Sequences !

ordered arrangement of a set of numbers

! a function whose domain is the finite set or the infinite set

Term Example:
numbers in a sequence Insert 4 arithmetic means between 5 and 25..
identified by its position in the ordered list Solution:
usually denoted by Since we are required to insert 4 terms, the. there
wil be 6 terms in all.
Finite Sequence
a sequence which has a first term and last term.,

Infinite Sequence
is a sequence which has a first term but no last term.
We need to get the common dif ference.
Arithmetic Sequence
every term is obtained by adding a constant called
common dif ference.

Common Difference
dif ference between any two consecutive terms.
denoted by ‘d’
Using the value of d, we can now get the values of
finding the next term

general formula:

Example:
What is the 10th term of the arithmetic sequence The arithmetic means between 5 and 25 are 9, 13, 17,
5, 12, 19, 26, . . ? and 21.
Solution:
finding the sum of the next n terms

arithmetic series
Sum of the first n terms in an arithmetic sequenc.e.
Sum of the terms in an arithmetic sequence with a
finding the nth term definite number of terms.

Arithmetic Means for finite sequences:

The terms in between any two consequtive terms
of an arithmetic sequence.
 for infinite sequences: Example:
Insert 3 geometric means between 5 and 3125.
Solution:
Example #1
Find the sum of the first 10 terms of the arithmetic
sequence 5, 9, 13, 17, .
Solution: Since,

then,
Geometric Sequence
a sequence where each term after the first is solving for the value of r, we get:
obtained by multiplying the preceding term by the
same constant. We obtained two values of r, so we have two
geometric sequences.
common ratio if r=5, the geometric means are:
can be determined by dividing any term in the
sequence by the term that precedes it.
denoted by ‘r’
should not be equal to zero (nonzero)
Thus, the sequence is 5, ! 25, 125, ! 625, 3125.

finding the next term finding the sum of the first n terms

general formula for finite sequences

if r>1 the series does
not converge and
Example: doesn’t have a sum
What is the 10th term of the geometric sequence 8, 4,
2, 1, . ? for infinite sequences
Solution:

Example:
Consider the geometric sequence 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, .
There is another method to get the sum of the
first 5 terms.

finding the nth term Multiplying both sides by the common ratio 2, we get

Geometric Means Subtracting from we have

average value which signifies the central tendency
of the set of numbers by finding the product of
their values.
 sum of the first n terms: rules Solution:
If r= !1, then the sum of Completing the 8 terms of the given sequence, we
have !20, !26, !32, !38, !44, !50, !56, !62.
Therefore, the first 8 terms of the harmonic
sequence are

example:
What is the sum of the first 10 terms of.

solution:

Fibonacci Sequence
example: is a sequence where its first two terms are either
What is the sum of the first 11 terms of both 1, or 0 and 1; and each term, thereafter, is
obtained by adding the two preceding terms.
solution: Example:
Since r = !1 and n is odd, then the sum is 2. Given the Fibonacci sequence 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, . , find the
next 6 terms.
other examples Solution:
Since each new term in a Fibonacci sequence can
What is the sum of the first five terms of 3, 6, 12, 24, be obtained by adding its two preceding terms,
48, 96 . . . ? then the next 6 terms are 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, and
610..
solution
Since =3, r = 2, and n = 5, then the sum is

Polynomials
A polynomial expression P(x) is an expression of the
form:

Harmonic Sequence
Is a sequence such that the reciprocals of the where the nonnegative integer n is called the degree
terms form an arithmetic sequence. of the polynomial and coef ficients are
real numbers.

Example: standard form

convention of writing the terms in decreasing
then the sequence becomes 2, 4, 6, 8 which is an powers of the variable x.
arithmetic sequence

Long Division
illustrative example Illustrative Example:
Example:
Given the arithmetic sequence !20, !26, !32, !38, . , find
the first 8 terms of the corresponding harmonic
sequence.
 Step 2: Place the value of r in the upper left corner.

Step 3: The first number in the second row is the

product of r and the number in the third row of
In general if P(x) and D(x) are polynomials with D(x) ≠ the preceding column. The second number in the
0, we can write: third row is the sum of the two numbers above it.

Division Algorithm Step 4: Repeat the procedure described in Step 3

The rational expression P(x)/d(x) is improper until the last number in the third row is obtained.
because the degree of P(x) is greater than or
equal to the degree of d(x).
On the other hand, the rational expression r(x)/
d(x) is proper because the degree of r(x) is less
than the degree of d(x).

