIETINUM

Group Picea species Origin Needle Foliage

(susceptibility retention discoloration
to attack)

1 brew eriana N. Am erica Good None

least omorika Yugoslavia (5 -8 years)
susceptible jezoensis Japan'
polita Japan
glehnii Japan

SECTION
koyam ai Japan
sm ithiana Afghanistan
rubens N. Am erica

orientalis Turkey Medium Usually none

schrenkiana C. Asia (3 -5 years)
brachytyla SW. China
likiangensis W. China
wilsonii China

m ariana N. Am erica Medium Slight

(3 -5 years) (up to 25%)

engelm annii N. Am erica Poor Medium

pungens N. Am erica (2 -4 yrs) (up to 50%)
pungens glauca N. Am erica
m exicana Mexico

asperata NW. China Poor Medium

x hurstii N. Am erica (2 -4 years) (up to 50%)
abies Europe
glauca N. Am erica

6 sitchensis A laska to Poor Severe

most C alifornia (2 -4 years) (up to 75%)
susceptible
28 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS
N otes on the life cycle
E laiobiinn can b e re g a rd e d fro m a
practical p o in t o f view to b e exclusively
anholocylic in B ritain; only rarely have
th e o verw intering eggs b een found. In
o th e r parts o f E u ro p e th a t experience a
m u ch h a rsh e r w in ter clim ate o f long
periods w ith air tem p e ra tu re s below
- 8 ° C , th e ap h id has to survive the
w in ter in the egg stage. In B ritain , the
stages th a t co n cern us m o st are w ingless
p arth en o g en etic viviparous fem ales and
sim ilar w inged fem ales. A lth o u g h b o th
these a d u lt form s give b irth to young
fem ales, it is the w ingless g en eratio n s
th a t ev en tu a lly cause m o s t dam ag e,
since they can take advantage by feeding
and b reed in g d u rin g th e w in ter and
spring. T h e extrem ely m ild w in ters in
th e past have been notable for th e severe
dam age caused by this aphid. B y late
w in ter Elalobium can be q u ite n u m ero u s
and rep roductivelv active, so th a t th e
sp rin g m o n th s show a rap id p o p u latio n
increase reaching a peak in -May; an d in
low land B ritain a b ru p tly ceasing d u rin g
th e first h a lf o f Ju n e. It is at this tim e
th a t p red atio n by o th e r insects becom es
a p p a re n t a n d , c o m b in e d w ith th e
d isp ersal o f th e w in g ed g e n e ra tio n ,
ap h id s b ecom e scarce o r ab sen t by th e
end o f June.
T h e use o f su ctio n tra p s th a t collect
flying insects by filtering air has show n
th a t w'inged m ig ran ts have a reg u lar
flight period in M ay an d Ju n e . T h e se
trap s d etec t the annual d ispersal even at
som e d istan ce fro m sp ru c e g ro w in g
districts. T h e ir arrival o n a C h ristm as
tree crop, how ever, is ex trem ely difficult
to detec t; fu rth e rm o re it is n o t for
a n o th er tw o m o n th s o r m o re th a t th e
firs t sig n s o f th e ir p re se n c e a n d
b reed in g can readily be found.
Risk areas and control
Low' w in ter te m p e ra tu re s (below' _8 °C )
severe e n o u g h to kill o ff th e a d u lt
ap h id s and th e ir n y m p h s o n th e foliage
w ill p re v e n t th e b u ild -u p o f a p h id
n u m b e rs d u rin g th e w in te r m o n th s th a t
could lead to severe sp rin g defoliation.
T h e re is, o f course, no su re way o f
forecasting if su ch an event m ay occur,
b u t coastal areas w ith very m ild oceanic
w in te r c lim ates c o u ld , for ex am p le,
ex p ect sp rin g attacks m o re often.
In cooler p arts o f n o rth e rn B ritain and
in th e uplan d s, large n u m b ers o f active
a p h id c o lo n ies o fte n c a u se se rio u s
defoliation in late a u tu m n an d early
w inter. T h e b u ild -u p o f a u tu m n p o p ­
ulations has p robably been linked to
occasions w'here a sh o rt gro w in g season
has te rm in a te d sh o o t g ro w th , p erh ap s
by d ro u g h t, and p u t th e p la n t in a
fav o u rab le n u tritio n a l c o n d itio n to
s u p p o r t ra p id a p h id g ro w th a n d
re p ro d u c tio n in th e w a rm w e a th e r
before th e o n se t o f w inter. E arly w in te r
attacks are th erefo re likely' to be m o re
fre q u e n t in areas p ro n e to large soil
m o istu re deficits in late sum m er.
G ro w in g ’q uality trees' in th ese areas is
likely to b e m o re ex p e n siv e th a n
elsew'here in re d u c in g d am age by this
a p h id . W h e n re g u la r tro u b le is
e x p e rie n c e d , s p ra y in g w ith an
insecticide is best carried o u t in A u g u st
or early S ep tem b er. T h is is after th e
m ig ra tio n p e rio d and w ill give
p ro te c tio n u n til th e n ex t im m ig ra tio n o f
w inged ap h id s in late spring. Elalobium
is n o t a d ifficult insect to c o n tro l w ith
insecticides th a t have e ith e r a co n tact or
fu m ig a n t knock-dow 'n action p rovided
th a t it is carried o u t in a p p ro p ria te spray
c o n d itio n s a n d good co v erag e is
ach iev ed . T h e use o f sy ste m ic
insecticides is n o t rec o m m e n d e d as th ey
are n o t readily tran slo cated in conifers.
[T a k e n o te o f c u r r e n t P e stic id e
R eg u latio n s - see p. 85. |
 PESTS or SPRUCES 29

SECTION

P l a te 19. L oss o f all old and som e cu rre n t year

needles caused by a heavy spring' attack of
green spruce aphid.
30 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS

G re e n s p ru c e a p h id

E latobium abietinum

L o w la n d B rita in

J F M A M J J A S 0 N D

w i n g le s s fe m a le s

m any
fe w v e r y fe w

f in s e c tic id e t r e a tm e n t

■ 1 1 w in e e d m ig r a n t f e m a l e

x x x x (X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X d c m a g e p e r o d
1

U p la n d a n d N o rlh e rn B rila in

F ig . 7. G reen spruce aphid.

A n a lte rn a tiv e a p p ro a c h to avoid ra te o f g ro w th , colony d ev elo p m en t and

defoliation problem s from Elatobium is su b se q u en t foliage reaction can be q u ite
to grow a less suscep tib le species o f d iffe re n t. C o n s id e ra tio n sh o u ld be
spruce. G enerally, th e N o rth A m erican given to e x p lo itin g th e se n a tu ra l
species are m u ch m o re su sceptible to featu res by gro w in g o th e r species so as
dam age th a n certain o th e r species o f to lessen th is in se c t's im p a c t on
sp ru c e , esp ecially th o s e th a t are C h ristm a s tree p ro d u c tio n . T a b le 1,
indigenous to Asia. R ecen t stu d ies have based o n field trials an d labo rato ry tests,
show n th a t alth o u g h Elatobium can feed lists species ran k ed acco rd in g to th e ir
an d b reed o n all species o f sp ru ce, its su scep tib ility to Elatobium .
 PESTS OF SPRUCES 31

GREGARIOUS SPRUCE SAWFLY

(.Pristiphora abietina)

T r e e s p e c ie s k n o w n to b e a f f e c te d R e c o rd e d d is trib u tio n and

Picea species, especially P. abies.
S y m p to m s a n d c o n seq u en ce o f
a tta c k
B are o r sparsely foliated leading shoots.
L arv ae feed on needles at th e extrem ity
o f th e leader an d o th e r d o m in a n t shoots
in sp rin g so o n a fter flushing. S u c h
c irc u m s ta n c e s w h e re dam age
o c c u rs
Pristiphora abietina occurs th ro u g h o u t
B ritain and also in central and n o rth e rn
E u ro p e, w herever Picea is fo u n d , b u t is
ab sen t from th e M e d ite rra n e a n region.
D a m a g e is m o re likely to o c cu r in
C h ris tm a s tre e p la n ta tio n s th a t are

SECTION
dam age o ccurs very quickly d u rin g M ay adjacent to stands o f larger sp ru ce trees.
and Ju n e, th e insects responsible often M in im iz in g dam age and in s e c t
having m oved away before th e problem c o n tr o l
is noticed.
D am ag e is rarely extensive b u t is n o t
R e c o g n itio n in t h e fie ld usually noticed u n til after th e larvae
T h e im m atu re stages are typical sawfly have left. If, however, larvae are seen at
larvae (see u n d e r field reco g n itio n o f an early stage th ey can be controlled
p ine sawflies, p. 52). T h e head and body easily by spraying w ith a suitable con tact
are u n ifo rm ly g reen, b u t w ith a slight insecticide. T h e use o f d iflu b en zu ro n is
yellowish cast, w ith d istin ct pale body reco m m en d ed if th e larvae are still very
hairs. Sm all larvae are d ifficult to see sm all w hen th e spray is applied. [T ake
d u e to th e ir cry p tic coloration. T h e n o te o f c u rre n t Pesticide R egulations -
larvae are gregarious, feeding in a g ro u p see p. 85.]
together, an d reach a leng th o f 15 m m
w h en m a tu re. T h e y take u p an S -
shaped p o stu re w hen th re a te n e d , often
also ex tru d in g liquid from th e ir m ouths.
A n n u a l life c y c le
L a rv a e feed o n th e c u rr e n t year's
needles in late M ay and Ju n e. T h e y
p u p ate in oval bro w n cocoons a b o u t 6
m m long in th e soil o r u n d e r m oss w hen
th is is p re s e n t. T h e a d u lt saw flies
em erge in late A pril or early M ay o f the
follow ing year. In M ay th e fem ales lay
eggs in to needles inside th e u n o p en ed
o r e x p a n d in g b u d s by in se rtin g th e
ovipositor betw een th e b u d scales. O nly
a single egg is laid in each n eed le
a lth o u g h usually from th re e to six eggs,
an d som etim es as m any as tw enty, are P la te 20. Typical appearance in July o f a shoot
laid p e r b u d . T h e eggs h atch in about in the top whorl following attack by the
9 -1 0 days as th e b u d flushes. gregarious spruce sawfly.
32 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS

G reg arious spruce saw fly

P ristip h o ra abietina

J F M A M J J A S 0 N D

cocoons

■ a d u lt d ig i t p e r io d

OOOOOO' j o o e g g s
la r v a e

in s e c tic id e tr e a tm e n t

d a m a g e p e r io d xx> x x x x x x x x x x

Fig. 8. G regarious spruce sawfly.


PINEAPPLE GALL WOOLLY APHID (Adelges (Metis)
or EASTERN SPRUCE GALL APHID North America
T r e e s p e c ie s k n o w n to b e a f f e c te d
T h is is th e m o st fre q u e n t and
tro u b le so m e g a ll-m a k in g in sec t on
spruce. N o rw ay sp ru ce (Picea abies) is
p a rtic u la rly p ro n e to attac k s in
C h ristm as tree plantations. Picea glauca,
P. jezoem is, P. koyam ai an d P. silcliensis
are often attacked q u ite heavily, w hereas
P. breweriana, P. mnorika and P. smilhiana
are seldom seen to have any galls.
S y m p to m s a n d co n seq u en ces o f
a tta c k
G alled shoots develop into a pin eap p le­
shaped stru ctu re. W h e n form ed o n the
low er less vigorous shoots, they tend to
te rm in a te g ro w th , w h ilst th e u p p e r
m o re vigorous shoots te n d to grow'
beyond th e galled area b u t at an angle
fro m n o rm a l g ro w th , th e re fo re
d isto rtin g th e form and sy m m etry o f
the tree. A t the en d o f th e sum m er, the
galls tu r n b ro w n and d ry resem bling
cones, and the associated needles die.
T h e com b in atio n o f d isto rted shoots,
brow'n galls and dead needles results in
p e rm a n e n tly p o o r quality C h ristm as
trees th a t m ay be unsaleable.
R e c o g n itio n in t h e fie ld
T h is tiny insect is difficult to see, and a
h and lens (xlO ) is needed to locate the
w hite woolly specks on th e stem s n ear to
developing b u d s in the spring. B rig h t
g reen p in e a p p le -sh a p e d galls, som e­
tim es w ith d eep p in k edges in th e
sum m er, can develop on an)' new' shoot.
S im ilar b ro w n galls, often in clusters,
can be found at th e base o f adjacent
shoots; these dead galls p ersist for m any
years.
PESTS OF SPRUCES 33
A n n u a l life c y c le
T h e im m a tu re insects sp en d th e w inter
w ith th e ir th re a d -lik e m o u th p a rts
em b ed d ed in the stem tissue n ear the
buds. A t this stage, they are m in u te
greyish black specks. As the adjacent
b u d begins to swell w ith sap flow' in
spring, so th e insect co m m en ces its
d evelopm ent. B efore th e b u d scales fall
SECTION
aw'ay, th e aphid (th e fu n d atrix stage) will
have reached m a tu rity and laid a large
mass o f eggs all u n d e rn e a th a w hite
woolly mass n ear the buds. T h e eggs
h atch quickly in w'arm w-eather and the
m in u te ap h id s craw l in b etw een th e soft
new' needles. B y th is tim e th e
o v e rw in te rin g fem ale has already
’c o n d itio n ed 1 the shoot by its injections
o f saliva d u rin g feeding. T h e m in u te
ap h id s feed at the base o f th e new'
n eedles, cau sin g th e m to sw'ell and
enclose th e ap h id s w ithin cham bers.
Several ap h id s develop in each cham ber,
and th ere are often 6 0 -8 0 ch am b ers to
each gall. By late A ug u st th e galls tu rn
a p u rp lish brow'n, releasing th e su b -
a d u lt aphids. T h e se craw l o n to nearby
needles and m o u lt into w inged fem ales
(gallicolae). A . abielis w inged stages do
n o t disperse significantly an d m ove only
a sh o rt distance to nearby trees. T h e
individual gallicolae settle o n th e new
needles o f nearby shoots and each soon
d eposits a sm all q u an tity o f eggs u n d e r
th e cover o f its wings. O n hatch in g , the
n y m p h s craw l to th e vicinity o f a b u d on
a new shoot and in sert th eir thread-like
m o u th p a rts into th e stem tissue and
rem ain th ere for th e w inter. T h e re are
therefore ju st tw;o stages to th e life cycle
o f th is species.
34 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS
R ecorded d istrib u tion and
circu m sta n ces w here dam age
occurs
Adelges. abietis is d istrib u te d w idely in
E u ro p e an d also reco rd ed in N o rth
A m erica w here it has possibly been
in tro d u c e d . D a m a g e is o f g re a te r
co n cern to C h ristm as tree g row ers th an
to foresters. T rees o f th e m o st p o p u la r
sm all sizes for m a rk e tin g are m o st
noticeably dam aged. W h e n trees are
grow n in o pen p lantatio n s, th e m o re
vigorous shoots often su p p o rt m u ch
larger galls th a n is th e case o f older
trees.
M in im izin g d am age and in sect
control
N u rse ry raised tran sp lan ts m ay have th e
m in u te o verw intering stages o n th em
a n d th e re fo re be th e so u rc e o f
in fe sta tio n in n ew ly p la n te d areas.
S p re a d o f th is in s e c t sp ecies in a
p lan tatio n m ay be so m ew h at lim ited
by th e a p p a re n t re lu c ta n c e o f th e
w inged gallicolae to fly. C onsequently,
individual trees m ay b ecom e heavily
galled and also be a p o ten tial so u rce o f
in festatio n to n earb y trees. F o r this
reason it is n o t advisable to re p la n t in the
gaps th a t are left in a p lan tatio n w here
trees have been lifted for sale. S om e
individual trees o f P. abies do n o t ap p ear
to becom e galled and so resistance to the
ap h id has been suggested. T h e way in
w h ich su c h a resistan ce m e c h a n ism
op erates betw een sp ru c e and th is woolly
ap h id has n o t yet been d e m o n stra te d .
I t is possible to rem ove th e g reen galls
by h an d p ick in g from sm all trees d u rin g
early su m m e r so as to m ake th e trees
saleable by th e end o f th e g row ing
season, b u t this is n o t p ractical o n a
large scale. S h ap in g trees by sh earin g o r
p ru n in g c u rre n t year's shoots in th e
su m m e r is unlikely to red u ce galling to
any m ark ed d e g ree because th e galls are
fo rm ed at th e base o f th e new shoots
an d will n o t be c u t off.
Various insecticidal tre a tm e n ts th a t have
been tested in re c e n t years have m e t
w ith m ixed success. S p rin g applications
o f co n tac t insecticides to kill o ff th e
m a tu re fu n d a trix a n d p re v e n t gall
fo rm atio n w ere fo u n d to be unreliable
an d too late to p rev e n t gall dam age. T h e
eg g c lu s te rs in A p ril an d M a y are
covered w ith a w ater rep ellan t waxy
wool and are d ifficu lt to p e n e tra te w ith
sprays. S o m e success has been show n
w ith soil-applied system ic insecticides
to kill th e aphids. T h e disadvantages are
th a t su ch chem icals are often extrem ely
toxic an d th e re m ay b e a need for total
weed c o n tro l o r v egetation rem oval to
enable good p e n e tra tio n o f th e chem ical
into th e soil so th a t it is taken u p by th e
tree. F u rth e rm o re , system ic insecticides
are n o t tran slo ca ted very well in woody
con ifero u s plan ts for reasons w hich are
n o t fully u n d e rsto o d . U ltra low volum e,
c o n tro lle d d ro p le t a p p lic a tio n s o f
c o n tac t insecticides are also u nreliable as
th e in sect at th e m o st vulnerab le stage is
m in u te, inactive, m o re o r less d o rm a n t
an d tu ck ed in fissures in th e tw igs and
buds. I t is for th is reaso n th a t high
volum e insecticidal sp ray applications,
th a t sa tu rate th e w hole foliage, give th e
m o st reliable con tro l. T h e insecticide
n e e d s to b e a p p lie d b e tw e e n early
N o v e m b e r an d th e first week in M a rc h
(m id -F e b ru a ry in s o u th e rn E n g lan d ) in
o rd e r to p re v e n t galls fro m form ing.
T h e tim in g o f th is tre a tm e n t is o f
p a ra m o u n t im p o rta n ce o th erw ise gall
c o n tro l will n o t be achieved.
 PESTS OF SPRUCES 35

SECTION
P la te 23. Pineapple gall woolly aphid attack p I a tc 24 . D eveloping pineapple gall
on Not way spt ucc. caused by woolly aphid. T h e position
o f the fundatrix durin g the w inter
would be at the base o f the bud, where
the gall is form ed, and is now covered
in white wax. A t this stage the sub­
sequent generation (the gallicolae) are
enclosed totally within the gall.

P la te 25. Im m ature pineapple gall woolly

aphids (the fundatrix stage) overw intering
close to the term inal bud o f N orw ay spruce.

P in e a p p le g a ll w o o lly a p h id
A d elges abietis

J F M A M J J A s 0 N D
lAiinnloccfomalo clannc n rr
WttEBMr wm wnnl rm/prinnnr nlant ti.ppup
f OOP')0000003000 eggs
____
insecticide treatment
developnlentwithingalls
| -2 — ig e d fem elie s
eggspirotectedibywoolcoveringooooooc100000030000 *
1 insecticide
treatment
damageperiod xxxxxxxx> (xxxxxxxx: K X X X X X X X X
w in g le s s fe m a le s ta g e s u n p ro te c te d
1 1 1 1

F ig . 9. Pineapple gall woolly aphid.

36 ■CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS
SPRUCE BARK TORTRIX MOTH
(Cydia pactolana)
T r e e s p e c ie s k n o w n to b e a f f e c te d
Picea abies and Larix.
S y m p to m s and co n seq u en ce
a tta c k
L arv ae tu n n el into the bark o n 5 to 15-
year-old trees. I f th e larval galleries g ir­
dle a side b ra n c h this will be killed,
rarely leading to d eath o f th e w hole tree.
R e c o g n itio n in t h e fie ld
T h e presence o f larvae tu n n e llin g in th e
bark cam b iu m is indicated by resinous
ex u d atio n s th a t fo rm w hite streaks on
the tru n k . T h e yellowish o r b ro w n ish
frass (excreta) ex tru d e d by th e larvae
hangs d ow n on silk tassels from th e bark
below w here they are feeding. L arv ae
are sm all (6—7 m m ) w ith a w hite body
and a brow n head. T h e a d u lt m o th is
P l a t e 26. E n try point o f spruce bark tortrix
mot'll at base o f side shoot.
d ark b ro w n w ith w hitish m arkings an d a
w ing sp an o f 13—14 m m and is rarely
seen d u rin g th e day.
of
A n n u a l life c y c le
T h e a d u lt m o th s fly d u rin g Ju n e. T h e y
lay th e ir eggs at n ig h t, in a bark fissure,
usually at th e base o f a w horl. T h e eggs
h atc h in a b o u t 10 days and each larva
tu n n e ls in to th e bark w here it co n stru c ts
a gallery, lined w ith silk, in th e cam bi­
u m . T h e larvae are fo u n d in th e bark
from Ju ly u n til A pril o f th e follow ing
year w hen they p u p ate. L ittle feeding is
d o n e d u rin g th e w in te r m o n th s from
N o v em b er to M a rc h . T h e p u p ae are
fou n d in a silk cocoon a m o n g st th e frass
a t th e larval tu n n e l en tra n c e in A pril and
May.
P la te 27. Bore d u st (frass) and resin around
spruce bark to rtrix m oth feeding gallery on
N orw ay spruce.

R e c o rd e d d is trib u tio n a n d c ir c u m ­
s ta n c e s w h e re d a m a g e o c c u rs
T h is species is rare in the B ritish Isles,
having been reco rded in B erkshire and
H a m p sh ire only. In E u ro p e it is m ore
w idespread an d has been in tercep ted on
im p o rted C h ristm as trees.
Spruce bark lorlrix molh
Cydia pactolana
J F M A M J
» pupae
oooooot 00 eggs
F ig. 10. S p ru ce bark tortrix m oth.
SPRUCE BELL MOTH (Epinotia tedella)
T r e e s p e c ie s k n o w n to b e a f f e c te d
Epinotia ledetla occurs on Picea abies and
p ro b ab ly m o s t o th e r Picea species.
L arv ae have also been reco rd ed occa­
sionally on Pinus sylveslris, Abies and
Pseadotsuga menzeisii in m ixed forest
stands b u t the species is n o t know n to
com plete its dev elo p m en t on these trees.
S y m p to m s and co n seq u en ce
a tta c k
Y oung larvae m in e individual needles
near th e shoot tip, later m oving to o th er
positions along the shoot w here they
feed by grooving o u t th e needle co n ­
tents. N eedles becom e yellow, tra n slu ­
cen t an d are loosely draw n to g eth er and
attach ed to th e sh o o t w ith silk, th ereby
PESTS OF SPRUCES 37
M in im iz in g dam age and in s e c t
c o n tr o l
S e rio u s o r w id e sp rea d d a m ag e is
extrem ely unlikely. H ow ever, if th is
insect is identified w ith in a p lan tatio n ,
rem oval and d estru c tio n o f th e infected
m a te rial w ill b e th e o n ly o p tio n
available.
C s|
SECTION
J A s 0 N D
3 a d u h ii pin pe rio d
m aking a shelter for th e larva and giving
a very u n tid y app earan ce to affected
bran ch es. B y sp rin g , w hen th e tree
flushes, m o st d am aged needles will have
d ro p p e d , resu ltin g in gappy p atches in
th e previous year's foliage.
Sm all g ro u p s o f m in ed needles occur­
ring d u rin g sp rin g an d su m m e r are d u e
of e ith er to E p im lia nanava or E. pygm ae-
na. D am ag e by these species is usually
very localized and will n o t devalue the
tree.
R e c o g n itio n in th e fie ld
T h e larvae are greenish o r yellowish
bro w n w ith tw o lo n gitudinal stripes th at
are pinkish b ro w n to red. T h e head and
a shiny plate o f ch itin o n th e n ext
38 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS
seg m en t are brow n. T h e larvae are 9
m m long w hen full g ro w n and will
w riggle backw ards rap id ly if th e head is
to uched.
A n n u a l life c y c le
T h e larvae feed from A u g u st u n til late
a u tu m n . W h e n fully fed they descend
to th e g ro u n d w here they sp in a silk
cocoon in the surface litter, preferably
am o n g st m oss w hen this is gro w in g on
th e forest floor. O v erw in terin g takes
place in th ese co co o n s follow ed by-
p u p a tio n in A pril. A few larvae often
rem ain in th e sp u n d eb ris o n th e tree
d u rin g th e w inter. It is believed th a t
these are diseased and will n o t p u p a te
successfully.
T h e a d u lt m o th s fly in late M a y o r Ju n e.
T h e y can be d istu rb ed easily d u rin g the
day b u t are m o st active at d u sk and
d u rin g th e n ig h t w hen eggs are laid on
th e ho st plant. M o th s are b ro w n and
w hite w ith a w ing sp an o f 10-13 m m .
P l a t e 28. A d u lt o f sp ru ce bell m oth.
R e c o rd e d d is trib u tio n and
c ir c u m s ta n c e s w h e re dam age
o c c u rs
T h is sp ecies is fo u n d th r o u g h o u t
B ritain w h erev er th e h o st trees occur;
also in n o rth e rn an d c en tral E u ro p e and
th e fo rm e r S oviet U n io n .
D am ag e is m o st likely to o ccu r w here
C h ristm a s tree s are g ro w n in close
p ro x im ity to m o re m a tu re sp ru c e
p la n ta tio n s. F o re s try C o m m issio n
R esearch D iv isio n reco rd s ind icate th a t
it does n o t cause d am age in C h ristm as
tree crops g ro w n in isolation.
M in im iz in g dam age and in s e c t
c o n tr o l
C hem ical c o n tro l has n o t been used in
B ritain. B ecause o f th e difficulty o f
targ etin g th e larvae th a t are p ro tected
b y silk a n d w ith in m in e d n eed le s
n o re c o m m e n d a tio n s can be m a d e
w ith o u t c a rry in g o u t efficacy trials.
D iflu b e n z u ro n m ay be suitable if it can
be applied to co incide w ith th e eggs
h a tc h in g . [T ak e n o te o f c u r r e n t
P esticide R eg u latio n s —see p. 85.]
P la te 29. L arvae o f spruce bell m oth.
 PESTS OF SPRUCES 39

SECTION

Spruce bell moth

Epinotia tedella

J F M A M J J A S 0 N D

□
larvae ove rw iniering ir cocoons

pupae

a d u il High! p e r io d
OOOOf tOOOOOOOC ooo eggs

feeding larvae

dam age period x x x x x x x x * xxxxxxxxx

F ig . 11. S p ru c e bell m oth.

40 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS
SPRUCE ROOT APHIDS (Pachypappa tremulae
and P. vesicalis)
T r e e s p e c ie s k n o w n to b e a f f e c te d .
O n th e toots o f Picea abies, P. sitchemis
and P. g/auca.
S y m p to m s a n d con seq u en ces o f
a tta c k
S e e d lin g s, tra n s p la n ts and sm all
co n tain er-g ro w n plants show yellow ing
o n th e tip s o f th e foliage. S ev ere
infestations in first year seed b ed s are
re p o rte d to be responsible for losses.
T h e ap h id s feeding o n th e roots are
th o u g h t to influence w ater an d n u trie n t
uptake.
R e c o g n itio n in t h e fie ld
W h ite flocculent wax, secreted by th e
aphids, occurs on the sm allest roots.
T h e ap h id s are w hite o r yellow ish w hite
and feed in sm all g ro u p s in a m o n g st the
wax they produce. C o n tain er-g ro w n
plan ts can be checked for th e presence
o f these ap h id s by gently rem o v in g th e
p lan t from the co n tain e r an d ex am ining
th e surface roots for th e p resen ce o f
w hite w ax.
A n n u a l life c y c le
T h e s e aphid species can be fo u n d in the
wingless stage th ro u g h o u t th e year on
th e roots o f sp ru ce w here exclusively
fem ale viviparous form s re p ro d u c e by
parthenogenesis. W ing ed fem ale form s
are also p ro d u ced o n th e roots in the
au tu m n , and these m ig rate to e ith er
Populus iremuUi (in th e case o f
P achypappa Iremu/ae) o r to Pupa/as
canescem (in th e case o f P. vesica/is).
T h e s e w in g ed m ig ra n t a p h id s are
sexuparae, w hich, on arrival o n the
fissured stem -b ark o f a suitable poplar,
give b irth to b o th sm all m ales an d
fem ales. E ach pairing resu lts in a single
egg th a t is laid in a b ark fissure by the
female. In th e sp rin g th e eggs h atc h and
each n y m p h d e v elo p s in to a large
spherical a p h id causing th e te n d e r new
leaves to b ecom e d isto rted , fo rm in g a
leaf 'nest' th a t encloses a large n u m b e r
o f offspring. T h e s e grow7 and develop
in to w inged m ig ra n t ap h id s th a t are
capable o f infesting th e ro o t system s o f
spruce.
R e c o rd e d d is trib u tio n and
c irc u m s ta n c e s w h e re dam age
o c c u rs
N o r th e r n and C e n tra l E u ro p e .
In sta n c e s o f sp ru c e ro o t a p h id s o n
n u rs e ry sto ck in N o rth A m erica
probably relate to P. rosellei o r P. sacculi
(both ind ig en o u s to N o rth A m erica)
and n o t to th ese E u ro p e a n species. P.
tremulae is fo u n d frequently7in n u rseries
o n co n ta in e r-g ro w 'n se e d lin g s an d
especially so w7h en th e seedlings becom e
p o t-b o u n d . T re e s gro w in g in peat, or in
badly7 d rain ed soils, w here m u ch o f the
fine ro o t system is n ea r th e surface, are
m o re p ro n e to attack.
M in im iz in g dam age and in s e c t
c o n tr o l
T h e s e ro o t ap h id s can infest p lan tin g
sto ck v ery easily. C o n ta in e r-g ro w n
p lan ts th a t are p o t-b o u n d o r held over
for tw'o seasons w7ith ro o ts g ro w in g
th ro u g h th e base o f th e co ntain ers are
likely to b ecom e infested. I f infestations
a re e n c o u n te re d in se e d b e d s o r
tra n sp la n t lines for b are-ro o ted p la n t
p ro d u c tio n , it w'ould be p referable to
use th e land for non-P ice a species the
follow ing season, since th e ap h id s can
survive in th e soil for m any w'ceks in the
w inter.
 PESTS OF SPRUCES 41

P la te 33. S pruce root aphid wingless stage.

P la te 32. Wax secreted by spruce root aphid

on container-grow n plants.