Important Things to Remember:
1. Write the dividend and divisor in descending
powers of the variable.
2. Insert placeholders with zero coef ficients for
missing powers of the variable.
Step 5: Write the quotient Q(x). Note that the degree
of Q(x) is one less than the degree of P(x).The
entries in the third row give the coef ficients of Q(x)
and the remainder R.

where R(x) is either 0 or its degree is less than the

degree of D(x) Example 2
If R(x) = 0, then we say that D(x) is a factor of P(x). Use synthetic division to find the quotient of

Synthetic Division
Procedure when a polynomial is to be divided by
Solution:

a binomial of the form (x – r). By inspection, the dividend is not in standard form,
so there is a need to rearrange the terms of the
In this procedure, we write only the coef ficients. polynomial, thus,
Example 1.
Use synthetic division to divide

Step 1: Arrange the coef ficients of P(x) in descending

powers of x, placing 0s for the missing terms. The
leading coef ficient of P(x) becomes the first entry of
the third row.
Therefore, the quotient is

and the remainder is:

Remainder Theorem
If the polynomial P(x) is divided by (x – r), the
remainder R is a constant and is equal to P(r).
R = P(r)
If a polynomial f(x) is divided by x ! k, then the
remainder is r = f(k).
Thus, there are two ways to find the remainder
when P(x) is divided by (x – r), that is:
(1) use synthetic division, or
(2) calculate P(r).
Similarly, there are two ways to find the value of
Example 1.
P(r):
Show that (x – 1) is a factor of 3x – 8x + 3x + 2.
(1) substitute r in the polynomial expression P(x)
(2) use synthetic division.
Example 1. Find the remainder when
Solution:
a. UsingtheRemainderTheorem:
Therefore, the remainder when P(x) = 5x – 2x + 1 is
divided by x + 2 is 25.
b. Using synthetic division:
Thus, the remainder is 25..
Sometimes, the remainder when
P(x) is divided by (x – r) is 0. This
means that x – r is a factor of
P(x). Equivalently, P(r) = 0. This
idea is illustrated by the Factor
Theorem.
Factor Theorem
The polynomial P(x) has x – r as a factor if and only
if P(r) = 0.
If r = 0 then, (x !k) is a factor of f(x).
If r = 0 the. (k, 0) is an x!intercept of the graph of f.
Proof: There are two parts of the proof of the Factor
Theorem, namely:
Given a polynomial P(x),
1. If (x – r) is a factor of P(x), then P(r) = 0.
2. If P(r) = 0, then (x – r) is a factor of P(x).
Solution:
Using the Factor Theorem, we have:
Since P(1) = 0, then x – 1 is a factor of 3x – 8x + 3x + 2. T
Example 2.
Find the value of k for which the binomial (x + 4) is a
factor of x + kx – 4x
Solution:
If (x+4) is a factor of P(x)=x +kx ! 4x , we know from the
Factor Theorem that P(–4) = 0.
Fundamental Theorem of
Algebra
If P(x) is a polynomial equation of degree n and
with real coef ficients, then it has at most n real
roots.
If a root occurs twice, the root is called a root of
multiplicity 2. In general, if a root occurs n times, it is
called a root of multiplicity n.
Depressed equation Example 2. Calculate the integral zeros of
expressions that are equated to zero of the given
polynomial equation.. The roots of depressed Solution:
equations are also roots of the given polynomial Set f(x) = 0
equation.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Degree of a Polynomial ! the highest degree of a
term in a polynomial
Factor Theorem ! the polynomial P(x) has x – r as a
factor if and only if P(r) = 0
Then,
Mathematical Model ! a mathematical
representation of some phenomena in real world
Polynomial ! an algebraic expression of the form,
Therefore, the real roots of f(x) are 2, !2, and 3.

Example 3. Solve and illustrate the natural zeros of

polynomial equations
Illustrative Examples:.
Example 1: Determine the integral zeros of

Subsitute:

Group:
Therefore, the natural roots of H(x) are 2 and 4, in
Factor using the greatest common monomial which 4 is a double root.
factor:

factoring with special

Since x !1 and x !4 are dif ference of squarea they are products
still factorable. Difference of Squares
sum and dif ference of the square roots of the first
Then, and last terms.

Therefore, the integral roots of P(x) are 1, !1, 2, and !2.

sum and Difference of cubes By synthetic division, we can determine that x = 1 is a
Conditions: rational zero..
Constant ! perfect cube number
Variable ! exponent must be a multiple of 3
Each term is a cube.

Remember! S ! same sign

O ! opposite sign
AP ! alwayss positive

Sum of Cubes

Descartes Rule of Signs

differnce of Cubes variation in signs
Means that two consecutive (nonzero) coef ficients
have opposite signs.

rational zero test A zero of multiplicity k should be counted as zeros.

relates the possible rational zeros of a polymomial Example 1.
(having integer coef fiecients) to the leading coef fiecients
and to the constant term of the polynomial.

If the polynomial has integer coef ficients , the. every

rational zero of f has the form:
p
Rational zero = q
Positive Negative Imaginary Total
Where:
p and q have no common factors other than 1;
p is a factor of the constant term a
q is a factor of the leading coef ficient a .
degree of a polynomial
factors of constant term
possible rational zeros =
factors of leading coef ficient

Example 1.
Find the rational zeros of

Solution:
The leading coef ficient is 2 and the constant term
is 3.
Possible rational zeros: Proof:
Factors of 3
Factors of 2