SPRUCE RUST MITE or ERIOPHYID NEEDLE MITE

(Nalepella haarlovi)

T r e e s p e c ie s k n o w n to b e a f f e c te d p o in tin g long setae (hairs) positioned

Picecr. so far only found on P. abies and halfway along the body. Im m a tu re ru st
P. silcliensis b u t o th e r sp ru c e s are m ites are alm ost colourless or a pale
p robably susceptible. pink in colour. H ow ever, all stages are
very difficult to sec in th e field, even
S y m p to m s a n d co n seq u en ces o f
a tta c k w ith a h an d lens, and exam ination w ith
a low p o w er m ic ro sc o p e m ay be
O n P. abies affected foliage ap p ears
n ecessary to c o n firm th e diagnosis.
greyish at first b u t th en tu rn s reddish
E rio p h y id m ites do n o t p ro d u ce silk; sec
brow n. D am ag e begins in th e cen tre o f
p. 71 for differences from th e conifer
the tree and th en spread s outw ards,
sp in n in g m ite Oligonyclws ununguis.
leading in th e m ost severe cases to
defoliation o f the older needles. A n n u a l life c y cle
Very incom pletely know n. In so u th e rn
R e c o g n itio n in t h e fie ld
E ngland N. haarlovi eggs have been
I f crio p h y id m ites are su sp ected o f
fo u n d d u rin g th e w inter, and a d u lt
c au sin g d am ag e th e n v ery close
m ites have been seen in D ec em b er and
e x am ination is needed to c o n firm th eir
M a rc h . T h e o v e rw in terin g stag e o f
presence. T h e use o f a xlO lens m ay
m o st species o f eriophyid m ite is ad u lt
reveal pale o range spherical eggs, about
females. A closely related species on
tw ice th e d iam eter o f the silver stom ata,
Abies m m lm anniava in D e n m ark has
o n the needles. T h e elong ate m ites are
seven to eig h t generations p er year w ith
a m b er in colour, a little darker, c a rro t-
a d u k m ites active from about m id M ay
shaped and tw o to th ree tim es th e size o f
until S e p te m b er or O ctober.
th e eggs. T h e y have tw o fo rw ard -
42 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS

R e c o rd e d d is trib u tio n a n d c ir c u m ­
s ta n c e s w h e re d a m a g e o c c u rs
In B ritain N. haarlovi has only been
reco rd ed by th e F o restry C o m m issio n
fro m H a m p sh ire , S u rrey , B erk sh ire,
D e rb y sh ire and P erth sh ire. H ow ever,
th e re is g re a t p otential for th ese very
sm all m ites, w h ich are d iffic u lt to
d etec t, to be m oved o n n u rsery tra n s­
plan ts and becom e m o re w idespread.
P l a te 34. A dult spruce ru st m ite on N orw ay
M in im iz in g dam age and m ite
spruce needle.
c o n tr o l
N alepella haarlovi can cause serio u s
needle dam age w hich m ay be related to
d ry and w arm conditions. Successful
co n tro l can be achieved by u sin g an aca-
ricid e su c h as dicofol + te tra d ifo n ,
w hich is effective again st b o th eggs and
a d u lt m ites, applied as a hig h volum e
spray. In D e n m a rk am itraz (M itac 20)
applied a t 3 litres o f p r o d u c t/h a in
6 0 0 -1 0 0 0 litres o f w a te r/h a has c o n ­
trolled th e adults o f an u n id en tified
erio p h y id m ite on A . nordmanniana.
C lofentezine (A pollo 50 S C ) has been
used against th e eggs o n Abies b u t th e
D an ish experience show ed little extra
b en efit fro m app ly in g this to g eth er w ith
am itraz. [T ake no te o f c u rre n t P esticide
R egulations - see p. 85.]

P l a t e 36. S p ru ce ru st m ite
eggs on Sitka spruce needle.

S p ru ce ru st m ite

Nalepella haarlovi

J F M A M J J A s 0 N D
a d u ils

? 7 ? ? ? 7
3OODODOOO0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 jooooooOOt 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o o o o o o o JOOOOOOOC OOOOOOOO )0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ( lOOOOOOOC OOOOOOOOOO 10000000001 10000000000
eggs

la rv a e 7 ?

damage x x x x x t x x x x x x x X X x x x x x x x x > x x x x x x x x (XXXXXXXX x x x x x x x x ( X X X X X X X X

t t t t t t
conlrol [as soon as dam age is seen)

Fig. 12. Spruce rust mite.

 PESTS OF SPRUCES 43

SPRUCE SHOOT APHID (Cinara pilicornis)

T r e e s p e c ie s k n o w n to b e a f f e c te d
M o st o f th e species in th e genus Picea
have b e e n re c o rd e d as h o sts w h en
gro w n in B rita in , b u t th is a p h id
particularly favours those species w ith
green ra th e r th an glaucous foliage. It
som etim es feeds on Tsuga heterophylla.
S y m p to m s a n d co n seq u en ces a n d
a tta c k
A phid colonies develop o n th e new
these colonies are exclusively fem ale
th a t increase by vivipary. T h e peak
n u m b ers o ccu r in these colonies d u rin g
early su m m e r (M ay and Ju n e ) w hen the
new shoot g ro w th is still very soft.
W inged fem ale ap h id s ap p ear w ithin
these shoot colonies, particularly w hen
th e needles m a tu re in su m m er and th e
colony stre n g th declines. T h e se w inged
ap h id s are capable o f flying som e dis­
tance for colony dispersal, an d th eir

SECTION
shoots an d , w hile the needles are still
p ro d u c tio n d epletes th e n u m b e rs o f
soft, p ro d u ce g reat quantities o f h o n ey ­
ap h id s in th e original colonies. M u c h
dew. In d ry w eather th e sticky h o n ey ­
sm aller g ro u p s o f C. pilicornis m ay be
dew d ro p lets fall an d p u t a glaze o n the
d etected in late su m m e r o n th e tw igs o f
foliage. S ap ro p h y tic sooty m o u ld fungi
new ly h ard en ed shoots. A m o n g st these
grow on these sugary deposits, tu rn in g
are sm all, d ark-w inged, m ale ap h id s and
the foliage black. T h is blackening can
o ra n g e-b ro w n egg-laying fem ale aphids
p ersist for several m o n th s th u s spoiling
w ith a conspicuous w hite tip to th e
the appearan ce and quality o f th e tree.
body. T h e eggs are an elongate k idney-
S o m e m in o r n e e d le loss can o c cu r
shape and usually laid singly o n th e c u r-
w here th e aphid colonies existed.
re n t-y ea r n eedles an d are a g reyish
R e c o g n itio n in t h e fie ld colour, covered w ith fine wax.
L arg e pale brow n or greyish aphids
tu c k e d b etw een th e n eed les o n th e
u n d ersid e o f th e new shoot grow th.
T h e p resen ce o f this a p h id o n the
foliage is often indicated by foraging
h o n e y b ees co lle c tin g th e su g a r-ric h
honeydew on the shoots.
A n n u a l life c y c le
T h is is a very early species th a t can form
sm all colonies on tw igs before b u d -
b u rst, som etim es as early as Jan u ary or P la te 38. L ow er branches o f spruce with
February. In th e first p a rt o f th e year sooty m ould fungi grow ing on honeydew
deposits from spruce shoot aphid colonies.

R e c o rd e d d is trib u tio n a n d c ir c u m ­
sta n c e s w h e re d a m a g e o c c u rs
Cinara pilicornis o cc u rs w idely over
G re a t B ritain an d W e stern E u ro p e.
R ecords su g g est th a t it has becom e
m o re freq u en t in recen t times. It is one
o f th e first species o f insects to be found
on new ly p lan ted spruce. T h is species
flourishes and causes m o st d am age in
P la te 37. Colony o f sp ru ce shoot aphid with
ho t, d ry early su m m er w eather.
honeydew droplets on a new spruce shoot in
June.
44 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS
M in im iz in g d am age and in sect
control
T h e p lan tin g o f sp ru ce o n sites p ro n e to
w ater stress seem s to exacerbate this
p est problem . D istricts w ith less than
1000 m m annual rainfall are tro u b led by
this ap h id m o re frequently. It seem s
probable th a t the spread o f C. pi/iconiis
into new C h ristm as tree p lan tin g s has
been accelerated by u sin g tree s already
S p ru c e s h o o l aph id
Cinara pilicornis
J F M A
oooooooo IOOOOOOOOo o o o o o o o c oooooooo
1 ■ ■ ■
in s e c tic id e tr e a tm e n t
xxxx xxxxxxxx xxxxxxxx
F ig . 13. S p ru c e shoot aphid.
SPRUCE TWIG APHID
Tree species known to be affected
T h o se sp ru ce species having blue—g reen
o r b lu e - g re v foliage, n o ta b ly Picea
engelmanni an d P. glauca, are m o st often
attacked, b u t o th e r species (P. .v lu lzii
an d P. sitchensis), w h ich have th e
b lu en ess o f th e ir foliage in te n sifie d
w h en g ro w n u n d e r th e cover o f
p ro tected cultivation, m ay also becom e
attacked.
S y m p to m s and con seq uences o f
attack
W h e n a tta c k o c c u rs o n th e te n d e r
young needles, th ere can be so m e needle
d is to rtio n , b u t th e sh o o t is n o t so
seriously d efo rm ed as is th e case w ith
having eggs o n th em , as evidenced by
trees b ein g attack ed early in th e ir first
gro w in g season. I f large n u m b e rs o f
C. pilicornis are p re se n t in late sp rin g
th ey can be c o n trolled w ith an insecti­
cide th a t has e ith e r a co n tac t or fu m i­
g a n t k n o ck -d o w n action applied at high
volum e. [T ake n o te o f c u rre n t Pesticide
R eg u latio n s - see p. 85.]
M J J A S 0 N D
eggs
g le s s fe m a le s
w i ig e d m ig a n t fem e
d a m a g e p e r io d
■ le g g la y in g e m a le s
_
■ ■ m e a le s
oooc o o o o o o o o 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 IOOOOOOOC o o o o o o o o
(Mindarus obliquus)
th e re la te d M . abieliiuis o n Abies.
N e v e rth e less, th e a p h id colonies do
p ro d u c e honeydew d ro p le ts w hen the
shoots are in active g ro w th in early
spring. T h e s e h o neydew d eposits, sooty
m o u ld s and th e secreted wax filam ents
c o n trib u te to a m essy ap p earan ce th a t
generally spoils th e a ttractiv e foliage o f
blue sp ru ces w hich th is a p h id ap p ears to
prefer.
R ecognition in the field
W h ite fluffy w ax-like filam ents, th a t are
o ften stre tch e d b etw een th e y oungest
new needles in early Ju n e , in d icate the
presen ce o f colonies o f M . obliqam.
T h e a p h id s th e m se lv e s a re in c o n ­

sp icu o u s, sm all, and pale g ree n ish
w hite, feeding u n d e r the wax flu ff th at
is secreted from th eir body surface. T h is
aphid is n o t detectable before th e b u d
scales have fallen from th e ex ten d in g
shoots.
Annual life cycle
M in d a n ts nbliqum has a very b rie f active
period to its life cycle. It o verw inters as
an egg th a t h atches ju st before b u d -
b u rs t, after w hich th e offsp rin g move
readily on to th e te n d e r young needles
to feed. I f lu x u rian t p lan t gro w th c o n d i­
P la te 39. S p ru ce twig aphid on new shoot
grow th.
PESTS OF SPRUCES 45
tions continue, fu rth e r generations may
o ccur before a w inged generatio n is
p ro d u ced . T h e se w inged fem ales can fly
to o th er sp ru ces to p ro d u ce m ales and
fem ales th a t p air and lay eggs. T h e life
cycle is, therefore, adap ted to a sh o rt
season o f p la n t gro w th , so it is in th e
restin g egg stage for 10 m o n th s from
Ju ly to May.
Recorded distribution and circum ­
stances where dam age occurs
T h is species has only been rep o rte d
infrequently, b u t bad attacks have been
SECTION
seen at high elevation trial plots and
w ith fast g ro w in g seed lin g s in
favourable conditions.
M in im izin g dam age and insect
control
C hanges in th e c u ltu ral practice w hen
g row ing Picea, especially forcing the
g ro w th o f sp ru ce plants u n d e r p ro te c t­
ed g lassh o u se-lik e c o n d itiq n s, c o u ld
b rin g this a p h id into g reater p ro m i­
nence.
S eedling plants could be in tro d u ced
th a t have eggs o n th e m w h ich are
ex trem e ly d iffic u lt to d e te c t; an d
w inged fo rm s could spread this species
also. I f young trees o f blue sp ru ces are
b e in g g ro w n for th e ir h ig h foliage
quality, in co n d ition s w here this a p h id is
k n o w n , th e n so m e c arefu lly tim ed
con tro l m easures m ay be necessary.
48 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS
EUROPEAN PINE WOOLLY APHID (Pineus pini)
T r e e s p e c ie s k n o w n to b e a f f e c te d
T w o-needled pin e species b u t largely
restricted to Pinus sykestris\ also know n
from P. nigra, P. m u go, an d P. contorla.
S y m p to m s a n d co nsequences o f
a tta c k
D u rin g a heavy attack, th e needles o f
in fested sh o o ts b eco m e d isc o lo u re d ,
tu r n in g p ale g re e n ish yellow (o r
so m e tim e s even p u rp le —b ro w n ), fall
p rem atu rely and resu lt in stu n te d shoot
grow th. W h en really sev ere attacks take
place d u rin g a d ry g ro w in g season,
especially on new ly p lan ted or sm all
trees, som e sh o o t d ea th o r failure to
p ro d u ce viable b u d s m at' follow.
R e c o g n itio n in t h e fie ld
A ttack s are c h a ra c te riz e d by w h ite
w oolly-w ax sp eck s b e tw e e n n e ed le
bases on the new shoots or along th e
bark o f older branches. C o n tin u o u s
w hite woolly deposits can so m etim es be
seen along th e w hole len g th o f th e stem
o f C h ris tm a s trees, follo w in g th e
fissures in th e th in bark. T h e individual
specks o f vvax-vvool are w hite an d fluff}'
on th e new shoots. P a rtin g th e wood
should reveal m in u te (1 m m long) dark
w ingless adelgids, o r im m a tu re fem ales
th a t are a red d ish grey colour.
C loser checking o f th e w ax-w ool o n the
shoots d u rin g the grow in g season w ith a
XlO h an d lens will usually reveal a tig h t
m ass o f p inkish eggs. L a te r in th e
su m m e r w inged form s may be found
settled on the needles. T h e s e hold th eir
w ings in a roof-like po sitio n over th eir
abdo m en s and also p ro d u c e w hite waxy
wool covering a clu tch o f eggs.
A n n u a l life c y c le
T h e adelgid overw inters as an im m a tu re
fem ale on th e stem s, shoots o r needle
sheaths and reaches m a tu rity in late
M arch or A pril. E ggs and all stages o f
developing fem ales o ccu r from M a rc h
th ro u g h to early O ctober. T h e m o st
co n sp icu o u s perio d o f activity com es
after th e first eggs have h atch e d , w hen
th e em erg in g craw lers m ove o n to th e
te n d e r g reen shoots and needles w here
they settle an d feed. B y late M ay these
have developed into tw o d istin ct form s,
eith er w inged o r w ingless fem ales. T h e
w in g ed fem ales are w ith o u t w ax
secretions at this stage and can often be
found o n th e new needles from w hich
th e y fly aw ay w h e n c o n d itio n s are
favourable. T h e w ingless fem ales, once
settled , do n o t m ove b u t co n tin u e to
feed an d th en re p ro d u c e o n th e shoots,
p ro d u c in g tw o m o re o v erlapping fem ale
gen eratio n s before th e a u tu m n . T h e
w inged g en eratio n is th o u g h t to be a
vestige o f a m o re com plex life cycle
(in v o lv in g Picea orienla/is) b u t th is
c o m p le te life cycle se ld o m h as th e
o p p o rtu n ity to take place o n acco u n t o f
th e scarcity o f P. orienla/is. Elowcvcr,
th e co m p lete life cycle is n o t essential
for infestatio n s to o ccu r because th e
newly h a tch e d craw lers, d estin ed to be
w ingless fem ales, are very active and are
readily d isp ersed by w ind cu rren ts. It is
by th is m e th o d th a t y o u n g trees are
m o st likely to b ecom e infested.
R e c o rd e d d is trib u tio n a n d c ir c u m ­
s ta n c e s w h e re d a m a g e o c c u rs
Pineus pint is found th ro u g h o u t E u ro p e;
o th er sim ilar species o ccu r in N o rth
A m erica. A ttacks an d d am age are often
m o re severe in d ry areas o r in in d u strial
or u rb an situations. S m all trees th a t
have restricted ro o t g ro w th (e.g. p o t-
b o u n d in co n tain ers) or have had po o r
g ro u n d p re p ara tio n p rio r to p lanting,
also su ffer m o re from attack by this
adelgid.
M in im iz in g dam age and in s e c t
c o n tr o l
T h is species p resen ts difficulties w hen
a tte m p tin g c o n tro l w ith in se c tic id es
because e ith e r feeding stages are h id d en
 PESTS OF PINES 49

E u ro p e a n p in e w o o lly a p h id
Pineus pini

j w in g le s s fe m a le s , u n p ro te c te d w h e n firs t h a tc h e d
] | a s c ra w le rs o r d u r in g th e w in te r
OOOOOOOOOOl 10000 eggsprotectedbywoolcovering |
fem ales dispersebut-donotre-lnfestpine
ooooooooooooooooc
la te r p r o te c te d b y w o o l c o v e r in g ^ I H in s e c tic id e tre a tm e n t

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

damageperiod xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

F ig . 14. E uropean pine woolly aphid.

or eggs are present. D u rin g th e w inter a u tu m n w hen the craw lers are h atch in g
m o n th s th e im m atu re fem ales m ay be fro m th e last b a tc h e s o f eggs an d m
h id d en u n d e r th e sheaths o f th e needle seeking places to feed and settle for the
bases. F ro m early A pril to early O cto b er w in ter. A t th is tim e th e v ario u s

SECTION
eggs m ay be p resen t w hich are coated protective coatings o n th e insects have
w ith w ater-rep ellen t wax and h id d en by n o t developed.
a m ass o f w ax-w ool. T h e only T h e o ptions for chem ical con tro l are
o p p o rtu n ity to effectively con tro l this eith er to use a co n tact insecticide, w hich
insect w ith insecticide sprays is in the m u s t b e ap p lied a t a h ig h v olum e rate,

P la te 41. W h ite wax-wool o f the E uropean P la te 42. E uropean pine woolly aphid on
pine w oolly aphid on Scots pine stem. Scots pine.
50 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS
sp ra y e d to r u n - o f f a n d p re fe ra b ly
targeted at th e craw ler stage in th e
a u tu m n , or to m ake tw o or th ree sim ilar
spray applications d u rin g th e grow ing
season.
P roblem s o f effective sp ray p e n e tra tio n
are likely to o ccur on o ld er sheared trees
th a t have d en se foliage. T re a tm e n t w ith
tra c to r-m o u n te d lateral m ist-b lo w in g
e q u ip m e n t is likely to be ineffective in
p e n e tra tin g to the stem because th e
trees fu rth e r from th e spray o u tlet are
likely to be in th e spray shadow and
therefore only partially treated.
GREY PINE-NEEDLE APHID
T r e e s p e c ie s k n o w n to b e a f f e c te d
M o stly on Pinus sylvestns an d P. nigra
b u t so m e tim e s on P. contorta, P.
muricata, and P. radiala.
S y m p to m s a n d con seq u en ces o f
a tta c k
T h is aphid can be a serious p e st in
C h ristm as tree p ro d u c tio n , w h ere it
feeds in d ense colonies o n th e needles o f
pin e causing yellow ing o f old needles
and loss o f vigour. T h e ap h id s excrete
ho neydew , w h ic h a c c u m u la te s o n
n e a rb y foliage a n d e n c o u ra g e s th e
g ro w th o f sooty m o u ld fungi a n d th e
a c c u m u la tio n o f w in d -b o rn e d e b ris
su ch as d u st an d fluffy seeds o f thistles
and w illow herb. T o geth er, these factors
can m ak e th e a p h id -a tta c k e d tree s
u n m a rk e ta b le for C h ris tm a s trees.
H eavily attacked sm all trees show a
m arked red u ctio n in g ro w th o f shoots.
R e c o g n itio n i n t h e fie ld
T h e presence o f ap h id s can be d etected
by waxy grey m asses o n p in e foliage.
O n closer ex am ination these are seen to
be com posed o f densely packed colonies
o f aphids; th e various sized individuals
b eing in row s along th e needles. T h e
P re d atio n by o th e r insects is som etim es
q u ite effective in re d u c in g p o p u latio n s
o f Pineus pini. In particular, th e larvae
o f flies in th e genus Lcucoph search o u t
and feed o n b o th a d u lt an d im m a tu re
in se c ts w ith in th e w ax-w ool. I f
p re d a to rs are fou nd to be p re se n t and
allowed to develop it could obviate an
o th e rw ise ex p e n siv e se q u e n c e o f
chem ical co n tro l treatm en ts. In taking
advantage o f n atu ral biological con tro l
a g en ts su ch as th is it is advisable to
c o n su lt a specialist en to m o lo g ist for a
co rre c t iden tificatio n an d assessm en t o f
th e situation.
(Schizolachnus pineti)
a b u n d a n t g rey wax particles, p ro d u ce d
by th e aphids, su rro u n d s th e m and to
som e e x ten t th e needles w here they are
feeding, th u s disg u isin g th e individual
shapes o f th e aphids.
A n n u a l life c y c le
T h e o v erw in terin g eggs are black in
co lo u r an d d ep o sited o n th e needles; in
m ild w in ters it can probably p ersist by
p arth e n o g e n e tic fem ales. E ggs h atc h in
early s p rin g , d ev elo p in to w ingless
fem ales w hich, in tu r n , give rise to
fu rth e r fem ale g en eratio n s th ro u g h th e
s u m m e r m o n th s. A s th ese co lo n ies
beco m e overcrow ded, w inged fem ales
appear. S o m etim es sm all trees becom e
overw helm ed by th e vast n u m b e r o f
a p h id s, are u n a b le to s u p p o r t th e ir
fe e d in g d e m a n d s , so th e co lo n ies
ra p id ly declin e to zero. D u rin g late
a u tu m n w inged m ales an d egg-laying
fem ales ap p e a r w hich p air and later lay
th e o v erw in terin g eggs o n p in e needles.
R e c o rd e d d is trib u tio n a n d c ir c u m ­
sta n c e s w h e re d a m a g e o c c u rs
W id esp read and c o m m o n in th e B ritish
Isles, S candinavia, an d o th e r p a rts o f
E u ro p e , a lth o u g h th e la tte r re c o rd s
 PESTS OF PINES 51

p ro b ab ly relate in p a rt to a closely
related species Schizolachnus obscurus.
In N o rth A m erica A. pineli ap p ears to be
well established in the w estern p a rt o f
the U S A w here it is rep o rte d to be a
p e st o n Pinus sylveslris. In N o rth
A m erica C h ristm as trees are dam aged
by yet an o th e r closely related species,
Schizolachnus piniradialae. T h is aphid
ap p ears to have a very sim ilar biology
an d is able to survive over a w ide range
o f c lim atic z o n es (see w oolly p in e
needle aphid).
M in im izin g d am age and insect
control
E a rly c o n tro l o f th is a p h id , o n ce
recognized, is im p o rta n t since colony
dev elo p m en t is rap id and m u ch o f the
foliage o f sm all trees can be over­
m
w helm ed in six weeks. C y p e rm e th rin or
p irim icarb applied as a co n tac t aphicide P la te 43. Colonies o f grey pine-needle aphid.

SECTION
can give successful control. [T ake note
o f c u rre n t P esticide R egulations - see
p. 85.]

G re y p in e n e e d le a p h id
Schizolachnus pineti

J F M A M J J A S 0 N D
00000Co eggs
000000 )
' w in g le s s fe m a le s

insecticidetreattment w in g e d fe m a le s

■■■■ ■
e g g la y in g fe m a le s

1
damageperiod xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx 00( oooootJOOOOOO
000000 o

F ig. 15. G rey p ine-needle aphid.

52 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS
LARGE PINE SAWFLY (Diprion pini)
INTRODUCED PINE SAWFLY (North America)
(Diprion similis)
EUROPEAN PINE or FOX-COLOURED SAWFLY
(Neodiprion sertifer)
Tree species known to be affected
M o s t species in th e genus Pinus\ the
m o st frequently record ed are P. sylveslris
an d P. contorta, also P. nigra var.
marilinra, P. tmtgo, and once Pseitdolsuga
menzeisii (larvae o f Diprion pini).
S y m p to m s and con seq u en ce o f
dam age
D efoliation: the needles are eaten awav
in p atches often leaving bare shoots w ith
needle bases.
Diprion pini is th e species m o st often
fo u n d o n P. sylveslris g ro w n as
C h ristm as trees. I t feeds o n needles o f
all ages, chew ing each need le from the
tip, leaving th e base as a ragged stub.
Neodiprion seriifer only feeds o n one
year old and older needles. T h e rarely
e n co u n te red D. similis feeds in th e sam e
way as D. pini on needles o f all ages, the
first g eneration p re ferrin g th e previous
year's needles, the second generatio n
eating b o th c u rre n t and old er needles.
Recognition in the field
Saw fly larvae can be d istin g u ish ed from
th o se o f m o th s by co u n tin g th e n u m b e r
o f pairs o f legs, by the sh ap e o f th e head
and by th eir p o stu re o n th e tree. B oth
kinds o f insect larvae have th re e pairs o f
th o racic legs on th e b o d y seg m en ts
im m ediately b eh in d th e head. The
differences are th a t sawflies have five or
six pairs o f legs o n th e a b d o m in al
seg m en ts plu s a pair o f claspers o n th e
last body seg m en t, w'hereas m o th larvae
never have m o re than fo u r p airs p lu s a
pair o f claspers, i.e. m o th larvae always
have at least tw o body seg m en ts w ith no
legs b eh in d th e th o racic pairs. T h e
head o f a sawfly larva is alm o st ro u n d
an d o ften w ith very d istin c t 'eye' spots.
Saw fly larvae ten d to cu rl th e head and
tail seg m en ts back w hen th rea ten e d ,
taking u p a C o r S -sh ap ed p osture.
T h e y m ay also ex u d e liquid from the
m o u th .
L a rv a e o f D. p in i, th e c o m m o n e st
species, are pale yellow, sh ad ed green
an d w ith a row' o f black d ots alo n g eith er
side. T h e head is e ith e r brow'n or black
a n d th e m a tu re larvae are u p to 28 m m
long. N . sertifer larvae are a d irty g rey -
g reen w ith a black head. T h is species
has an alm ost co n tin u o u s strip e along
th e side, th e m a tu re larvae b ein g 2 2 -2 5
m m long. T h e larvae o f b o th sawfly
species are g reg a rio u s, feed in g in a
g ro u p together. L a rv ae o f D. similis are
d ark in co lo u r w ith a d o u b le black dorsal
strip e and w h ite d o ts to g e th e r w ith
yellow' d ash e s a n d c o m m a -sh a p e d
m arkings along th e sides. T h e head o f
D. similis is black a n d th e full grow n
larvae, w'hich feed singly, are up to 28
m m long.
Annual life cycle
Diprion p in i usually has tw'o g en eratio n s
p e r year w ith larvae feeding from late
M a y to early J u ly a n d ag ain fro m
A u g u st u n til early O ctober. I t is th e
larvae o f th e second g en eratio n (see
F ig u re 16) th a t cause m o st d am age to
C h ris tm a s trees. D. p in i n o rm a lly
o v erw in ters as a cocoon in th e soil,
a lth o u g h co co o n s o f th e s u m m e r
g en eratio n are often o n th e tree am o n g
th e needles. S o m etim es cocoons o f th e
 PESTS OF PINES 53

N. sertifer has only a single g eneration

w ith th e larvae feeding from .May un til
early July. C ocoons are usually found in
th e soil, alth o u g h a few occur on the
foliage an d m ay occasionally overw inter
th e re b efo re th e a d u lts em erge.
H owever, m o st ad u lt sawflies ap p ear
from th e en d o f A ugust until early

P la te 44. L arge pine saw fly larvae feed in a

SECTION
cluster on both new and older needles.

first gen eratio n will n o t p ro d u ce adults

until th e follow ing year. A d u lt sawflies
appear in .May an d again in July. T h e
eggs are in serted into th e edges o f pine
needles by the saw -like ovipositor o f the
fem ales and are covered by a foam -like
hard roofing.
T h e life cycle o f D. simi/is is sim ilar to
D. pini, i.e. th ere are tw o g en eratio n s p e r
year. T h e o verw intering stage is the
cocoon w hich is sp u n on th e h o st tree
or adjacent plants. T h e larvae feed in
Ju n e and again in S eptem ber.
P la te 46. L arva o f Diprion similis (the introduced pine
sawfly [N. America]).
P l a t e 45. L arv ae o f fox-coloured sawfly
feeding on older needles o f Scots pine.
O cto b er in th e sam e year as th e genera­
tio n from w hich they develop. T h e eggs
are in serted in to th e needle edges in
row s, w'hich are som etim es
in te rru p te d , w'here they over­
w in te r u n til th e follow ing
May'. U n lik e D. p in i th e in d i­
v id u a l eggs are not
covered by a foam cap.
R e c o rd e d d is tr i b u ti o n a n d
c irc u m s ta n c e s w h e re d a m ­
ag e o c c u rs
Diprion pini occurs th ro u g h ­
o u t B rita in , m o st p a rts o f
m a in la n d E u ro p e an d in
N o rth A frica. D. similis has a
sim ilar d istrib u tio n in E u ro p e,
54 ■CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS
except for th e w est o f N o rw ay w here it
is absent. In B ritain, how ever, it only
occurs in s o u th e rn E n g lan d . D. similis is
also fo u n d in T urkey, Ja p a n and K orea,
a n d has b e e n in tro d u c e d to N o r th
A m erica w here it occu rs in th e U S A
from M ain e to N o rth C arolina and in
th e C en tral and L ake S tates; in C anada
it is fo u n d in so u th e rn O ntario. N . ser­
tifer is fo u n d th r o u g h o u t B rita in
alth o u g h it is less co m m o n in th e so u th ­
east. I t is also found in Irelan d and
E u ro p e, and has been in tro d u c e d in to
eastern N o rth A m erica.
P l a t e 47. E gg scars o f large pine sawfly.
P la t e 48. Single egg o f fox-coloured sawfly laid w ithin
a needle.
M in im izin g d am age and in sect
control
In C h ristm a s tree p lan tatio n s d am age is
usually localized an d m ay only affect a
few tre e s o r even ju s t in d iv id u a l
branches. H a n d -p ic k in g o f larvae is a
viable o p tio n in su ch cases, o therw ise
a p p lic a tio n o f a su ita b le in sec tic id e
sh o u ld be m ad e as soon as larvae are
seen. [T ake n o te o f c u rre n t P esticide
R eg u latio n s - see p. 85.] In forestry
c o n d itio n s o u tb reak s will m o st often
collapse d u e to a v iru s disease (especial­
ly in th e case o f N . sertifer) o r by the
action o f n atu rally o c cu rrin g parasitic
wasps.
 PESTS OF PINES 55

Large pine saw fly

Diprion pini

F ig . 16. L arg e pin e sawfly.

m
Introduced pine sawfly (North America)
Diprion similis

SECTION
J F M A M J J A S 0 N D

■ cocoons

a tlu li flit hi period

oooooOOOOO oooooooo oooooooo 300 eggs

H vae

insecticide treatm enl t t

dam 3ge perio d x x x x x x (XXX

F ig . 17. In tro d u ced pine sawfly (N. America).

F o x-co lo u re d saw fly

Neodiprion sertifer

J F M A M J J A S 0 N D

eggs
o

ooooooooc oo oo oo oo c o o oo oo oo c 0 0 00 00 00 0
o
u
o

If

larvae

t 1
inseclicidetreatment
cocoons
some overw inter

■ a d u i f lig h t p e r 0(1

dam s ge p e r io d xxxxxxxxxx xxxxxx 000000 300000000 DOOOOOOOC ooooooooc

_ l

F ig . 18. Fox-coloured sawfly.

56 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS
PINE SHOOT BEETLE (Tomicus piniperda)
T r e e s p e c ie s k n o w n to b e a f f e c te d
Pinns, particularly P. sy/veslris and P.
conlorla.
S y m p to m s and con seq u en ce
a tta c k
T h e en d s o f the c u rre n t year's shoots
tu r n b ro w n fro m m id -s u m m e r
onw ards. O n C h ristm as trees su ch d am ­
age will be m ainly tow ards th e to p o f
larger trees.
R e c o g n itio n in th e fie ld
A hole 1.5-2.0 m m in d iam eter will be
fo u n d b o red into the sh o o t close to the
ju n ctio n o f brow n an d g reen needles.
O n m ore resinous pin es this will be
m arked by a rin g o f resin aro u n d the
hole. I f th e dead sh o o t is sp lit o p en a
tu n n e l w ill be fo u n d e x te n d in g u p
tow ards th e apical b u d an d a sm all
red d ish bro w n o r black beetle m ay be
found inside this gallery. S o m etim es
several d iffe re n t b e e tle s w ill have
attacked the sam e shoot.
A n n u a l life c y c le
Tomicus piniperda is a bark beetle and
breed s in recently felled, w indblow n or
dead pines w ith a bark thick n ess o f
m o re th an 2 m m . T h e fem ale beetle
bores into th e bark an d co n stru c ts a
m o th e r gallery up to several cen tim etres
P la te 49. S hoot tips dam aged by pine shoot beetle.
in len g th along th e axis o f th e tree or
log. M o st m o th e r galleries are b o red in
sp rin g (M arch —M ay) b u t a few m ay be
m ade later d u rin g Ju n e an d July. E ggs
of
are laid in niches e ith e r side o f this
gallery and th e larvae each b o re a tu n n el
at th e ju n ctio n b etw een th e bark and th e
sapw ood. T h e s e rad iate o u t, w idening
as th e larvae grow, an d cu lm in ate in an
oval p u p al cham ber. H e re th e larva
changes in to a y o u n g a d u lt beetle w hich
em erges th ro u g h th e bark, leaving a
scatter o f em erg en ce holes ('sh o t holes')
a b o u t 1.5 m m in diam eter. It is these
beetles th a t cause th e dam age as they
b o re into th e c u rre n t shoots to feed and
b ecom e m atu re. T h e y ov erw in ter e ith er
in a sh o o t o r in a sh o rt tu n n e l m ade in
th e thick b ark tow ards th e base o f a
living tree.
R e c o rd e d d is trib u tio n a n d c ir c u m ­
sta n c e s w h e re d a m a g e o c c u rs
T h is bark beetle is fo u n d th ro u g h o u t
B ritain , E u ro p e, an d eastw ards to Jap an .
I t has been in tro d u ce d accidentally to
th e easte rn U S A .
M in im iz in g dam age and in s e c t
c o n tr o l
D a m a g e will o n ly b e serio u s w here
suitable b reed in g m aterial is close to the
C h ristm a s tree p lan tatio n .
T. piniperda m ay b reed in
stu m p s if these are left
w hen trees are harvested.
H ow ever, T. piniperda is
cap ab le o f fly in g so m e
c o n sid e ra b le d istan c e,
certain ly several kilom e­
tres, so sp o rad ic d am age
m ay o ccu r w h ere th e re is
n o local so u rce fro m
w h ich th e b ee tle s m ay
have o riginated. T h e re is
no ch em ical co n tro l avail­
able to p re v e n t sh o o t
dam ag e by this insect.
 PESTS OF PINES 57

SECTION

P in e s h o o l b e e tle

Tomicus piniperda

J F M A M J J A I S 0 N D
m any

000000 lOOOOOOOQO lOOOOOOOOt 0000 oooooc 0000000 eggs

larvae

xxxxxxxXXX (XXXXXXXX x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x CXI* s h o o l dam age

F ig . 19. P ine shoot beetle.

58 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS

PINE SHOOT MOTH (Rhyacionia buoliana)

T r e e s p e c ie s k n o w n to b e a f f e c te d c o n stru c te d fro m silk an d resin as th e
M o s t Pinus spp., especially P. contorta b u d is m in ed (m ore th a n o n e b u d m ay
and P. sylvestris. F ast grow ing species be attack ed if th e y are very sm all). T h e
su ch as P. m uricata an d P. radiata are larva th e n o v erw in ters in this m in ed
particularly susceptible. Very resinous b u d after sealing th e e n tra n c e hole w ith
p in e sp ecies su c h as P. nigra var. silk. In M a rc h or early A pril th e larva
m aritim a are rarely attacked. T h e re is em erges an d m oves to a leading b u d or
also on e record o n Picea bremeriana. sh o o t w 'here a n ew re s in -te n t is
co n stru c te d . T h e larva feeds in this
S y m p to m s a n d co nsequences o f
new' b u d , o r tu n n els th e new sh o o t if th e
a tta c k
tree has flushed, p u p a tin g in this last
L arv ae o f th e p ine sh o o t m o th feed in
feeding place. L a te r in th e su m m er,
lateral b u d s d u rin g th e a u tu m n . T h e y
after m o th em erg en ce, e m p ty p u p al
overw inter in a hollow' b u d an d in sp rin g
cases can be fo u n d p ro tru d in g th ro u g h
e ith er bore into the leading b u d or, if
th e resin -ten ts.
th is has flu sh e d , d a m a g e th e stem
causing th e sh o o t to b e n d sideways. R e c o rd e d d is trib u tio n and
S u ch dam aged shoots som etim es regain c irc u m s ta n c e s w h e re dam age
apical d o m inance causing a C -sh ap ed o c c u rs
b en d or 'p o sth o rn ' deform ity. A ttacks R h ya cio nia buoliana is w id e sp re a d
are m ainly on th e u p p e rm o st p a rts o f th r o u g h o u t E n g la n d , re a c h in g th e
y o u n g trees. S co ttish b o rd e r o n th e w estern side. I t is
also in W ales a n d D u m frie ss h ire .
R e c o g n itio n in t h e fie ld
E u ro p e a n d is trib u tio n e x te n d s to
T h e presence o f a larva is advertised by
s o u th e rn N o rw ay , S w eden, an d
a sm all re s in -te n t a t th e base o f th e
a tta c k e d b u d o r sh o o t. T h is is
co n stru cte d by th e larva fro m resin and
silk an d , w hen new', will glisten in th e
sunshine.
F u ll grow n larvae are ab o u t 12—14 m m
long, dark red d ish o r p u rp le -b ro w n
w ith a black head. T h e a d u lt m o th s are
silv er w ith o ra n g e o r fe rru g in o u s
m arkings and a w ing sp an o f 16-24
m m . T h e y are n o c tu rn a l b u t are often
d istu rb ed from th e cro p d u rin g th e day
w hen they will fly to a n o th e r tre e or
flu tter to th e g ro u n d .
A n n u a l life c y c le
T h e ad u lt m o th s fly d u rin g late Ju n e
an d Ju ly w hen th e eggs are laid on
need le sh eath s close to th e apical buds.
W h e n a larva first h atch es in A u g u st it
m ines th e base o f a p air o f needles
before em erg in g a n d m o v in g to a lateral
b u d . H e re a p ro tectiv e re s in -te n t is P l a te 53. B ent shoot caused by pine shoot
m oth larva feeding at base.
 PESTS OF PINES 59

M in im izin g dam age and insect

control
L a rv a e can b e c o n tro lle d by tw o
a p p lic a tio n s o f a p o te n t c o n ta c t
insecticide, su ch as fen itro th io n , applied
tw o weeks ap a rt and tim ed to coincide
w ith eggs h atch in g in A ugust. [T ake
n o te o f c u rre n t P esticide R egulations -
see p. 85.]

P la te 54. Pine shoot m o th resin ten t in spring. P la te 55. A dult pine shoot m oth.

SECTION
F in lan d ; it is also p re se n t in K orea,
Jap an , and has been in tro d u ce d into
parts o f N o rth and S o u th A m erica.
D am ag e can cause serious deform ities
in forest plantations. O n C h ristm as
trees shearing ap p ears to keep dam age
to an acceptable level as th e dam aged
b u d s /s h o o ts are often rem oved.

P in e s h o o l m o th
Rhyacionia buoliana

J F M A M J J A s 0 N D

pupae
adult flight poncd
0 00 0 0 0 0 )0 eggs

insecticide treatment t t
x x x x x c x x x x x x x x < xxxxxxxx <X damage period xxxxxxxx (XXXXXXXXXX
lerm nal buds an shoots lateral buds

F ig . 20. P ine shoot m oth.

60 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS

SPOTTED PINE APHID (Eulachnus agilis)

T r e e s p e c ie s k n o w n to b e a f f e c te d c o u n tie s o f B rita in , b u t also fro m
Pintts sylvestris, P. nigra var. m aritim a, P. S candinavia across E u ro p e to T urkey,
halepensis, P. pinaster and P. strobus. C h in a , a n d p a rts o f e a ste rn N o rth
A m erica. H ig h te m p e ra tu re s c o n sid ­
S y m p to m s a n d co nsequences o f
erably sh o rte n th e tim e taken for this
a tta c k
sp ecies to re a c h m a tu rity an d can
T h is fo liag e-feed in g a p h id cau ses
d o uble th e b irth rate.
p re m a tu re d ro p o f th e previous year's
needles, alth o u g h it will also feed o n th e M in im iz in g dam age and in s e c t
cu rren t-y ear's needles. It is freq u en tly c o n tr o l
fo u n d o n n eed le s th a t are sh o w in g H e a lth y foliage an d good n e e d le
senescing sym ptom s. T h is a p h id also re ten tio n m ake pines less attractiv e to
sh a re s th e sam e n ee d le s as th o se this aphid. O v ersized tran sp lan ts and
occup ied by th e grey p in e-n eed le ap h id p o t-b o u n d c o n tain er-g ro w n p lan ts are
(S. pineti). In b o th cases th e needles are likely to be attack ed . I f in secticidal
physiologically changed an d a p p ear to tre a tm e n ts are to be applied, th ey are
be o f b en efit to this species. p robably m o st effective in m id-M ay,
w h ich is after th e o v erw in terin g eggs
R e c o g n itio n in t h e fie ld
have all h a tc h e d , b u t before th e first
T h is ap h id is sm all and b rig h t g reen
g en eratio n has sta rted to rep ro d u ce.
w ith pale legs. It has an elo n gate body,
the surface o f w hich is d o tte d w ith fine
d ark specks. A lth o u g h its co lo u r and
shape b lend well w ith p in e foliage, it can
b e easily d e te c te d , for it is read ily
d is tu rb e d an d b eco m e s active by
w alk in g a ro u n d w h en foliage is
exam ined.
A n n u a l life c y c le
T h e o verw intering eggs are usually laid
singly in leaf scars on th e shoots in th e
a u tu m n . T h e fem ale ap h id s th a t h atc h
from these eggs have a lo n g life sp an o f
tw o o r th ree m o n th s, b u t are slow to
reach m a tu rity before th e y give b irth to
10—20 aphids. W in g ed a n d w ingless
fem ales o ccu r o n th e foliage from Ju n e
to O ctober. T h e p o p u la tio n peaks in
sp rin g b u t th e n decreases to an ex trem e ­
ly low level from late J u n e to early
A ugust. T h e ap h id n u m b e rs increase
again in late su m m e r u n til a peak is
reached in th e early a u tu m n .
R e c o rd e d d is trib u tio n a n d c ir c u m ­
s ta n c e s w h e re d a m a g e o c c u rs
F re q u e n t in p in e g ro w in g areas, P late 56. Needle discoloration caused by
p articu larly in th e s o u th e rn and eastern spotted pine aphid.
 PESTS OF PINES 61

S p o ile d p in e a p h id
Eulachnus agilis

J F M A M J J A S 0 N D

0000000 3000000'
o
o
o
o
o
o

w in g le s s fe m a le s
fe w

1 mm w in g e d fe m a le s
insecticide treatment
■ m a le s

E s s la y in g m Hi fern a le s
d a m a g e p e rio d xxxxxxx XXXXXXXX) XXXXXXXX eggs 0000000 )0 0 0 0 0 0 C

F ig . 21. S p o tted pine aphid.

WOOLLY PINE-NEEDLE APHID

(Schizolachnus piniradiatae)

SECTION
T r e e s p e c ie s k n o w n to b e a f f e c te d trees.
Pinus radiahi, P. ponckrosa, P. ponelerosa Six or m o re generations can o ccur over
var. scopulontm, P. sabiniana, P. contorta th e su m m e r season un til w ingless egg-
var. m u rra ya n a , P. resinosa, a n d P. laying fem ales and w inged m ales are
banksiana. p ro d u ced . T h e shiny black eggs are laid
S y m p to m s a n d co n seq u en ces o f in clu sters o f four, en d to en d , along the
a tta c k needles.
S im ilar to Schizolachnus pineti. R e c o rd e d d is trib u tio n a n d c ir c u m ­
R e c o g n itio n in t h e fie ld sta n c e s w h e re d a m a g e o c c u rs

A phids are dark g reen, long-legged, and C a n a d a (N o v a S co tia to B ritish

covered w ith c o tto n y wax. C olonies
form a line along the needles all head in g
in one direction.
A n n u a l life c y c le
E ssentially sim ilar to S. pineti. T h e
follow ing details o f the life cycle were
originally recorded in O ntario , C anada.
T h e eggs can h a tc h by early April.
W h en th e developing ap h id s are over 20
days old th ey becom e a d u lt fem ales and
p ro d u c e y o u n g vivip aro u sly c o n g re ­
gating in row s along th e needles w here
they feed u n til adult. T h e y th e n dis­
perse an d sta rt u p th eir ow n colonies.
W inged fem ales o ccur from Ju n e to late
A ugust, w hich is th e perio d w h en they
are first noticed on previously uninfested
C olum bia) and N ew M exico in w estern
U S A . A lth o u g h n o t considered a forest
pest, it is conceivable th a t it could be
trou b leso m e to C h ristm as tree grow ers
o n account o f its close sim ilarity w ith
th e grey p in e-n eed le aphid S. pineti.
M in im iz in g dam age and in s e c t
c o n tr o l
H ig h m o rtality o f o verw intering eggs
h as b e e n re c o rd e d in early sp rin g .
P arasito id s, p re d a to rs, an d an e n to -
m o p h ag o u s fungal disease all ap p ear to
ex ert a stro n g reg u latin g influence on
th e a p h id num b ers. So, alth o u g h this
a p h id has a h ig h th e o re tic a l p e st
p otential, d am aging p o p u latio n s have
never been realized.
 SECTION 4
PESTS OF OTHER CONIFERS
64 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS
CYPRESS APHID ( Cinara cnpressi)
T r e e s p e c ie s k n o w n to b e a f f e c te d
M a in ly on sp ecies in th e gen u s
Cupressus, b u t also on Cupressocyparis
ley landii, Chamaecyparis lawsoniana and
Thuja.
S y m p to m s a n d con seq u en ces o f
a tta c k
D am ag e to den ser trim m ed trees or
hedges is usually first noticed in late
M ay or early Ju n e w hen p atch e s o f
foliage tow ards th e base o f th e tree
becom e yellowish o r straw coloured.
T h is discoloration m ay sp read upw ards
and th e colour change can o ccu r w'ithin
7 -1 0 days o f initial in festation. L a te r
th e foliage tu rn s bro w n an d ap p ears
dried up, th e low er b ran ch es often dying
back. In ex trem e cases th e d am age can
ex ten d to th e w hole crow n o f th e tree.
Sooty m o u ld s (saprop h y tic fungi) m ay
grow o n th e s u g a r-ric h honeydew
excreted by the aphids, giving a black­
en e d a p p e a ra n c e to th e ste m s an d
foliage w here th e aphid , colonies are, or
have been, feeding in large n u m b ers.
T h is sy m p to m is n o t obvious w h en only
a few' ap h id s are presen t. In th e late
sum m er, w'asps foraging for su g a r in th e
honey dew can draw atte n tio n to infesta­
tions o f this aphid.
R e c o g n itio n in t h e fie ld
Cinara cupressi is a fairly large a p h id , b u t
it can be very difficult to find since sm all
colonies closely resem ble th e co lo u r and
te x tu re o f sm all tw igs a m o n g st th e
foliage w h ere th ey feed. In d iv id u a ls
range from 1.8 to 3.9 m m lo n g and have
an overall greyish appearance. O n close
exam ination, th e body co lo u r is greyish
to yellow ish b ro w n b e n e a th a hairy
covering. T h e y are p ea r-sh ap ed and
have tw o black stripes ru n n in g ab o u t
one-third o f th eir length from th e head.
A n n u a l life c y c le
T h e a p h id s, fo u n d fro m A p ril to
N o v e m b e r, a re m ain ly w'ingless
p a rth e n o g e n e tic fem ales w h ich give
b irth to live young. F ro m Ju n e to
A u g u st w'inged fem ales also occur; egg-
laying fem ales and m ales o c cu r in the
a u tu m n . It seem s possible th a t w'ingless
p a rth e n o g e n e tic fem ales m ay
so m e tim e s o v e rw in te r u n d e r m ild
conditions. T h is w ould give th e ap h id a
good sta rt to rap id b u ild -u p in a m ild
sp rin g season.
R e c o rd e d d is tr ib u tio n a n d c ir c u m ­
s ta n c e s w h e re d a m a g e o c c u rs
T h is species is w idely d istrib u te d in the
w a rm e r p a rts o f E u ro p e w here it is
fo u n d m ainly o n Cupressus species. In
B ritain it has been know'n in so u th -w est
E n g lan d for over a c e n tu ry and was
associated w ith dam ag e to Cupressus
macrocarpa\ su b s e q u e n tly h ig h
in festatio n s have o cc u rre d in so u th e rn
E n g la n d . In 1987 th is a p h id was
reco rd ed o n X Cupressocyparis leylandii
in a few' locations in E n g lan d , b u t by
1988 it b ecam e far m o re w idespread;
a lth o u g h still o c c u rrin g m ain ly in
so u th e rn E n g lan d it was also found
from S o u th W ales to S h ro p sh ire and
L in c o ln sh ire . The u n p re c e d e n te d
in crease in 1988 m ay have re su lte d
from ap h id s ov erw in terin g successfully
th ro u g h th e m ild w in ter o f 1 9 8 7 /8 8 , or
was p e rh ap s caused by an im m ig ra tio n
o f th is a p h id from E u ro p e.
M in im iz in g dam age and in s e c t
c o n tr o l
Cinara cupressi n eeds to feed for o n ly a
sh o rt p erio d o f tim e to in itiate foliar
co lo u r changes and eventual d e ath o f
affected p a rts o f th e tree. O n ly th e
sh o o ts on w hich th e colonies are feeding
b e co m e d a m a g e d . T h is ra p id p la n t
resp o n se m ean s th a t any insecticidal
tre a tm e n t th a t is in ten d e d to p rev en t
 PESTS OF OTHER CONIFERS 6 5

P la te 57. B ranch die-back

on L eyland cypress caused
by cypress aphid.

d am age n eeds to b e applied very soon

after w inged ap h id s arrive o n th e tree.
H ow ever, as sm all colonies o f th is aphid
are difficult to see, th e w hole o f an
affected p lan t n eeds to b e treated w ith a
suitable insecticide to p re v en t fu rth e r P la te 58. Colony o f cypress aphids,
d am age to th e crow n o r ad jacen t plants
in hedges an d w indbreaks. Typically,
d am age sy m p to m s co n tin u e to develop
for a tim e after th e ap h id s responsible
SECTION

have been killed. T h e reaso n w hy this

h ap p en s has n o t been explained.

C yp re ss aph id
Cinara cupressi

J F M A M J J A S 0 N D
?
o o o o o o o DOOOOOO >000000 w in g le s s fe m a le s
v e ry le w

w in g e d fe m a le s

H m a es

e jg la y in g fe m a le s
?
d am ag e p eriod <xxxxxxx> x xxxxxxx ? eggs o o o o o o o o o )0 0 0 0 0 0
?

F ig . 22. C ypress aphid.

66 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS
DOUGLAS FIR WOOLLY APHID (Adelges cooleyi)
or COOLEY SPRUCE GALL APHID (North America)
T r e e s p e c ie s k n o w n to b e a f f e c te d
O n th e foliage o f Pseudotsuga macro-
carpa, P. menziesii, and P. menziesii var.
glauca. G alls m ay be fo rm ed o n various
N o rth A m erican spru ces, Picea engel-
m anni, P. glauca and P. pungens, b u t
especially o n P. sitchensis.
S y m p to m s a n d co n seq u en ces o f
a tta c k
H eavy attacks by the in sect (i.e. several
adelgids on each needle) can cause a
c o n sp ic u o u s re d u c tio n in v ig o u r o f
n u rsery stock and in p lan tatio n s d u rin g
th e ir early years o f e sta b lish m e n t.
N e e d le d ro p o ccu rs so m etim es, b u t
h oneydew deposits fro m this species
also add to th e loss o f foliage q uality and
th e re fo re are very d a m a g in g to
C h ristm as tree p ro d u ctio n .
O n sp ru ce this species in d u ces galls th a t
are characteristically very elo n g ate and
often tw isted. T h e s e tu r n b ro w n and
dead in late sum m er, an d rem ain o n th e
trees, w hich can d is ru p t th e sy m m etry
o f th e w horls an d b ra n c h in g p a tte rn . A
significant n u m b e r o f galls are so m e­
tim es p ro d u ced on sm all trees, ten d in g
to d efo rm th e m and s tu n t fu rth e r shoot
g ro w th b eyond th e gall.
R e c o g n it io n i n t h e f ie ld
Adelges cooleyi p ro d u c e s co n sp icu o u s
w hite w ax-w ool tu fts along th e u n d e r­
sides o f th e needles o f Pseudotsuga,
b e in g esp ecially n o tic e ab le in early
spring. T h e m o st serious d am ag e is
caused by th e insects feed in g o n th e soft
y oung needles, m aking th e m yellowish
an d p erm a n e n tly tw isted. T h is d am age
com m ences as soon as th e first sp rin g
g en eratio n settles am o n g st th e needles
w hen th e b u d scales begin to fall away.
A n n u a l life c y c le
T h e only o v erw in terin g stage o f this
insect o n Pseudotsuga is th e im m atu re
fem ale th a t is fixed o n th e u n d ersid e o f
th e needles, usually along th e w hite
sto m atal lines. B efore b u d -b u rs t in M ay,
th ese fem ales have reach ed m a tu rity and
laid eggs u n d e r a blob o f w hite w ax-
wool o n th e old needles. T h e craw lers
h atc h in g from th ese eggs settle an d feed
o n th e new needles. S o m e o f th e settled
craw lers develop in to w inged fem ales
w h ic h d isp e rse ; o th e rs m a tu re in to
p arth en o g e n e tic w ingless fem ales and
lay eggs to re p ro d u c e th e sam e stage.
T h is o ccu rs at least once u n til th e e n d o f
su m m e r b u t, for each g en eratio n , th e
h atc h in g craw lers seek new sites to set­
tle and feed o n th e needles. B y late
su m m er, only d ark im m a tu re fem ales
are to be fo u n d o n th e needles. T h is is
th e o v erw in terin g stage th a t rem ains
fixed to th e sam e p o sitio n u n til th e fol­
lo w in g s p rin g w h en th e cy cle o n
D o u g las fir is rep eated .
W h e n th e w inged fem ales settle o n th e
various Picea species m e n tio n ed above,
th ey also lay eggs from w h ich m ales and
fem ales em erge. T h e s e p air an d th eir
re su lta n t o ffsp rin g settle n ear to a b u d
for th e w in te r perio d . E arly th e follow ­
ing sp rin g th ese develop rap id ly in to th e
fu n d a trix a d u lt stage an d b ecom e cov­
ered w ith a w ax-w ool m ass u n d e r w hich
eggs are laid. E g g -h a tc h coincides w ith
b u d -b u rs t an d th e em erg in g craw lers
feed a t th e base o f th e new needles
w hich b eco m e sw ollen an d grow to g e th ­
er, th u s en c lo sin g th e craw lers and
fo rm in g a gall o n a fo resh o rten ed shoot.
T h e s e galls sta rt to d ry o u t from early
A u g u st on w ard s, releasing th e now larg­
er, b u t im m a tu re, fem ales. W ith in a few
h o u rs o f release th ese m o u lt in to fully
w inged fem ales and disperse. I f these
 PESTS OF OTHER CONIFERS 67

arrive o n Pseudotsuga and settle o n th e acco u n t o f its blue foliage b u t, although

needles they are capable o f initiatin g a re p u te d to be m u ch m o re resistan t to A .
new cycle. E ggs are laid u n d e r th e cover cooleyi attacks, it is disadvantaged by its
o f th eir wings. slow er gro w th and also suffers badly
T h e h atch in g craw lers m ove to a feed­ from n eedle-cast diseases in B ritain.
ing site o n th e new needles w here they M in im iz in g d a m a g e a n d in s e c t
settle, tu r n black and becom e fixed over " c o n tr o l
w in ter in th is position in th e sam e m an ­ T h e insect is n o t easy to d etec t o n sm all
n er and having th e sam e su b seq u en t Pseudotsuga tran sp lan ts in th e d o rm a n t
d ev elo p m en t as th e offsprin g from th e season, yet it is from this b eg in n in g th at
w ingless fem ales on Pseudotsuga. an infestation could develop.
R e c o rd e d d is trib u tio n a n d c irc u m ­ In ad d itio n , local spread from infested
s ta n c e s w h e re d a m a g e o c c u rs tall old trees in th e neig h b o u rh o o d , or
T h is species is native to w estern N o rth betw een trees w ith in a p lan tatio n , can
A m erica (k n o w n p rin c ip a lly fro m o ccu r very easily th ro u g h w ind dispersal
Pseudotsuga) an d was first reco rd ed in o f th e highly active, new ly h atch e d
B ritain in 1913 w h en its attacks w ere crawlers.
only know n to o ccur on Pseudotsuga. It In o rd er to retain good quality foliage it
was n o t u n til 1935 th a t th e galls o f A . is essential to b rin g this p est species
cooleyi w ere found on S itka sp ru ce in u n d e r con tro l as soon as an attack is
B ritain. It has since been fo u n d over id e n tifie d , o th e rw ise n eed le s will
m u ch o f th e B ritish Isles o n b o th hosts, becom e d efo rm ed and th e tree deval­
b u t especially in those districts w here ued. T h e m o st effective tim e to apply
Pseudotsuga is com m only grow n. O p en an insecticide is in th e late a u tu m n w hen
grow n trees on p o o r sites in low rainfall all th e eggs have hatch ed and th e only
districts are m o re p ro n e to heavy attack. living stage is th e new ly settled craw ler
T h e C olorado D ou g las fir (P. menziesii o n th e needle. A t this tim e o f year they
var. glauca) has a visual ap p e a l o n are n o t enclosed by w ax-w ool, and in T}“
SECTION

P late 59. Yellow needle flecking and distortion caused by Douglas fir woolly aphid.
6(S CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS

B ritain they rem ain in this stage un til th e a u tu m n , is th erefo re p referable to a

th e end o f F ebruary. sp rin g co n tro l, w h ich has th e additio n al
Insecticide applications, w here necessary, p ro b lem o f th e w ax-w ool covering over
sh o u ld be a hig h -v o lu m e sp ray applied th e a d u lt fem ale an d h e r eggs. [T ake
to ru n -o ff, bearin g in m in d th a t u se o f a n o te o f c u rre n t P esticide R eg u latio n s —
co n tac t insecticide is necessary and the see p. 85.]
targ et is m ostly on th e u n d e rsid e o f th e S im ilar in sp ectio n and c o n tro l dates
needles. G am m a H C H an d p irim icarb w ould b e ap p ro p riate to p re v e n t gall
(although th e latter is less effective at fo rm a tio n o n sp ru c e shoots. A pp­
low te m p e ra tu re s) have b een fo u n d to lications o f in secticid es in th e early
be effective in p rev en tin g fu rth e r insect s p rin g m ay b e too la te to p re v e n t
d am ag e to n eed les. An annual defo rm ities caused by th e o v erw in terin g
in sp ectio n in late sum m er, in case a fu n d a trix feeding n ear th e b u d s at th e
c o n tro l o p eratio n has to be a rran g ed for e n d o f th e w in te r p eriod.

P l a t e 60. W hite wax-wool tufts o f D ouglas fir woolly aphid.

D o u g la s fir w o o lly a p h id
Adelges cooleyi

O N

| w in g le s s fe m a le s ta g e s p ro te c te d b y s e c re te d w o o l c o v e r ng
:e (year 1)

return from spruce galls (ye a r 2

e g g s p r o te c te d b y w o o l c o v e r in g □OOOOOOOOOOOOO
w in g le s s fe m a le s , u n p ro te c te d w h e n fir s t h a tc h e d
'a s c ra w le rs o r d u r in g th e w in te r
d a m a g e p e r io d jxxxx x x x x jx x x x x x x x jc x x x x
in s e c tic id e tre a tm e n t

Fig. 23. Douglas fir woolly aphid.

SECTION 5
GENERAL PESTS
70 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS

CLAY-COLOURED WEEVIL
( Otiorhynchus singularis)

T r e e s p e c ie s k n o w n to b e a f f e c te d th e soil feeding o n fine ro o ts o f h erbs

D a m a g e h as b e e n re c o rd e d o n a an d trees b u t th ese larvae cause no sig­
w ide ra n g e o f b o th c o n ife rs a n d nifican t d am ag e to C h ristm a s trees.
broadleaved trees. T h e con ifero u s hosts A n n u a l life c y c le
include Picea (spruces), Pinus (pines), A d u lt w eevils are active fro m A pril un til
Pseudotsuga m enziesii (D o u g la s fir), O ctober. E ggs are laid in th e soil d u rin g
Tsuga heterophylla (w estern hem lock), th e su m m e r an d take a b o u t five w eeks to
Thuja plicata (w estern red cedar) as well hatch . L arv ae develop th ro u g h o u t th e
as L a rix (larches) and Chamaecyparis w in ter a n d p u p a te in early sp rin g in the
lamsoniana (L aw son cypress). T h e age soil. S o m e larvae m ay take a n o th e r year
o f th e ho st tree is a m o re im p o rta n t before p u p atin g . A lm o st all 0. singularis
factor th a n species, since d am ag e is are fem ales and b reed parthogenetically,
usually recorded in th e n u rse ry or on i.e. th e eggs do n o t re q u ire fertilization
tran sp lan ts an d young trees (see below ). to develop.
S y m p to m s and co nseq u en ce of R e c o rd e d d is trib u tio n a n d c irc u m ­
a tta c k s ta n c e s w h e re d a m a g e o c c u rs
A d u lt w eevils feed on th e bark o f th e T h is weevil is w idely d istrib u te d in
stem s o f young trees an d also o n th e B ritain an d W estern E u ro p e, p artic u la r­
needles. R em oval o f q u ite large and ly in g rassland areas. D am ag e is m ost
irreg u la r areas o f bark can girdle th e likely to o ccu r o n new ly cu ltivated land
stem , effectively rin g -b a rk in g it and o r w here th e re is a good cover o f grass
causing th e su b seq u e n t d ea th o f the an d p eren n ial w eeds b etw een th e trees.
shoot. D am ag e to needles consists o f
th e rem o v al o f tria n g u la r n o tc h e s;
som etim es m any o f th e needles o n a
leader o f Picea can be d am aged m aking
it bare.
R e c o g n it io n i n t h e fie ld
A d u lt w eevils are 5 -7 m m long, black
b u t covered w ith greyish b ro w n hairs; a
c o lo u rin g th a t su g g ests th is beetle's
c o m m o n nam e. T h e weevils are p ear-
sh ap ed w ith a sh o rt and b ro ad sn o u t, on
th e en d o f w hich are placed th e ch arac­
teristic elbow ed antennae. T h e w ing
cases o r e ly tra are fu sed to g e th e r
because 0. singularis does n o t have fu n c­
tional w ings. A d u lt beetles h id e d u rin g
th e day in th e soil or b e n e a th v egetation
on th e g ro u n d b u t can be fo u n d feeding
d u rin g late evening in th e sp rin g , by
to rch lig h t (in S cotlan d th is is after 22.00
h o u rs d u rin g late A pril an d in M ay).
T h e larvae are w hite g ru b s, u p to 8 m m P la te 61. C lay-coloured weevil dam age on
long, w ith a bro w n head. T h e y live in N orw ay spruce.

M in im iz in g dam age and in s e c t
c o n tr o l
D am ag e to C h ristm as trees by 0 . singu­
laris in B ritain is n o t very co m m o n . In
th e unlikely ev en t th a t serious dam age is
n o ted , the ad u lt weevils can be con­
trolled by d re n c h in g affected trees w ith
a suitable insecticide. In S cotland feni-
C la y -c o lo u re d w e evil
Otiorhynchus singularis
F ig . 24. C lay-coloured weevil.
CONIFER SPINNING MITE
(Oligonychus ununguis)
T r e e s p e c ie s k n o w n to b e a f f e c te d
T h is species has been reco rd ed o n a
w ide range o f conifers in B ritain, b u t on
C h ristm as trees m ainly d am ag in g Picea
abies and m ore rarely Finns sylvestris.
S y m p to m s and co n seq u en ce of
a tta c k
D a m a g e d n eed le s have a yellow
speckled app earan ce at first, b u t later
tu rn to a b ro n z e colour. T h e dam age
begins in th e cen tre o f th e tree's crow n
and develops outw ards, b eco m in g m ost
n o ticeab le in late s u m m e r o r early
a u tu m n . T h e changed colour o f the
dam aged foliage will persist and the
w orst affected needles m ay be shed.
GENERAL PESTS 71
tro th io n applied at seven day intervals
gave effective co n tro l o n raspberries,
especially w hen applied after dark w hile
th e weevils w ere feeding. T h e use o f
gam m a H C H or syn th etic p y reth ro id s
was less effective. [T ake n o te o f c u rre n t
Pesticide R egulations - see p. 85.]
R e c o g n itio n in t h e fie ld
T h e m ites are sim ilar in ap p earance to
tin y o ra n g e -b ro w n o r g rey sp id ers
(0 .2- 0 .5 m m ) w ith e ith e r six legs
(larvae) or eight legs (adults) and can be U -5
seen m oving over th e trees and feeding
o n th e needles (only visible w ith xlO
SECTION
lens). T h e y spin a covering o f fine silk
w ebbing over th e stem and needles,
alth o u g h this is only noticeable w hen
large n u m b ers o f m ites are present.
W h e n m ite p o p u latio n s are high, an
in sp e c tio n o f th e ste m d u rin g th e
d o rm a n t season (N o v em b er-A p ril) will
reveal m any tiny hem isp h erical
oran g e-b ro w n to reddish eggs on the
bark close to the base o f the needles, espe­
cially in th e vicinity o f th e leading buds.
72 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS

A n n u a l life c y c le th e n e x t season; losses o f these eggs

O v erw in terin g eggs h atc h d u rin g late d u rin g th e w in ter to n a tu ra l causes can
A pril or early M ay. T h e m ites becom e be high.]
active a t te m p eratu res o f 6 -7 °C . T h e 0. um m guis can be c o n tro lle d
larvae take 11 -2 3 day s to d ev elo p su cc e ssfu lly b y a p p ly in g a su itab le
th ro u g h tw o stages before b eco m in g acaricide (e.g. dicofol) in M ay, o r as soon
adults. E ach fem ale lavs u p to 45 eggs as all th e eggs have h atch e d . A t any
o n th e ste m s and o ccasio n ally th e o th e r tim e an acaricide th a t is also active
needles. Successive g eneratio n s o ccur ag ain st th e eggs will be necessary (e.g.
th ro u g h o u t the su m m e r resu ltin g in a dicofol + tetrad ifo n ; clo fen tezin e if it is
ra p id b u ild -u p o f n u m b e rs d u rin g used before any a d u lt m ites are presen t).
fav o u rab le w e a th e r c o n d itio n s. [T a k e n o te o f c u r r e n t P estic id e s
O v erw in terin g eggs are found m ainly R eg u latio ns - see p. 85.J
clustered on the stem n ear th e term in al
b u d ; rarely, if ever, on th e needles. In
th e h o t an d d ry s u m m e r o f 1991,
a p p a re n tly 'o v erw in terin g ' eggs w ere
p re s e n t on tre e s as early as m id -
S e p te m b e r. T h e clear, g lass-lik e
rem ains o f egg shells p ersist o n th e tree
for som e tim e after th e larvae have
hatched.
R e c o rd e d d is trib u tio n a n d c ir c u m ­
s ta n c e s w h e re d a m a g e o c c u rs
T h is sp id er m ite is fo u n d th ro u g h o u t
B ritain and E u ro p e on sp ru c e s and
o th e r conifers. It is also fo u n d in m ost
o th e r areas o f th e w o rld w h ere
coniferous trees grow. It is p articu larly
freq u en t in areas o f low rainfall (i.e. less
th an 1200 m m rain p er year) w here
Picea abies is o u t o f its clim atic range.
In C h ristm as tree p lan tatio n s h o t and
d ry w eather favours a rap id increase in
0. ununguis population s. D am ag e often P la te 62. C onifer spinning m ile dam age on
occurs in so u th e rn and easte rn E n g lan d N orw ay spruce.
w here co n d itio n s best su it th e m ite, b u t
can o c c u r elsew h ere, esp ecially in
locations w here th ere is a soil w ater
deficit, i.e. som e p a rts o f S o u th W ales
and in th e W est M idlan d s.
M i n i m i z i n g d a m a g e a n d c o n tr o l
A void g ro w in g sp ru c e tre e s in low
rainfall areas and especially o n sites th at
are very h o t and dry. M o n ito r carefully
for th e presence o f o v erw in terin g eggs
in th e spring. [C aution: q u ite large
n u m b ers o f eggs seen earlier in a u tu m n P la t e 63. N eedle discoloration caused by
do n o t autom atically ind icate d am age in conifer spinning mite.
 GENERAL PESTS 73

P l a t e 64. C onifer spin n in g m ite w ebbing cov­

ering a sp ru ce shoot; man}1 m ites can be seen
on the web.

P la te 66. O verw intering conifer spinning m ite

eggs on the stem o f N orw ay spruce.

P l a t e 65. A d u lt conifer spinning mite.

C o nifer spinnin g m ile

O lig onychus unu nguis

J F M A M J J A s 0 N D

eggs

la r v a e 9

ad u lt;; a
SECTION

summer eggs o oo<ooooooooo ooooooooo J00000000 )000 ?

damage >eriod x x x x x > XXXXXXXXXX) x x x x x x x x x x : x x x x x x x x x x (XXXXXXXXXX (XXXXXXXXXX

t t f t I control

Fig. 25. Conifer spinning mite.

74 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS
LARGE PINE WEEVIL (Hylobius abietis)
T r e e s p e c ie s k n o w n to b e a f f e c te d
D am ag e has been reco rd ed o n a very
w ide ran g e o f conifers, in clu d in g all
those species used as C h ristm as trees, as
well as broadleaved trees.
S y m p to m s and con seq u en ce
a tta c k
A d u lt weevils feed on th e bark o f th e
stem s o f young trees, especially ju st
above th e ro o t collar. S u c h feeding can
girdle th e stem o n sm aller trees, effec­
tively rin g -b ark in g it an d causing th e
death o f th e tree. F ee d in g o n th e side
bran ch es o f larger trees m ay cause som e
slight dam age b u t is unlikely to be a
pro b lem on C h ristm as trees.
R e c o g n itio n in t h e fie ld
A d u lts are typical w eevils w ith a sn o u t
an d ch aracteristic elbow ed antennae.
T h e y are 9 -1 3 m m long, black w ith
d iffu se tra n sv e rs e yellow m a rk in g s
m ad e u p o f yellow scales, p articu larly
o n th e w ing cases. M o s t d am ag e occurs
at n ig h t, th e weevils h id in g d u rin g th e
day u n d e r bark o r in th e litter. T h e
larvae are w hite g ru b s (u p to 15 m m
long), slightly cu rv ed a n d w rinkled and
w ith a yellow ish brow n head.
A n n u a l life c y c le
T h e life cycle from egg to a d u lt varies in
len g th from o ne to tw o years in B ritain,
b u t in som e parts o f E u ro p e m o re th an
th ree years m ay be n eed ed to co m p lete
developm ent. T h e a d u lt weevils can live
as long as four years.
E gg-laying takes place in stu m p s and
roots o f recently felled conifers, m ainly
in th e spring, alth o u g h eggs can be
fo u n d th r o u g h o u t th e year. L a rv a e
develop u n d e r th e bark. R o o t-feed in g
larvae are able to m ove th ro u g h th e soil
to a n o th er feeding site if th e ir food
reso u rce is ex h au sted . T h e y p u p a te in a
cell co n stru c te d in th e last feeding place.
T h e peak o f a d u lt em erg en ce takes
place in th e spring.
of
R e c o rd e d d is trib u tio n a n d c ir c u m ­
sta n c e s w h e re d a m a g e o c c u rs
H ylobius abietis is fo u n d th ro u g h o u t
B ritain an d n o rth e rn E u ro p e, w herever
c o n ife rs are g ro w n in w o o d s o r
p lantations. M o s t d am ag e takes place in
sp rin g b e fo re eg g -la y in g , o r in th e
a u tu m n before th e weevils h ib e rn a te in
th e litter. D am ag e in a C h ristm a s tree
p la n ta tio n w ill o n ly b e a se rio u s
p ro b le m w h e re th e re are m a n a g e d
c o n ife ro u s w o o d la n d s n e a rb y th a t
in clu d e areas th a t have been recently
felled. Y oung tra n sp la n ts are a t th e
g reatest risk o f d am age for u p to th ree
years after planting.
M in im iz in g dam age and in s e c t
c o n tr o l
O u tsid e o f th e forest o r w oodland edge
situ atio n d am age by H . abietis is rarely
en co u n te red . W h e re th e re is a h ig h risk,
or history, o f d am ag e b eing caused, and
no o th e r suitable site to grow C h ristm as
trees is available, th e n o b tain tran sp lan ts
th a t have b e e n d ip p e d in 0 .8%
p e rm e th rin . W h e re th ere is a risk o f
fu rth e r dam age, p lan ts m ay b e treated
w ith an insecticide after planting. A t the
tim e o f w ritin g several insecticides have
e ith er full o r off-label approvals for this
pu rp o se. A dvice sh o u ld be so u g h t from
th e su p p lie rs, m a n u fa c tu re rs, o r th e
F o re stry C o m m issio n to ascertain the
c u rre n t approvals. [T ake n o te o f c u rre n t
P esticide R eg u latio n s —see p. 85.]
 GENERAL PESTS 75

P l a t e 67. L arge pine weevil adults feeding on bark o f a pine transplant.

L arge p in e w e e vil
Hylobius abietis

F ig. 26. L arg e pine weevil.

SECTION 6
78 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS

CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS ON CHRISTMAS TREES

I t sh o u ld be stated at th e o u tse t o f th is section th a t for an insect to b ecom e a pest
th ere is likely to be som e d istu rb an ce factor th a t has caused an im balance in th e
ecosystem enabling certain insects to b ecom e m o re n u m e ro u s or to be m o re
dam aging. S om etim es th ese factors can be q u ite obvious to an experienced
entom ologist, b u t equally, w ith o u t p rio r know ledge o f p artic u la r circum stances, th e
cause o r factors can be ex trem ely difficu lt to detect.

TYPES OF CONTROL AVAILABLE

In th e re cen t past, because C h ristm as tree gro w in g has b een w id en ed to u se land
o th e r th an w oodland an d forests, th e re has been a stro n g te n d en c y to follow
ag ricu ltu ral practices o f intensive m an ag e m en t. S u c h system s co m m o n ly d em an d
special a tte n tio n to p est m o n ito rin g o r p ro p h y lactic ap p lication s o f insecticides.
T h e latter o p tio n always has th e possibility o f p esticide resistance d eveloping o r o f
leading to an ou tb reak o f a n o th e r pest.

CULTURAL CONTROL
N o rw ay sp ru ce has been th e trad itio n al C h ristm as tre e in B ritain , b u t u n fo rtu n ate ly
it is n o t a very good ecological fit o n d ry sites, p articu larly o n th e eastern side o f
B ritain , w here soil w ater deficits lead to stresses in th e tree's physiology th a t allow
insects and m ites to flourish. I f sp ru c e has to be gro w n in su ch areas, th e n S erb ian
sp ru ce (Picea om orika) m ay be a b e tte r op tio n . S im ilarly certain co n ifers grow m o re
healthily in th eir earlier years u n d e r som e overhead cover; this is p articu larly so
w ith Abies grandis and o th er tru e firs, w here they n o t only gain p ro te ctio n from late
frosts and b rig h t su n lig h t b u t are less p ro n e to th e w ater stresses th a t enable woolly
ap h id s to becom e a problem .
I t m u st be rem em b ere d w hen g ro w in g n o n -in d ig e n o u s tree species th a t if th eir
native clim ate is poorly m atch ed w ith th e area to be p la n te d , th e n th e pheno lo g y
and n u tritio n al vigour o f th e trees will be u p set, leading to su scep tib ility to pests
a n d diseases. P ru n in g or sh earin g to sh ap e trees m ay have o p p o site effects to w hat
is expected. F o r exam ple, rem oval o f d o rm a n t te rm in al b u d s in pin e m ay lessen th e
effect o f th e p ine sh o o t m o th , b u t th e re su ltan t d en se b u sh y g ro w th will m ake
effective co n tro l o f th e p in e woolly ap h id extrem ely difficult. In an o th e r case the
p ru n in g and th e n b u rn in g o f new u n o p e n e d adelgid galls in J u n e can h elp to lessen
slight dam age w here sp ru c e is g ro w n for C h ristm as trees, w hereas th e m o re heavily-
infested trees are b est culled entirely.

NATURAL CONTROL
T h e choice o f tree species or origins used sh o u ld also take into a c co u n t any
resistance features th a t are know n. Several species o f sp ru c e (Picea) fro m E u ro p e
and A sia have show n good resistance to g reen sp ru c e ap h id in trials, an d fu tu re trials
w ith species o f tru e firs (Abies) are likely to show differences in su scep tib ility to
o th e r insects. S u ch choices will m in im ize chem ical co n tro l w hich will have b o th
ecological and financial benefits. T h e p ractice o f grow in g C h ristm as trees in a
totally w eed-free en v iro n m e n t is far rem oved from w h at w ould o c cu r w h ere these
conifers reg en erate naturally. I t is always likely to be th e case th a t tree-feed in g
insects an d m ites will flourish in th ese c o n d itio n s as th ere are few er co m p o n e n ts to
su ch a h ab itat, in clu d in g dead v egetation an d th e accu m u latio n o f fallen needles
th a t w ould attra c t o v er-w in terin g stages o f p re d a to rs, an d few er flow ering plants
 CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS ON CHRISTMAS TREES 79

w here th e a d u lt stages o f b o th p re d a to rs and parasites need to feed o n n ecta r and

pollen. I f n atu ral co n tro l is th e desired optio n , th en positive m an ag em en t o f an
adjacent area w ith flow ers in th e fam ilies Umbelliferae an d Compositae w ould help to
encourage a good range o f n atu ral enem ies o f C h ristm as tree pests.

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
W h en an insect problem is detected o n C hristm as trees it is w orthw hile checking
w hether any natural enem ies are at work before taking any fu rth er action. F or instance,
pine woolly aphid attacks have som etim es attracted natural predatory control th at has
c u t o u t th e need for any fu rth er action. N ative, natural enem ies are likely to be m ore
effective than new introductions because they are b etter adapted to local conditions
such as w eather and pest cycles, although there have been notable exceptions. T h e
m ulticoloured Asian ladybird (Harmonia axyridis) introduced to N o rth A m erica in the
m id-1980s from Jap an has m et w ith som e success. However, any initial success o f
innundative releases o f im ported natural enem ies alone is unlikely to have a long lasting
effect in an otherw ise sterile C hristm as tree plantation due to the m issing com ponents
in the ecosystem , and releases may have to be repeated every three years or so.

CHEMICAL CONTROL
S ub stan ces w hich are p u rch ased as pesticides are m ade u p o f tw o g ro u p s o f
chem icals: an active in g red ie n t and an in e rt (or inactive) ing red ien t. T h e se tw o in
co m b in atio n m ake u p th e pesticide fo rm ulation. A n active in g re d ien t th erefo re m ay
be available in m o re th an o n e type o f fo rm u latio n su ch as an aerosol, spray, d u st, or
g ran u le an d su ch fo rm u latio n s are designed to b e applied by differen t system s. I t is
m o st im p o rta n t to know w h a t th e targ et is w hen th ese are being used. In m o st cases
the pesticide d ro p let m u st m ake co n tac t w ith th e pest in o rd e r for it to have an
effect. E ggs, tu n n ellin g larvae, o r protective layers o f wax can m ake it very difficult
for th e active in g red ien t to m ake con tact, so it is essential th a t th e co rrect
fo rm u latio n an d applicatio n m eth o d are used.
T h e type o f activity th a t a pesticide has for contro llin g insects and m ites should be
co n sid ered as well as its persisten ce in th e en v iro n m en t after it has been applied. A n
ideal pesticide is on e th a t will b rin g ab o u t a significant red u ctio n in dam age, and is
safe for h u m a n usage and n o n -targ e ted organism s as well as having sh o rt
persistence. S ystem ic insecticides, th a t are absorbed and th en m ove w ithin the
p lan t and show activity away from th e p o in t o f entry, are n o t very effective in slow -
grow ing w oody p lants an d are particu larly po o r w ithin conifers. F o r ap h id s and
m ites, co n tact pesticides applied at 'high volum e' rates (i.e. over 1000 1/h a ) have
generally been th e m o st effective w hen applied to C h ristm as trees since th e spray
d ro p lets have to cover and p e rm e ate in to b u d and bark scales w here th e insects hide.
W ith insects w hich m ove relatively little an d suck sap (adelgids and aphids) it has
been found th a t th e 'u ltra low volum e' rates (i.e. less th an 50 1/ha) have given poor
co n tro l com pared w ith 'hig h volum e' rates.
R ecen t d evelopm ents and trials using soaps an d h o rtic u ltu ra l oils have given very
p ro m isin g results.' T h e s e chem icals w ork by acting o n waxy coverings o f eggs an d j-
insects, suffocating and p en e tra tin g th eir tissues. T h e y probably act as repellents by
m aking th e p lan t surface u ndesirable for settling, feeding, and egg-laying, and have i
the advantage th a t they can be used for m u ch o f th e year u n d e r d ry con d itio n s
SECTION

provided th a t th e spray stren g th is ad ju sted correctly. T h e y have a disadvantage in

th a t glaucous foliage w hich is sprayed loses its blue cast (w hich is caused by the
n atu ral surface waxes), alth o u g h su b seq u en t new gro w th will be blue.
80 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS

MONITORING FOR PESTS

P erh ap s m o st im p o rta n t o f all to a g ro w er is to walk th ro u g h th e c ro p periodically
and m o n ito r for th e arrival o r b u ild -u p o f p est species. It is n o t unlikely th a t tra n s­
plan ts b o u g h t in will com e w ith a p h id eggs o r o v erw in terin g adelgids. T h e se are
extrem ely difficult to see at th e d o rm a n t stage. L ater, tell-tale signs o f a n ts o r w asp
activity o n trees will often lead th e o b serv er to th e d eveloping pests. It will be best
to system atically sta rt m o n ito rin g p lan tatio n s as they e n te r th eir second year in th e
spring. T h e b ran ch es o f th e trees can be tap p ed using a stick an d a w hite plastic
tray to see w h at can be dislodged. As insect attack is o ften c lu m p e d it is im p o rta n t
to sam ple every five to te n trees as th e row is w alked; an d to walk dow n every fourth
row at least. G u id an ce as to w hen sy m p to m s w ill be visible in th e c ro p are show n
in F ig u res 27 -3 0 . T h is is o n e im p o rta n t occasion in gro w in g q uality C h ristm as
trees w hen professional h elp could b e given and m ay be a b e tte r in v estm en t th a n a
w 'rongly applied pesticide application.
Timetable for pest surveys and control CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS
81
82 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS

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84 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS

Fig. 30. Douglas firs: timetable for pest surveys and control.
 FURTHER READING 85

PESTICIDES REGULATIONS
B ritish law co n tro llin g the sale, storage, use, and disposal o f 'pesticides' (the defini­
tio n inclu des insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, and acaricides) was radically-
changed and stren g th en e d w ith th e in tro d u c tio n o f th e C o n tro l o f Pesticides
R egulations 1986 u n d e r th e Food and E n v iro n m en t P ro tectio n A ct 1985. T h e law1
relating to the use o f pesticides on C h ristm as tree crops is briefly as follows:
1. B efore any pesticide can be sold, stored, sup p lied , used or advertised, it m u st be
A pproved (by an ap p ro p riate M inister).
2. M o s t uses to w hich an 'A pproved P ro d u c t' m ay be p u t, th e situations in w hich
it m ay be used, the m eans by w hich it m ay be applied, safety p recautions to be
observed, and o th e r co n strain ts o n its use m u st be stated on th e p ro d u c t label
o r on any accom panying leaflet. It is illegal to contravene these con d itio n s o f
use ex cep t that:
3. F ro m tim e to tim e, A pproval is g ran te d for existing A pproved p ro d u cts to be
used in situations or for p u rp o ses n o t stated on th e label - so called 'O ff-label'
A pprovals.
S u ch A pprovals are usually g ra n te d at th e req u est o f a grow er for a m inor
use, th e d em an d for w'hich is considered by th e m an u factu rers to be too sm all
to justify th e expense o f o b tain in g full A pproval.
O ff-label uses are still governed by th e safety reg u latio n s w'hich apply to full
A pprovals b u t th e m aterial is used at th e user's own risk (i.e. th e m an u factu rer
can n o t be held responsible for c o n seq u en t dam age to th e p la n t or failure o f the
treatm en t).
U n til 31 D ecem ber 1999 all pesticides w'ith full or provisional label approval for
use on any grow ing crop may be used w ithin forest nurseries, on crops prior to
planting out. C hristm as trees grow n on com m ercial agricultural and horticultural
holdings and in forest nurseries can be regarded as hardy ornam ental or forest
nursery stock, and are covered by the sam e arrangem ents as forest nurseries.
A nyone w ho w ishes to use a p ro d u c t u n d e r th e 'O ff-label' A pproval m u st first
obtain and read a copy o f th e N o tice o f A pproval, w hich is available from local
A g ricu ltu ra l D e p a rtm e n ts and F a rm e rs' U n io n offices.
4. A ny u ser o f an A pproved professional p ro d u c t w ho wfas b o rn later th an 31
D e cem b er 1964 m u st hold a C ertificate o f C o m p etence (issued by th e N atio n al
P roficiency T e st C ouncil) o r be overseen directly by a C ertificate H older.
5. P rofessional u sers o f pesticid es m u st also com ply w ith th e C o n tro l o f
S u bstances H azard o u s to H e alth R egulations 1988 (C O S H H ).

FURTHER READING
T h e m o st generally useful publicatio n is th e U K Pesticide G u id e published
annually by th e B ritish C ro p P ro te c tio n C ou n cil an d C A B In tern atio n al. T h is lists
A p p ro v ed p ro fessio n al p ro d u c ts (O n -lab el a n d O ff-lab el) w ith th e ir active
in g red ien ts and appToved uses to g e th e r w ith general guidance o n th eir safe and
effective use and a su m m a ry o f th e relevant legislation. O btainable from B C P C
SECTION

P u b licatio n s Sales, B ear F a rm , B infield, B racknell, B erkshire R G 12 5Q E.

A pproved professional (and am ateu r) p ro d u cts (b u t n o t th e ir reco m m en d ed uses)
are listed in M A F F R eference Book 500, Pesticides 1997 and su b seq u en t editions
86 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS

p u blished annually by T h e S tatio n ery O ffice. T h is in clu d es a d etailed acco u n t o f

th e legislation and th e A pprovals p rocess an d also lists p esticides ap p ro v ed for use
as w ood preservatives an d o th e r n o n -c ro p p u rp o ses. O b tain ab le fro m T h e
S ta tio n e ry O ffice P ublicatio n s C en tre, P O Box 276, L o n d o n S W 8 5D T.
A su m m ary o f th e P esticides R eg u lation s 1986 is given in th e free M A F F L eaflet
U L 7 9 , Pesticides: guide to the new controls. O btain ab le from M A F F (P ublications),
L io n H o u se, W illo w b u rn E state, A lnw ick, N o rth u m b e rla n d N E 66 2PF.
T h e Code o f Practice fo r the S a fe Use o f Pesticides on Farms and H oldings is o b tain ­
able from T h e S tatio n e ry O ffice. I t covers th e re q u ire m e n ts o f b o th th e C o n tro l o f
Pesticides R egulations 1986 an d th e C o n tro l o f S u b stan ces H a rm fu l to H e alth
R egulations 1988.
 GLOSSARY 87

GLOSSARY
acaricide P esticide used to co n tro l m ites.
adelgid S a p -s u c k in g in se ct in th e fam ily A d elgid ae (O rd e r
H em ip tera). All species feed o n conifers an d m o st pro d u ce
waxy wool. M a n y species altern ate betw een tw o different
ho st plants, e.g. Adelges cooleyi, Picea (the p rim ary host) and
Pseudotsuga (th e secondary host).
aestivate (aestivation) T o pass th e su m m e r in a d o rm a n t state.
anholocyclic R epro d u cin g by parthenogenesis th ro u g h o u t the year, w ithout
p ro d u cin g sexual form s.
craw ler T h e new ly h a tch ed adelgid th a t has n o t settled to feed and
has n o surface wax secretion.
diapause Perio d o f su sp en d ed dev elo p m en t w hereby an insect can
rem ain in th e sam e stage for longer th an norm al.
e n to m o p h ag o u s F eed in g m ainly o n insects.
ely b ro n (elytra) H a rd w ing case o f a beetle (Fam ily C oleoptera).
eriophyid M ite s in th e S u p erfam ily E riophyoidea (Subclass Acari).
In c lu d e s th e ru s t m ites fo u n d free-liv in g o n foliage.
T ypically m ites in this g ro u p have a sausage to w edge-
shap ed body a b o u t 0 .1 - 0.2 m m long w ith four legs at the
an terio r (fro n t) end.
fu n d atrix P arth en o g en etic fem ale ap h id developing from a fertilized
egg, or in th e case o f an adelgid th e stage th a t overw inters on
sp ru ce an d initiates gall fo rm atio n th e n ex t spring.
gallicolae A delgids th a t develop in galls o n th e p rim ary h o st (spruce).
glaucous B luish g reen colour d u e to covering o f a waxy or pow dery
bloom .
h oneydew S u g a ry so lu tio n excreted by sap-sucking insects derived by
ingestin g p la n t cell sap (see P lates 37 and 38).
larva(e) Im m a tu re stage o f an insect - th e types co m m only know n as
caterpillars o r grubs.
nym ph L a rv a o r im m a tu re stage o f an insect (such as a leafhopper,
ap h id o r psyllid) w h ich changes into an ad u lt by developing
rep ro d u ctiv e o rgans an d w ings, ra th e r th an by changing into
a p u p a from w hich th e ad u lt em erges, as do beetles, b u tte r­
flies an d m oths.
oviparae A fem ale a p h id (or adelgid) w hich m ates w ith m ales and lays
fertilized eggs.
o vipositor E gg-laying stru c tu re fo u n d at th e tip o f th e abdom en o f
m o st fem ale insects.
P alaearctic Z oogeographical reg io n consisting o f E u ro p e, m o st o f Asia
n o rth o f th e H im alayas, and A frica n o rth o f th e Sahara
desert.
88 CHRISTMAS TREE PESTS

parasitoid A n o rg an ism altern ately p arasitic at o n e stage (e.g. as a larva

feeding w ith in an o th e r insect) an d free-living a t an o th e r
stage (e.g. as fully w inged adult).
partheno genesis T y p e o f re p ro d u c tio n in w hich u n fe rtiliz e d fem ales p ro d u ce
(parthenogenetic) viable eggs or young. C o m m o n am o n g ap h id s an d closely
related groups.
pro g red ien s T h e su m m e r g en eratio n o f an adelgid o n th e secondary
(n o n -sp ru c e) h o st plant. T h is g e n eratio n usually develops
rap id ly o n th e new foliage g ro w th in th e spring.
proph ylactic A p reventive pesticide, o ften applied routinely.
sap ro p h y te A n o rg an ism th a t subsists o n dead p la n t m aterial. S om e
(saprophytic) p re fe r th e te rm 'saprobe' w hen refe rrin g to
fu n g ian d bacteria as th ese are, strictly speaking, n o t 'phyta'
(plants).
sexupara(e) A p arth en o g en etic fem ale ap h id w hich is w inged and usually
gives b irth to b o th m ales a n d oviparae.
sistens T h e o v e rw in te rin g g e n e ra tio n o f an ad elg id on th e
seco n d ary (n o n -sp ru ce ) h o st plant.
sooty m o u ld S a p ro p h y tic fu n g u s g ro w in g on a p h id honeydew
(see P late 38).
stom ata S m all op en in g s w ith g u ard cells in th e ep id e rm is o f g reen
(stom atal lines) plan ts; in co n ifers th ese are often a rran g ed in parallel lines.
stylet A set o f sm all b ristle-lik e ap p en d ages, b ein g h e re th e m o d i­
fied m o u th p a rts used as a fine tu b e to in ject salvia to enable
th e w ithdraw al o f sap from p la n t cells.
sytem atics M eth o d ic al system o f classification an d n a m in g o f living
organism s.
th o rax P a rt o f an in sect’s body b etw een th e head an d th e abdom en.
(thoracic)
to rtrix Sm all m o th in th e F am ily T o rtric id a e (O rd e r L ep id o p te ra ).
(to rtricid )
viviparous G iv in g b irth to live young.
(vivipary)
weevil B eetle w ith characteristic elbow ed an te n n a e usually b o rn e o n
a sn o u t (Fam ily C u rcu lio n id ae, O rd e r C o leoptera).
 INDEX OF INSECT AND MITES 89

INDEX OF INSECT AND MITES

Page Page
Adelges abietis 33 H ylobius abietis 74
Adelges cooleyi 66 In tro d u ce d p in e sawfly 52
Adelges nordmannianae 21 L arg e p ine sawfly 52
Adelges piceae 12 L arg e p in e weevil 74
Aphrastasia pectinatae 18 M indarus abietinus 10
B alsam tw ig aphid 10 M indarus obliquus 44
B alsam woolly aphid 12 Nalepella haarlovi 41
Cinara confmis 16 N apella sp. o n Abies 14
Cinara cupressi 64 Neodiprion sertifer 52
Cinara pilicornis 43 Oligonychus ununguis 71
C lay-coloured weevil 70 Otiorhynchus singularis 70
C o n ifer sp in n in g m ite 71 Pachypappa tremulae 40
C ooley sp ru ce gall aphid 66 Pachypappa vesicalis 40
C ydia pactolana 36 P in e shoot beetle 56
C ypress aphid 64 P in e shoot m o th 58
Diprion p in i 52 P in eap p le gall woolly aphid 33
Diprion similis 52 Pineus pini 48
D ou g las fir woolly aphid 66 Pristiphora abietina 31
E a ste rn sp ru ce gall aphid 33 Rhyacionia buoliana 58
Elatobium abietinum 26 Schizolachnus pineti 50
Epinotia subsequana 20 Schizolachnus piniradiatae 61
Epinotia tedella 37 S iberian fir woolly aphid 18
E rio p h y id needle m ite 41 S ilver fir needle m in er 20
Eulachnus agilis 60 Silver fir woolly aphid 21
E u ro p ean p in e sawfly 52 S p o tted p in e aphid 60
E u ro p ean p in e woolly aphid 48 S p ru c e bark to rtrix m o th 36
F ir needle to rtrix 20 S p ru c e bell m o th 37
F ir ru s t m ite 14 S p ru c e ro o t aphids 40
F o x-coloured sawfly 52 S p ru c e ru s t m ite 41
G ia n t fir ap h id 16 S p ru c e shoot aphid 43
G re e n sp ru ce aphid 26 S p ru c e tw ig aphid 44
G reg ario u s sp ru ce sawfly 31 Tomicus piniperda 56
G rey p in e-n eed le aphid 50 W oolly p in e-n eed le aphid 61
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